DOCSLIB.ORG

German Ideas and Expectations on Expansion in the Near East (1890-1915)

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
German Ideas and Expectations on Expansion in the Near East (1890-1915) GERMAN IDEAS AND EXPECTATIONS ON EXPANSION IN THE NEAR EAST (1890-1915) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY SEÇİL DEREN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION NOVEMBER 2004 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof.Dr. Sencer Ayata Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Feride Acar Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Raşit Kaya Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Raşit Kaya (METU, ADM) Prof. Dr. Yavuz Sabuncu (A.Ü., S.B.F.) Prof. Dr. Gencay Şaylan (A.Ü., S.B.F.) Assistant Prof. Dr. Mehmet Okyayuz (METU, ADM) Assistant Prof. Dr. Meliha Altunışık (METU, IR) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, surname: SEÇİL DEREN Signature: iii ABSTRACT GERMAN IDEAS AND EXPECTATIONS ON EXPANSION IN THE NEAR EAST (1890-1915) Deren, Seçil Ph.D., Department of Political Science and Public Administration Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Raşit Kaya November 2004, 266 pages This thesis analyses the pecularities of German imperialism in the Near East. The economic aspect of German imperialist policy is reflected in the Baghdad Railway Project, and the political aspect in the German support for pan- Islamism. İn this thesis, it is argued that both of these policies were dominated by an anti-colonialist discourse, which formed the distinct nature of German imperialism in the Near East. İn order to prove this argument, the works of advocates of German expansion in the Near East has been analysed as the main sourced of influence on the German public opinion. Keywords: German imperialism, Near East, Baghdad Railway, pan-Islamism, Central Europe. iv ÖZ ALMANYA’NIN YAKIN DOĞU’YA YAYILIŞI ÜSTÜNE DÜŞÜNCELER VE BEKLENTİLER (1890-1915) Deren, Seçil Doktora, Siyaset Bilimi ve Kamu Yönetimi Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Raşit Kaya Kasım 2004, 266 sayfa Bu çalışmada Yakın Doğu’yu hedefleyen Alman emperyalizminin nitelikleri incelenmiştir. Almanya’nın Yakın Doğu’ya yönelik emperyalist politikalarının ekonomik yönünü Bağdat Demiryolu Projesi, siyasal yönünğ ise pan-İslam akımının desteklenmesi oluşturmuştur. Bu çalışmada, her iki siyasette de kolonyalizm karşıtı bir söylemin hakim olduğu iddia edilmektedir. Bu iddiayı kanıtlamak amacıyla, Alman kamuoyunda en temel etki kaynakları oldukları için Alman emperyalizminin Yakın Doğu’ya yayılmasını destekleyen yazarların eserleri incelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Alman emperyalizmi, Yakın Doğu, Bağdat demiryolu, Doğu Sorunu, pan-İslamizm, Orta Avrupa v To My Parents vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express her deepest gratitude to her supervisor Prof. Dr. Raşit Kaya for his guidance, advice, criticism, encouragements and insight throughout the research. The author would also like to thank Assistant. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Okyayuz and Prof. Georg Fülberth (Marburg University, Germany) and Prof. Erik Jan Zürcher (Leiden University, the Netherlands) for their suggestions and comments. The assistance of my dear husband Gerrit Jan van het Hof and Ms. Nuran Savaşkan Durak and Ms. Funda Demir are gratefully acknowledged. This study was supported by the German Academic Exchange Service (Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst - DAAD) and Turkish Academy of Sciences (Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi - TÜBA). vii TABLE OF CONTENTES PLAGIARISM...................................................................................................iii ABSTRACT......................................................................................................iv ÖZ.......................................................................................................................v DEDICATION...................................................................................................vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................vii TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................viii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................1 2. PECULIARITIES OF GERMAN IMPERIALISM.......................................16 2.1 German Imperialism................................................................................17 2.1.1 Colonialist Imperialism and Emigration...........................................26 2.1.2 Informal Imperialism and Economic Regions..................................32 2.2 The Place of the Near East in German Imperialism................................43 2.2.1 German Industrial Development.......................................................43 2.2.2 Reflection of Industrial Development on the Near Eastern Policy...50 3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO GERMAN EXPANSION IN THE NEAR EAST.....................................................................................................56 3.1 The Eastern Question...............................................................................57 3.2 Treaty of Berlin........................................................................................61 3.3 Transition from Bismarckian to Wilhelmian Imperialist Policy.............71 3.4 Economic Scheme of Germany in the Near East: Baghdad Railway......80 viii 3.5 Political Scheme of Germany: Pan-Islamism..........................................97 3.5.1 Pan-Islamism and the Caliphate.......................................................97 3.5.2 Assessing the Success of pan-Islamist Policy................................102 4. GERMAN IDEAS ON EXPANSION IN THE NEAR EAST....................108 4.1 The Origin and Publicity of Mitteleuropa .............................................109 4.2 Liberal Protagonists of German Expansion in the Near East................127 4.2.1 Friedrich Naumann.........................................................................128 4.2.2 Paul Rohrbach.................................................................................147 4.2.3 Ernst Jäckh......................................................................................178 4.2.4 Freiherr Colmar van der Goltz........................................................195 4.2.5 Karl Helfferich................................................................................198 4.3 Representative of German Orientalism: Hugo Grothe..........................210 4.4 Advocates of pan-Islamism and Islamology..........................................217 4.4.1 The Origin of the Interest in Islam.................................................217 4.4.2 Prof. Carl Heinrich Becker.............................................................222 4.4.3 Prof. Martin Hartmann....................................................................226 5. CONCLUSION............................................................................................230 REFERENCES................................................................................................242 INDEX.............................................................................................................262 VITA...............................................................................................................265 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This study delves in the peculiarities of German imperialist expansion to the Near East. It is based on the assumption that German imperialism was not colonialist. The non-colonialist character of German imperialism is observed in its expansion in the Near East. In order to define the non-colonialist characteristic of German imperialism, this research focuses on the public discourse of its advocates. With this study, I demonstrate that the propaganda on German-Turkish brotherhood was a product of German liberalism, not German colonialist imperialism in disguise. European overseas expansion had begun in the 15th century. However, the nature of this expansion changed radically in the 19th century as Britain started to establish her colonial empire. At the last quarter of the 19th century, as more European nations achieved industrial development, the manufacturers, 1 merchants and financiers were forced to expand their activities to the less developed regions in order to dispose their economic resources profitably, and in due course, they were more and more tempted to resort to their governments to secure their overseas interests. This growing demand for foreign markets for manufacturers and for investments entailed the emergence of imperialism (Hobson, 1948; Landes, 1961). In its course of expansion, imperialism transformed and dominated the economy, politics and culture of target countries by integrating their financial and productive structures into international capitalist system. 19th century imperialism is often associated with colonialism. This association is rooted in the example of Great Britain, the leader of colonial expansion. However, as the scholarly discussions of the 1970s showed, it was possible to describe a number of different versions of imperialism. Depending on the economic structure
Load more

Recommended publications
  • World War I Concept Learning Outline Objectives
    AP European History: Period 4.1 Teacher’s Edition World War I Concept Learning Outline Objectives I. Long-term causes of World War I 4.1.I.A INT-9 A. Rival alliances: Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente SP-6/17/18 1. 1871: The balance of power of Europe was upset by the decisive Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War and the creation of the German Empire. a. Bismarck thereafter feared French revenge and negotiated treaties to isolate France. b. Bismarck also feared Russia, especially after the Congress of Berlin in 1878 when Russia blamed Germany for not gaining territory in the Balkans. 2. In 1879, the Dual Alliance emerged: Germany and Austria a. Bismarck sought to thwart Russian expansion. b. The Dual Alliance was based on German support for Austria in its struggle with Russia over expansion in the Balkans. c. This became a major feature of European diplomacy until the end of World War I. 3. Triple Alliance, 1881: Italy joined Germany and Austria Italy sought support for its imperialistic ambitions in the Mediterranean and Africa. 4. Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty, 1887 a. It promised the neutrality of both Germany and Russia if either country went to war with another country. b. Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to renew the reinsurance treaty after removing Bismarck in 1890. This can be seen as a huge diplomatic blunder; Russia wanted to renew it but now had no assurances it was safe from a German invasion. France courted Russia; the two became allies. Germany, now out of necessity, developed closer ties to Austria.
    [Show full text]
  • 23. Relativism and Radical Conservatism
    This is the preprint version of a book chapter published by Routledge/CRC Press in The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Relativism, edited by Martin Kusch (Abingdon: Routledge, 2020), 219–27 on December 4, 2019, available online: http://doi.org/10.4324/9781351052306-24. 23. Relativism and radical conservatism Timo Pankakoski and Jussi Backman ABSTRACT. The chapter tackles the complex, tension-ridden, and often paradoxical relationship between relativism and conservatism. We focus particularly on radical conservatism, an early twentieth-century German movement that arguably constitutes the climax of conservatism’s problematic relationship with relativism. We trace the shared genealogy of conservatism and historicism in nineteenth-century Counter-Enlightenment thought and interpret radical conservatism’s ambivalent relation to relativism as reflecting this heritage. Emphasizing national particularity, historical uniqueness, and global political plurality, Carl Schmitt and Hans Freyer moved in the tradition of historicism, stopping short of full relativism. Yet they utilized relativistic elements – such as seeing irrational decisions or the demands of “life” as the basis of politics – to discredit notions of universal political morality and law, thereby underpinning their authoritarian agendas. Oswald Spengler, by contrast, took the relativistic impulses to the extreme, interweaving his conservative authoritarianism and nationalism with full-fledged epistemic, moral, and political relativism. Martin Heidegger has recently been perceived as the key philosopher of radical conservatism, and his 1 thought arguably channeled antimodern aspects of historicism into contemporary political thought. We conclude by analyzing how some radical conservative arguments involving cultural relativism and plurality still reverberate in contemporary theorists such as Samuel Huntington, Aleksandr Dugin, and Alain de Benoist.
    [Show full text]
  • Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities
    Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities edited by Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar EDITION HWWI Hamburg University Press Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities Series Edition HWWI Volume 5 Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities edited by Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar Hamburg University Press Verlag der Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky Imprint Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (German National Library). The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. The online version is available for free on the website of Hamburg University Press (open access). The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek stores this online publication on its Archive Server. The Archive Server is part of the deposit system for long-term availability of digital publications. Available open access in the Internet at: Hamburg University Press – http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de PURL: http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/HamburgUP/HWWI5_Elitok_Migration Archive Server of the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek – http://deposit.d-nb.de ISBN 978-3-937816-94-4 (printed version) ISSN 1865-7974 (printed version) © 2012 Hamburg University Press, publishing house of the Hamburg State and University Library Carl von Ossietzky, Germany The contents are available under the terms of an open content licence of the type Creative Commons “Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Germany (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)“(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/de). In essence, this licence al- lows to freely use the content, but not change it and only for non commercial purposes and only under the condition of the usual rules of citation.
    [Show full text]
  • The Changing Depiction of Prussia in the GDR
    The Changing Depiction of Prussia in the GDR: From Rejection to Selective Commemoration Corinna Munn Department of History Columbia University April 9, 2014 Acknowledgments I would like to thank my advisor, Volker Berghahn, for his support and guidance in this project. I also thank my second reader, Hana Worthen, for her careful reading and constructive advice. This paper has also benefited from the work I did under Wolfgang Neugebauer at the Humboldt University of Berlin in the summer semester of 2013, and from the advice of Bärbel Holtz, also of Humboldt University. Table of Contents 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………….1 2. Chronology and Context………………………………………………………….4 3. The Geschichtsbild in the GDR…………………………………………………..8 3.1 What is a Geschichtsbild?..............................................................................8 3.2 The Function of the Geschichtsbild in the GDR……………………………9 4. Prussia’s Changing Role in the Geschichtsbild of the GDR…………………….11 4.1 1945-1951: The Post-War Period………………………………………….11 4.1.1 Historiography and Publications……………………………………11 4.1.2 Public Symbols and Events: The fate of the Berliner Stadtschloss…14 4.1.3 Film: Die blauen Schwerter………………………………………...19 4.2 1951-1973: Building a Socialist Society…………………………………...22 4.2.1 Historiography and Publications……………………………………22 4.2.2 Public Symbols and Events: The Neue Wache and the demolition of Potsdam’s Garnisonkirche…………………………………………..30 4.2.3 Film: Die gestohlene Schlacht………………………………………34 4.3 1973-1989: The Rediscovery of Prussia…………………………………...39 4.3.1 Historiography and Publications……………………………………39 4.3.2 Public Symbols and Events: The restoration of the Lindenforum and the exhibit at Sans Souci……………………………………………42 4.3.3 Film: Sachsens Glanz und Preußens Gloria………………………..45 5.
    [Show full text]
  • Major Powers and Global Contenders
    CHAPTER 2 Major Powers and Global Contenders A great number of historians and political scientists share the view that international relations cannot be well understood without paying attention to those states capable of making a difference. Most diplo- matic histories are largely histories of major powers as represented in modern classics such as A. J. P. Taylor’s The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918, or Paul Kennedy’s The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. In political science, the main theories of international relations are essentially theories of major power behavior. The realist tradition, until recently a single paradigm in the study of international relations (Vasquez 1983), is based on the core assumptions of Morgenthau’s (1948) balance-of-power theory about major power behavior. As one leading neorealist scholar stated, “a general theory of international politics is necessarily based on the great powers” (Waltz 1979, 73). Consequently, major debates on the causes of war are centered on assumptions related to major power behavior. Past and present evidence also lends strong support for continuing interest in the major powers. Historically, the great powers partici- pated in the largest percentage of wars in the last two centuries (Wright 1942, 1:220–23; Bremer 1980, 79; Small and Singer 1982, 180). Besides wars, they also had the highest rate of involvement in international crises (Maoz 1982, 55). It is a compelling record for the modern history of warfare (since the Napoleonic Wars) that major powers have been involved in over half of all militarized disputes, including those that escalated into wars (Gochman and Maoz 1984, 596).
    [Show full text]
  • A Cape of Asia: Essays on European History
    A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 1 a cape of asia A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 2 A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 3 A Cape of Asia essays on european history Henk Wesseling leiden university press A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 4 Cover design and lay-out: Sander Pinkse Boekproductie, Amsterdam isbn 978 90 8728 128 1 e-isbn 978 94 0060 0461 nur 680 / 686 © H. Wesseling / Leiden University Press, 2011 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 5 Europe is a small cape of Asia paul valéry A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 6 For Arnold Burgen A Cape of Asia.indd | Sander Pinkse Boekproductie | 10-10-11 / 11:44 | Pag. 7 Contents Preface and Introduction 9 europe and the wider world Globalization: A Historical Perspective 17 Rich and Poor: Early and Later 23 The Expansion of Europe and the Development of Science and Technology 28 Imperialism 35 Changing Views on Empire and Imperialism 46 Some Reflections on the History of the Partition
    [Show full text]
  • Vom Kaiserreich Zur Republik Eine Tageschronik Vom 3. Oktober Bis Zum 9
    Wissenschaftliche Dienste Dokumentation Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik Eine Tageschronik vom 3. Oktober bis zum 9. November 1918 © 2018 Deutscher Bundestag WD 1 - 3000 – 036/18 Wissenschaftliche Dienste Dokumentation Seite 2 WD 1 - 3000 – 036/18 Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik Eine Tageschronik vom 3. Oktober bis zum 9. November 1918 Aktenzeichen: WD 1 - 3000 – 036/18 Abschluss der Arbeit: 1. Oktober 2018 Fachbereich: WD 1: Geschichte, Zeitgeschichte und Politik Die Wissenschaftlichen Dienste des Deutschen Bundestages unterstützen die Mitglieder des Deutschen Bundestages bei ihrer mandatsbezogenen Tätigkeit. Ihre Arbeiten geben nicht die Auffassung des Deutschen Bundestages, eines sei- ner Organe oder der Bundestagsverwaltung wieder. Vielmehr liegen sie in der fachlichen Verantwortung der Verfasse- rinnen und Verfasser sowie der Fachbereichsleitung. Arbeiten der Wissenschaftlichen Dienste geben nur den zum Zeit- punkt der Erstellung des Textes aktuellen Stand wieder und stellen eine individuelle Auftragsarbeit für einen Abge- ordneten des Bundestages dar. Die Arbeiten können der Geheimschutzordnung des Bundestages unterliegende, ge- schützte oder andere nicht zur Veröffentlichung geeignete Informationen enthalten. Eine beabsichtigte Weitergabe oder Veröffentlichung ist vorab dem jeweiligen Fachbereich anzuzeigen und nur mit Angabe der Quelle zulässig. Der Fach- bereich berät über die dabei zu berücksichtigenden Fragen. Wissenschaftliche Dienste Dokumentation Seite 3 WD 1 - 3000 – 036/18 1. Einführung Im November 1918 – vor genau 100 Jahren – brach mit der Niederlage im 1. Weltkrieg in Deutschland die Revolution aus. Sie führte zum Untergang der Monarchie und zur Er- richtung der ersten demokratischen Republik auf deutschem Boden. Mit einem täglichen Kalenderblatt blicken wir an dieser Stelle zurück auf ausgewählte Ereignisse jener Wo- chen. Damit erinnern wir daran, dass sich Demokratie und Freiheit in Deutschland nicht von selbst durchsetzten, sondern in einem heftigen Ringen erstritten werden mussten.
    [Show full text]
  • Explaining Irredentism: the Case of Hungary and Its Transborder Minorities in Romania and Slovakia
    Explaining irredentism: the case of Hungary and its transborder minorities in Romania and Slovakia by Julianna Christa Elisabeth Fuzesi A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in Government London School of Economics and Political Science University of London 2006 1 UMI Number: U615886 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615886 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own. Signature Date ....... 2 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON Abstract of Thesis Author (full names) ..Julianna Christa Elisabeth Fiizesi...................................................................... Title of thesis ..Explaining irredentism: the case of Hungary and its transborder minorities in Romania and Slovakia............................................................................................................................. ....................................................................................... Degree..PhD in Government............... This thesis seeks to explain irredentism by identifying the set of variables that determine its occurrence. To do so it provides the necessary definition and comparative analytical framework, both lacking so far, and thus establishes irredentism as a field of study in its own right. The thesis develops a multi-variate explanatory model that is generalisable yet succinct.
    [Show full text]
  • New Perspectives on the Eastern Question(S) in Late-Victorian Britain, Or How „The Eastern Question‟ Affected British Politics (1881-1901).1
    Stéphanie Prévost. New perspectives on the Eastern Question(s) New perspectives on the Eastern Question(s) in Late-Victorian Britain, Or How „the Eastern Question‟ Affected British Politics (1881-1901).1 Stéphanie Prévost, LARCA, Université Paris-Diderot Keywords: Eastern Question, Gladstonian Liberalism, social movements, Eastern Question historiography. Mots-clés : Question d‘Orient, libéralisme gladstonien, mouvements sociaux, historiographie. In 1921, in the preface to Edouard Driault‘s second edition of La Question d’Orient depuis ses origines jusqu’à la paix de Sèvres, a work originally published in 1898, French historian Gabriel Monod postulated that ―the Eastern Question was the key issue in European politics‖ (v). In his 1996 concise introductory The Eastern Question, 1774-1923, Alexander L. Macfie similarly stated that ―for more than a century and a half, from the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-74 to the Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, the Eastern Question, the Question of what should become of the Ottoman Empire, then in decline, played a significant, and even at times a dominant, part in shaping the relations of the Great Powers‖ (1). Undoubtedly, the Eastern Question has always been deeply rooted in the intricacies of European diplomacy, more obviously so from the Crimean War onwards. After an almost three-year conflict (1853-6) first opposing Russia to the Ottoman Empire, then supported by France, Britain, Sardinia, Austria and Hungary, belligerents drafted peace conditions. The preamble to the 30 March, 1856 Treaty of Paris made the preservation of Ottoman territorial integrity and independence a sine qua non condition to any settlement – which was taken up in Article VII of the treaty as a collective guarantee.
    [Show full text]
  • The Franco-Prussian War: Its Impact on France and Germany, 1870-1914
    The Franco-Prussian War: Its Impact on France and Germany, 1870-1914 Emily Murray Professor Goldberg History Honors Thesis April 11, 2016 1 Historian Niall Ferguson introduced his seminal work on the twentieth century by posing the question “Megalomaniacs may order men to invade Russia, but why do the men obey?”1 He then sought to answer this question over the course of the text. Unfortunately, his analysis focused on too late a period. In reality, the cultural and political conditions that fostered unparalleled levels of bloodshed in the twentieth century began before 1900. The 1870 Franco- Prussian War and the years that surrounded it were the more pertinent catalyst. This event initiated the environment and experiences that catapulted Europe into the previously unimaginable events of the twentieth century. Individuals obey orders, despite the dictates of reason or personal well-being, because personal experiences unite them into a group of unconscious or emotionally motivated actors. The Franco-Prussian War is an example of how places, events, and sentiments can create a unique sense of collective identity that drives seemingly irrational behavior. It happened in both France and Germany. These identities would become the cultural and political foundations that changed the world in the tumultuous twentieth century. The political and cultural development of Europe is complex and highly interconnected, making helpful insights into specific events difficult. It is hard to distinguish where one era of history begins or ends. It is a challenge to separate the inherently complicated systems of national and ethnic identities defined by blood, borders, and collective experience.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 the Turks and Europe by Gaston Gaillard London: Thomas Murby & Co
    THE TURKS AND EUROPE BY GASTON GAILLARD LONDON: THOMAS MURBY & CO. 1 FLEET LANE, E.C. 1921 1 vi CONTENTS PAGES VI. THE TREATY WITH TURKEY: Mustafa Kemal’s Protest—Protests of Ahmed Riza and Galib Kemaly— Protest of the Indian Caliphate Delegation—Survey of the Treaty—The Turkish Press and the Treaty—Jafar Tayar at Adrianople—Operations of the Government Forces against the Nationalists—French Armistice in Cilicia—Mustafa Kemal’s Operations—Greek Operations in Asia Minor— The Ottoman Delegation’s Observations at the Peace Conference—The Allies’ Answer—Greek Operations in Thrace—The Ottoman Government decides to sign the Treaty—Italo-Greek Incident, and Protests of Armenia, Yugo-Slavia, and King Hussein—Signature of the Treaty – 169—271 VII. THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: 1. The Turco-Armenian Question - 274—304 2. The Pan-Turanian and Pan-Arabian Movements: Origin of Pan-Turanism—The Turks and the Arabs—The Hejaz—The Emir Feisal—The Question of Syria—French Operations in Syria— Restoration of Greater Lebanon—The Arabian World and the Caliphate—The Part played by Islam - 304—356 VIII. THE MOSLEMS OF THE FORMER RUSSIAN EMPIRE AND TURKEY: The Republic of Northern Caucasus—Georgia and Azerbaïjan—The Bolshevists in the Republics of Caucasus and of the Transcaspian Isthmus—Armenians and Moslems - 357—369 IX. TURKEY AND THE SLAVS: Slavs versus Turks—Constantinople and Russia - 370—408 2 THE TURKS AND EUROPE I THE TURKS The peoples who speak the various Turkish dialects and who bear the generic name of Turcomans, or Turco-Tatars, are distributed over huge territories occupying nearly half of Asia and an important part of Eastern Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • The Strongmen Strike Back Robert Kagan
    POLICY BRIEF The strongmen strike back Robert Kagan Authoritarianism has returned as an ideological and strategic force. And it returns at just the moment when the liberal world is suffering a major crisis of confidence. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION Today, authoritarianism has emerged as the Of all the geopolitical transformations confronting greatest challenge facing the liberal democratic the liberal democratic world these days, the one world—a profound ideological, as well as strategic, for which we are least prepared is the ideological challenge. Or, more accurately, it has reemerged, and strategic resurgence of authoritarianism. We for authoritarianism has always posed the most are not used to thinking of authoritarianism as a potent and enduring challenge to liberalism, since distinct worldview that offers a real alternative the birth of the liberal idea itself. Authoritarianism to liberalism. Communism was an ideology—and has now returned as a geopolitical force, with strong some thought fascism was, as well—that offered a nations such as China and Russia championing comprehensive understanding of human nature, anti-liberalism as an alternative to a teetering politics, economics and governance to shape the liberal hegemony. It has returned as an ideological behavior and thought of all members of a society in force, offering the age-old critique of liberalism, every aspect of their lives. and just at the moment when the liberal world is suffering its greatest crisis of confidence since We believed that “traditional” autocratic the 1930s. It has returned armed with new and governments were devoid of grand theories about hitherto unimaginable tools of social control and society and, for the most part, left their people disruption that are shoring up authoritarian rule at alone.
    [Show full text]