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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work is a testimony to the generosity of many people. My heartfelt thanks goes first of all to my tutor, Professor Margherita Ulrych, who has given me the opportunity to study such as interesting field of research, providing insightful comments all throughout the preparation and the drafting of my dissertation. I am also indebted to Professor Maria Luisa Maggioni, for providing me with the original idea of studying Embassy websites. I wish to thank Dottoressa Rita Bandinelli, Official Translator and Interpreter at the British Embassy to Italy and the Australian Embassy to Italy for agreeing to answer my questionnaire on the professional-related aspects of diplomatic translation as carried out within their Embassies. Last, but not least, thanks to my family, cheerful colleagues and friends for just coping with me! i INTRODUCTION The present work arises out of two main circumstances: first, a personal interest in the fascinating worlds of translation and diplomacy; second, the realization that diplomatic translation as carried out within Embassies is still a largely unexplored field within the academic discipline of Translation Studies. Given the fact that the world of diplomatic relations is traditionally somewhat inaccessible to outsiders, the decision was taken to investigate translation within the multimodal context of Embassy websites. The advent of the Internet as an international medium for the dissemination of information has been revolutionary both for the practice of diplomacy and translation, granting both fields an unprecedented visibility. Websites are becoming increasingly indispensable for the public diplomacy of diplomatic Missions. Being multimodal in nature, they enable Embassies to promote their political, economic and cultural interests with an enhanced impact and outreach potential compared to the past and, at the same time, create novel demands for translators. For the purpose of this work five Embassy websites have been selected: the British Embassy website, the Canadian Embassy website, the Australian Embassy website, the USA Embassy website and the New Zealand Embassy website. All of them present a bilingual version (English-Italian). Translated websites lend themselves particularly well to an interdisciplinary study approach that caters both for their intrinsic multimodality and the translation/localization process they have undergone. Chapter 1 outlines the broader context for the study of Embassies with a view to assisting a deeper understanding of their significance for the conduct of bilateral relations. An historical account of the origin and evolution of diplomatic practice is provided, followed by an overview of major contemporary issues in studies on diplomacy and an in-depth description of the running of a contemporary Embassy. Chapter 2 explores the notion of translation today as it has evolved within the academic discipline of Translation Studies. The origin and evolution of the discipline are discussed in detail and the notion of translation as mediation is addressed with a view to highlighting the fundamental role played by translators in the daily practice and process of translation. Chapter 3 lays the methodological foundations for the applied analysis of the selected Embassy websites. The relationship of translation with globalization and the ii related phenomenon of localization is first discussed, providing a general framework for the translational analysis of the selected Embassy websites. A working field for the study of Embassy websites is then identified within the context of multimodality, drawing on the work in visual grammar of Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006). Chapter 4 finally addresses the analysis of the selected websites from the visual and translational point of view. First, the websites are described in terms of content and semiotic design applying the compositional, interactional and representational semiotic categories indentified by Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006). On this basis, the overall diplomatic meaning conveyed by each website is assessed. Second, each translated website is compared against its original to establish what has been translated and what has not been translated, describe the main translation strategies involved and ultimately evaluate the extent to which the translated texts reflect the diplomatic priorities accorded by each website. The overall aim of the present research is to emphasize the increasingly importance acquired by diplomacy in international society in the last few decades and the need to investigate the communicative strategies employed by bilateral Mission. Within this broader context, the present work will explore in particular the link between visuality and translation and assess how this relationship acquires diplomatic value. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................. i INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 DIPLOMACY AND ITS FUNCTIONS ....................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 State of the art in studies on diplomacy.................................................................. 2 1.2.1 Theory and practice in diplomacy ................................................................... 2 1.2.2 Defining diplomacy ......................................................................................... 9 1.2.3 Historical studies ........................................................................................... 12 1.2.3.1 Diplomatic systems of antiquity............................................................. 14 1.2.3.2 Modern diplomacy.................................................................................. 18 1.2.3.3 Contemporary diplomacy ....................................................................... 23 1.3 Resident embassies and their ambassadors .......................................................... 28 1.3.1 Inside an embassy.......................................................................................... 28 1.3.2 Traditional functions and new tasks of resident Missions............................. 30 1.3.2.1 Promotion, outreach and servicing ......................................................... 33 1.3.2.2 Embassy websites................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 2 TRANSLATION STUDIES: ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE............................................................................................................. 39 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 39 2.2 The concept of translation .................................................................................... 41 2.3 Translation Studies ............................................................................................... 49 2.3.1 The origins of the discipline: Holmes’ map .................................................. 51 2.3.2 The development of Translation Studies: the rise of descriptive models...... 57 2.3.2.1 The pragmatic reorientation of the 1970s and the growth of systems theories ............................................................................................................... 58 2.3.2.2 The 1980s: the Manipulation School and the cultural turn .................... 63 2.3.3 The 1990s and the growing visibility of the discipline ................................. 70 2.3.4 Translation Studies today: interdiscipline or multidiscipline? ...................... 77 2.4 Translation as mediation....................................................................................... 82 2.4.1 Translation as a form of rewriting ................................................................. 92 2.5 Concluding remarks.............................................................................................. 95 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS ............................................................. 98 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 98 3.2 Issues of globalization and localization................................................................ 99 iv 3.2.1 The linguistic paradox of globalization....................................................... 104 3.2.2 Localization and translation ........................................................................ 108 3.2.3 Website localization .................................................................................... 116 3.3 Websites as instances of multimodal and multimedia communication.............. 118 3.3.1 Methodological foundations for the visual analysis of websites................. 124 3.3.2 Kress and van Leuuwen’s visual grammar.................................................
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