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EASON, KATHRYN A., Ph.D. Beyond the Tattooed Lady: Exploring Women’s Experiences in the Body Modification Industry. (2007) Directed by Dr. Nancy Nelson Hodges. 304pp. With the exception of a few females working as carnival sideshow attractions, women have historically been an invisible part of the body modification industry. However, recently women have begun making a significant contribution to this industry, as they are becoming more modified and are more often choosing to work as modifiers (Mifflin, 1997). Most of the discourse surrounding body modification has focused on the male experience. Rather than positioning women’s involvement in body modification as a location for personal and creative expression, body modification has been understood via male-oriented conceptualizations of the field, thereby compromising the possibility of alternative examinations of what modifications mean for the modified female. In this study, contemporary tattooing and body piercing practices are understood as lived experience and are framed by the concept of female writing (Cixous, 1976). By situating women’s experiences as both modified and modifiers within an understanding of body modification as a deliberate and creative act of dressing the body, tattooing and body piercing become modes of communication through which lived experience is understood. An ethnographic methodology, including in-depth interviews (Kvale, 1996) and participant-observation, comprised the research design for this study. The four female participants: Wendi, Jenn, Amy, and Lacie, work as piercers, tattoo artists, and shop managers in the body modification industry. Personal narratives were developed for each participant based on interview responses. Commonalities and differences surfacing within and across these narratives were then used to construct a thematic interpretation of their lived experiences as body modifiers (van Manen, 1990). Within the thematic interpretation, three conceptual areas are used to articulate body modification as lived experience: Self-expression , Creation , and Profession . Each conceptual area works to explicate the larger issues surfacing within the narratives that are important to understanding the link between the individual’s lived experience and that of the women as a group. A third level of interpretation was then developed from the thematic interpretation: theorizing body modification as female writing. In this study, women’s experiences are placed at the center of an exploration of tattooing and body piercing. In so doing, this study provides an alternative understanding of body modification, and thereby addresses a gap in knowledge that currently exists. Through their modifications and their work as modifiers, the four women use tattooing and body piercing to dress their bodies in unique ways, ways that were found to be important acts of both self-expression and consumption. Further research on women and body modification is needed in order to deepen our understanding of how the dressed, and particularly the modified, body can be used to explore lived experience. BEYOND THE TATTOOED LADY: EXPLORING WOMEN’S EXPERIENCES IN THE BODY MODIFICATION INDUSTRY by Kathryn A. Eason A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Greensboro 2007 Approved by Committee Chair © 2007 by Kathryn A. Eason To my parents, George and Gaye, my sister, Susan, and my husband, Mike. Each of you has been an endless source of support throughout this process. You have served to inspire me to strive for success through your actions and wisdom, and without that, I would never have come this far. ii APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of The Graduate School at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Committee Chair _____________________________ Committee Members _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ ____________________________ Date of Acceptance by Committee ____________________________ Date of Final Oral Examination iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS No project of any size can be undertaken without the help of others. I owe profound gratitude to the many people whose support has helped me throughout the completion of this work. I would like to acknowledge, and send heartfelt appreciation to, Dr. Nancy Nelson Hodges. Throughout my efforts, Dr. Nelson Hodges has supported and guided me, and has been a true mentor. I would also like to thank Dr. Gwendolyn O’Neal, Dr. Chris Poulos, and Dr. Killian Manning. Each of you has provided me with endless support and guided me throughout the research process. My entire committee has not only supported me in the completion of my dissertation, but has provided inspiration and serves as an example of the kind of academic I hope to become as I prepare to enter into my chosen career. I would also like to thank the modifiers: Amy, Jenn, Lacie, and Wendi, without their on-going contributions and support this study would not have been possible. I am thankful for the time that each of them took to work with me to share their stories and experiences. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………… viii LIST OF FIGURES …………...……………………………………………………... ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ……...…………………………………………………. 1 Background ……...………...………………………………………... 3 Body Modification Defined ……...……………………………… 3 Body Modification in Contemporary Culture …………………… 4 The Conceptual Framework ………………………………………… 6 Purpose and Objectives ………………………………………........... 8 Scope and Significance of the Study ………………………….......... 12 II. THE LITERATURE THAT INFORMS THE INTERPRETATION .......... 16 Historical Development of Body Modification ……………….......... 18 Traditional Female Body Modification Practices ………….......... 19 Development of Contemporary Body Modification Practices …... 21 Theorizing the Body Modification Experience ………………........... 30 The Body and Dress ………………………………………........... 31 Embodiment and Gender ………………………………………... 33 The Body Modification Experience ………………………………… 38 Women as Modified ………………………………………........... 44 Women as Modifiers ………………………………………........... 47 Summary …………………………………………………………….. 48 III. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK …………………………………. 50 Procedure: Exploring Lived Experience ……………………………. 51 Participants ………………………………………………………. 54 Methods ………………………………………………………….. 56 Process: Linking Methodology with Epistemology ………………… 62 Levels of Interpretation ………………………………………….. 66 Participant Confirmation ………………………………………… 69 Theoretical Considerations: L’Ecriture Feminine …………….......... 70 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 74 v Page IV. PERSONAL NARRATIVES ……………………………………………. 75 Wendi ……………………………………………………………….. 76 Jenn …………………………………………………………….......... 111 Amy …………………………………………………………………. 129 Lacie ………………………………………………………………… 152 Terms Used …………………………………………………………. 187 Piercing Terminology …………………………………………… 187 Tattoo Terminology ……………………………………………... 191 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 192 V. THEMATIC INTERPRETATION ………………………………………. 193 Self-Expression ……………………………………………………... 195 Personal Modifications …………………………………….......... 196 Social Roles and Expectations …………………………………... 199 Separation of Space ……………………………………………… 202 Creation ………………………………………………………........... 204 Inspiration ………………………………………………….......... 204 Customer Involvement ……………………………………........... 209 Involvement in the Modification Process ………………….......... 213 Profession …………………………………………………………… 217 Personal Explanation of Work …………………………………... 217 Training and Shop Environment ………………………………… 220 The Industry Environment ………………………………………. 224 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 227 VI. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND FURTHER DISCUSSION 229 Body Modification as Creative Consumption ………………………. 231 History of Consumption …………………………………………. 232 Modification as Consumption …………………………………… 236 Modification as Creation ………………………………………… 238 Female Expression through Body Modification ……………………. 244 The Historical Perspective on Female Experience in Body Modification ……………………………………………………. 244 Body Modification and Women’s Lived Experience …………… 254 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 257 vi Page VII. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ………………………………. 259 Collaboration …………………………………………………........... 260 Construction ………………………………………………………… 266 Interpretation …………………………………………………........... 269 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………. 274 APPENDIX A: DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE ……………………….......... 283 Part One: Background ……………………………………………...... 283 Part Two: Personal Modifications …………………………………... 285 Part Three: Industry Involvement …………………………………… 286 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE …………………………………………. 287 APPENDIX C: CONSENT FORMS ………………………………………………… 290 Part One: Informed Consent Form …………………………………... 290 Part Two: Additional Informed Consent Form ……………………… 292 vii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1: Development of Contemporary Body Modification Practices ……….. 25 Table 2: Gauge Conversions of Common Piercing Sizes ..……………………… 188 viii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Wendi’s Workspace …………………………………………………... 86 Figure 2: Untitled …………...…………………………………………………... 100 Figure 3: My Ear Piercing by Wendi …………………………………………... 101 Figure 4: Jenn’s Dermal Punched Conch ………………………………………. 115 Figure 5: Jenn’s Workspace …………………………………………………….. 117 Figure 6: Dermal Anchoring by Jenn ………………………………………...….. 126 Figure 7: Amy’s Workspace …………………………………………………….. 130 Figure 8: Owl Tattoo by

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