BRITISH FOREIGN POLICY TOWARDS SYRIA: ITS IMPORTANCE, ITS DISTINCTIVENESS AND ITS RELATIONS TO THE POLICY OF OTHER ACTORS IN THE REGION Sarah Scott A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2016 Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/9903 This item is protected by original copyright British foreign policy towards Syria: its importance, its distinctiveness and its relations to the policy of other actors in the region Sarah Scott This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 11 May 2016 1. Candidate’s declarations: I, Sarah Scott, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 80, 000 words in length, has been written by me, and that it is the record of work carried out by me, or principally by myself in collaboration with others as acknowledged, and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in September 2009 and as a candidate for the degree of PhD in May 2016; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2009 and 2016. (If you received assistance in writing from anyone other than your supervisor/s): I, …..., received assistance in the writing of this thesis in respect of [language, grammar, spelling or syntax], which was provided by …… Date 12 September 2016 signature of candidate …S Scott…… 2. Supervisor’s declaration: I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of PhD in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. Date …12September 2016… signature of supervisor…R Hinnebusch 3. Permission for publication: (to be signed by both candidate and supervisor) In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews I understand that I am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that my thesis will be electronically accessible for personal or research use unless exempt by award of an embargo as requested below, and that the library has the right to migrate my thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued access to the thesis. I have obtained any third-party copyright permissions that may be required in order to allow such access and migration, or have requested the appropriate embargo below. The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the publication of this thesis: PRINTED COPY a) No embargo on print copy Supporting statement for printed embargo request: ELECTRONIC COPY a) No embargo on electronic copy Supporting statement for electronic embargo request: Date 12 September 2016 signature of candidate …S Scott… signature of supervisor.. R Hinnebusch Please note initial embargos can be requested for a maximum of five years. An embargo on a thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science or Medicine is rarely granted for more than two years in the first instance, without good justification. The Library will not lift an embargo before confirming with the student and supervisor that they do not intend to request a continuation. In the absence of an agreed response from both student and supervisor, the Head of School will be consulted. Please note that the total period of an embargo, including any continuation, is not expected to exceed ten years. Where part of a thesis is to be embargoed, please specify the part and the reason. i Abstract This thesis explores the dynamics involved in shaping the Anglo-Syrian relationship. It argues that to understand UK relations towards Syria over the past century, they have to be viewed in the broader context of British policy on Middle East regional issues, and wider foreign policy priorities. With no direct interests invested in Syria, it is both Britain’s continued involvement in Middle East affairs and Syria’s standing as a key regional power that assures a continuing relationship. Consequently, the stance of leading UK politicians on the issues of post-World War regional order, international terrorism, military interventionism, arms sales, dictatorship and democratisation have circumscribed UK policy options in relation to Syria. Using the tools of Neoclassical realism this study considers British foreign policy behaviour, in terms of Britain’s attempt to mobilize the power to protect its interests. It reviews Britain’s international behaviour in part by how it is affected by changes in the international system, as Britain has declined from being a great imperial power, to a European power. Alliances are a key tool Britain has used to manage its decline, and this study identifies the impact that this has had on Anglo-Syrian relations with particular reference to the US and EU. Finally, it demonstrates that understanding how the foreign policy process works in Britain is key to understanding its international behaviour. In this it takes into account elite perceptions both of what these interests are and how best Britain can achieve them. This adds a layer of understanding as to why ii foreign policy outcomes do not always conform with what would be predicted purely in terms of the pursuit of the national interest. iii Acknowledgements There are a number of people who have assisted me and made my studies more enjoyable over the last few years. I would like to thank my Supervisor, Prof Ray Hinnebusch for his advice and support and occasional push at the right time! I would like to send my thanks to those people who have taken time out of their busy schedules to answer my questions and provide me with their valuable knowledge and insights. To my family, thank you for your support I definitely would not be here without you. And to my friends – thank you for putting up with me, I promise, that’s it! iv Contents Declaration i Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Introduction p1 Literature review Theory & Framework Framework of Analysis: UK Policy toward the Middle East & Syria Foreign Policy Outputs Summary of Approach Chapter One: Historical Context of Anglo-Syrian Relations p88 Britain, the Levant and the First World War Impact of World War Two The Arab League and Baghdad Pact The Syrian Crisis Chapter Two: British Foreign Policy Toward Syria in the Thatcher Era p142 The Middle East Peace Process Lebanon Thatcher, the US & the Libyan Crisis Thatcher, terrorism & Anglo-Syrian relations Taking a stand, Thatcher & her allies Resumption of Diplomatic relations v Chapter Three: New Labour’s Foreign Policy and Syria before Bashar p216 New Labour and the Making of Foreign Policy New Labour: New Priorities? Ethical Foreign Policy and the British Arms Industry Ilisu Dam Project The Blair Doctrine Britain a “Pivotal Power”? Impact on Anglo-Syrian Relations Chapter Four: Blair and Bashar: A New Relationship? p269 The War on Terror Targeting the Taliban Iraq Impact on Syria Syria, the UK & the EU Association Agreement Lebanon & the Hariri Assassination Britain and Syria Chapter Five: Arab Spring & The Syrian Crisis p342 A Short Rapprochement Arms Exports Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect The Syrian Crisis vi A Lack of Strategy The Red Line? Conclusion p405 Overview of Neoclassical Realism & British foreign policy Impact on Anglo-Syrian Relations Bibliography p459 vii Introduction The Middle East has been, and continues to be an area of priority for British foreign policy. Syria is a key state to consider in bringing stability to that region. Syria, for the British, could have impacted on major parts of other Middle East issues, central to British foreign policy throughout the past century: its control by hostile Vichy regime in World War Two could have significantly reduced Britain’s ability to protect its interests in the Middle East. Its failure to join the Baghdad Pact, cost the West an ally against Soviet influence in the region; engaging it on the issue of the Arab-Israeli peace process could have radically changed the dynamics of that process. It has played a pivotal role on issues from the war on terrorism to Western conflicts with Iraq and Iran. All interaction between Syria and Britain should therefore be seen with an eye on these other major policy issues. This study considers the history of Anglo-Syrian relations, the context and events that colour British foreign policy toward Syria, and how these relations are expanded and/or constrained by the pursuit of other British interests in the region. It considers the effect of Britain’s alliances or other commitments, such as the so-called special relationship with the US and British membership of the European Community, on the pursuit of its foreign policy toward Syria and whether there is a distinctively British approach in this. In this context, the 1 study will look at a series of junctures in time at which Syrian and British interests overlapped and the effect on the Anglo-Syrian relations. It looks at the early decades of the 20th century when two world wars placed British troops on the ground across the Middle East, forced interaction between policy makers and Arab leaders, and the lasting legacy the short term wartime policy had for Britain’s long term policy making toward the region and Syria.