Mainstreaming Bicycling in Winter Cities: the Case of Oulu, Finland
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Mainstreaming Bicycling in Winter Cities: The case of Oulu, Finland. by Jeffrey Pratte A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF CITY PLANNING Department of City Planning University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey Pratte Mainstreaming bicycling in winter cities: The case of Oulu, Finland. Jeffrey Pratte Abstract Bicycles offer an efficient, emission-free mode of transportation, particularly ideal for shorter distances in urban areas. Consequently, bicycling is increasingly being perceived as a viable and important part of the urban transportation mix. Despite increased progress and attention, few cities have successfully incorporated cycling as a key feature of their urban policy, or substantially increased cycling’s modal share. Meanwhile, research suggests that climate and weather influence cycling and transportation in urban areas, with cold climates in particular reducing the likelihood of cycling. This research examines how bicycling can be mainstreamed in winter cities, thereby improving cycling conditions and increasing modal share. Oulu, Finland serves as a case study. Located at 65 degrees latitude, Oulu has a twenty percent modal share for cycling. A close examination how cycling was mainstreamed is presented and synthesized. The goal is to present Oulu’s experience in bicycle planning as a model for other winter cities, particularly in Canada. i Mainstreaming bicycling in winter cities: The case of Oulu, Finland. Jeffrey Pratte Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and thank the many people who have offered continued support throughout this project, including family, friends and colleagues. Particular thanks must go to Jennifer Pauls for her unwavering support and encouragement. I would also like to thank the many classmates that have become great friends through the M.C.P program at the University of Manitoba. I must extend a hearty thanks to all interview participants in Finland. Each one of my international contacts expressed enthusiasm for this project. They all took time from their busy schedules to participate in this thesis and welcome me to their lovely country. For this, I am most grateful. This project would not have been possible without the Maxwell Starkman travel scholarship. This generous funding allowed me to travel to Finland to conduct face-to- face interviews and experience Oulu’s word-class pathway network first-hand. I was also the 2010 recipient of the Transport Canada Scholarship in Sustainable Transportation, which was a greatly appreciated source of funding. Finally, I must express sincere gratitude to my committee members, Dr. Rae Bridgman, Susanne Dewey Povoledo and Michel Dudley, for their guidance and wisdom. ii Mainstreaming bicycling in winter cities: The case of Oulu, Finland. Jeffrey Pratte Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 What does it mean to “mainstream” cycling? ................................................... 6 1.1.1 Policy ................................................................................................................. 7 1.1.2 Infrastructure ...................................................................................................... 9 1.1.3 Bike culture ...................................................................................................... 10 1.1.4 Modal Share ..................................................................................................... 16 1.1.5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 16 1.2 Research questions ................................................................................................ 18 1.3 Assumptions........................................................................................................... 18 2. Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 19 Literature Review Part I: Framework, foundations and sustainable transport ............ 19 2.1 Planning framework and theoretical foundations ............................................. 19 2.2 What is sustainable transportation? ................................................................... 25 2.2.1 Integrated Planning .......................................................................................... 27 2.2.2 Access and accessibility ................................................................................... 28 2.2.3 Reducing vehicle miles traveled ...................................................................... 29 2.2.4 Participation ..................................................................................................... 29 2.2.5 Technology ...................................................................................................... 30 2.2.6 Context ............................................................................................................. 31 2.2.7 Multi-modality ................................................................................................. 31 2.2.8 Definition of sustainable transportation ........................................................... 33 2.3 Achieving Sustainable transportation: The three domains of sustainable transport. ...................................................................................................................... 34 2.3.1 Domain one: Planning and policy factors ........................................................ 35 2.3.2 Domain two: Background factors .................................................................... 35 2.3.3 Domain three: Technical and infrastructure factors ......................................... 36 Literature Review Part II: Automobile dependence, winter cities, the vernacular, cycling infrastructure and policies .................................................................................. 36 2.4 The perils of automobile dependence and cycling as part of the solution ....... 36 2.5 Winter cities, the vernacular, and climate-responsive design........................... 40 2.5.1 Winter cities ..................................................................................................... 41 2.5.2 The vernacular ................................................................................................. 44 2.5.3 Transport vernacular ........................................................................................ 46 2.6 Transport vernacular: The “pack donkey’s way” ............................................. 49 2.7 Complete Streets ................................................................................................... 52 iii Mainstreaming bicycling in winter cities: The case of Oulu, Finland. Jeffrey Pratte 2.8 Context Sensitive Solutions (CSS) ....................................................................... 54 2.9 Cycling and climate............................................................................................... 55 2.9.1 Winter Cycling ................................................................................................. 57 2.9.2 Cycling and extreme climates .......................................................................... 61 2.10 Cycling infrastructure ........................................................................................ 63 2.11 Applications for winter cities ............................................................................. 71 2.12 The role of “soft” policies ................................................................................... 72 2.13 Policy tiers and bicycle policies .......................................................................... 75 2.14 Literature Review summary and conclusions .................................................. 78 3. Local Context and Background for Field Research ................................................... 82 3.1 Finland ................................................................................................................... 82 3.2 Winter in Finland .................................................................................................. 84 3.3 Winter Sport in Finland ....................................................................................... 87 3.4 Planning in Finland .............................................................................................. 88 3.5 Oulu ........................................................................................................................ 95 3.5.1 History and local context ................................................................................... 95 3.5.2 Cycling in Oulu .................................................................................................. 98 3.5.3 suitability as a case study ................................................................................ 102 4. Research Methods and Analysis ................................................................................ 105 4.1 Case study ...........................................................................................................