The North American Black Duck (Anas Rubripes): a Case Study of 28 Years of Failure in American Wildlife Management

WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository

1983

The North American Black Duck (Anas rubripes): A Case Study of 28 Years of Failure in American Wildlife Management

John W. Grandy

Follow this and additional works at: https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/acwp_wmm

Part of the Animal Studies Commons, Environmental Studies Commons, and the Population Biology Commons

Recommended Citation Grandy, J.W. (1983). The North American black duck (Anas rubripes): A case study of 28 years of failure in American wildlife management. Supplement to International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems, 4(4), 2-35.

This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ). W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

Introduction populations, high reproductive rates (characteristic of a population at a level The black duck (Anas rubripes) substantially below carrying capacity), The North American Black Duck population has been declining for many and declines in indirect population es years, since at least 1955 (Fig. 1 ). This timates based on analyses of banding (Anas rubripes): A Case Study of 28 change has been chronicled by, most data (see: Barske, 1968; Munro, 1968; particularly, the winter inventory (de Benson, 1968; Reed, 1968; Addy, 1968; Years of Failure in American picted in Fig. 1), but also by the observa Ceis et a/., 1971; Blandin, 1975, 1982; tions of hunters, bird watchers, U.S. and Anon., 1976, 1980, 1983; Crissey, 1976; Wildlife Management Canadian biologists, officials from pri Williams, 1976; Hunt, 1978; Newell and vate conservation organizations, and Boyd, 1978; Spencer, 1979, 1982, 1982a; others. Verification of the decline has Longcore, 1981; Maine, 1982; Hagar, taken a variety of forms: deductive rea 1982; Heusmann, 1982; Smith, 1983; John W. Grandy soning based on underutilized breeding Connor, 1983). Using the winter inven and wintering habitats, marked declines tory as a measure, the average rate of in hunter success based on kill per thou dec! ine has been about 2% per year sand hunter days and kill per successful (since 1955) and the population has de hunter, measured declines in breeding clined about 60%. The decline has been

FIGURE 1 Black duck Winter Inventory, 1955-19831 (Courtesy U.S. FWS (Anon., 1983)).

BLACK DUCK COUNT- WINTER SURVEY, 1955-83

800

700

600 TOTAL U.S.

0 0 500 0 ~ Abstract (f) ::.:: (.) A scientific and technical analysis is presented of the factors which may have ::J 400 0 been primarily responsible for an estimated 60% decline in the black duck (Anas ::.:: (.) rubripes) population since 1955. The analyses presented show that the U.S. Fish and <( ....J Wildlife Service (FWS], the management agency responsible for waterfowl manage OJ 300 ment in the United States, has recognized the population decline, that the FWS's own experts have consistently recognized that hunting is the most likely cause of the 200 population decline, and that hunting is the only mortality factor which wildlife managers can control in the practical sense. Using FWS information, the author shows, however, that from 1967 to 1982, regulations permitting killing of black ducks 100 have in net effect only been made more permissive, while, since the early 1970's, the numbers of hunters and hunter days (hunter effort] have remained relatively high and hunting has accounted for 50% to 60% of total mortality. The author terms the con 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 sistent failure of the FWS to take effective regulatory action to stop the decline and YEAR to attempt to restore the black duck population a failure of modern-day wildlife management. Using a series of quotations from knowledgeable individuals, the 'Estimates are that the Winter Survey (Winter Inventory) records 1/3 to 1/5 of all black ducks (Martinson et author presents an analysis of why this failure has occurred. a/., 1968:48; Martinet a/., 1967; Anon. 1976:8). The validity of using the winter inventory as an indicator of population trend is discussed by Smith (1983:3), Crissey (1976:2), and Heusmann (1980). 2 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUDANIM PROB 4(4)1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 3 ). W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

FIGURE 1 Black duck Winter Inventory, 1955-19831 (Courtesy U.S. FWS (Anon., 1983)).

BLACK DUCK COUNT- WINTER SURVEY, 1955-83

800

700

600 TOTAL U.S.

0 0 500 0 ~ Abstract (f) ::.:: (.) A scientific and technical analysis is presented of the factors which may have ::J 400 0 been primarily responsible for an estimated 60% decline in the black duck (Anas ::.:: (.) rubripes) population since 1955. The analyses presented show that the U.S. Fish and <( ....J Wildlife Service (FWS], the management agency responsible for waterfowl manage OJ 300 ment in the United States, has recognized the population decline, that the FWS's own experts have consistently recognized that hunting is the most likely cause of the 200 population decline, and that hunting is the only mortality factor which wildlife managers can control in the practical sense. Using FWS information, the author shows, however, that from 1967 to 1982, regulations permitting killing of black ducks 100 have in net effect only been made more permissive, while, since the early 1970's, the numbers of hunters and hunter days (hunter effort] have remained relatively high and hunting has accounted for 50% to 60% of total mortality. The author terms the con 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 sistent failure of the FWS to take effective regulatory action to stop the decline and YEAR to attempt to restore the black duck population a failure of modern-day wildlife management. Using a series of quotations from knowledgeable individuals, the 'Estimates are that the Winter Survey (Winter Inventory) records 1/3 to 1/5 of all black ducks (Martinson et author presents an analysis of why this failure has occurred. a/., 1968:48; Martinet a/., 1967; Anon. 1976:8). The validity of using the winter inventory as an indicator of population trend is discussed by Smith (1983:3), Crissey (1976:2), and Heusmann (1980). 2 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUDANIM PROB 4(4)1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 3 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

FIGURE 2 Range of the Black Duck (Courtesy U.S. FWS (Anon., 1983)). tion was at its lowest point in about 20 the interested lay public: what happened years and that major restrictions on to the system of wildlife management in black duck kill were necessary to allow the United States (and to some extent, the population to rebuild. Canada) that caused it to so consistently In 1982, continued failure of the fai I to take necessary protective action FWS to take action (Table 1) to protect on behalf of the black duck? the black duck and the continuing deter To that end, this paper examines, in ioration of the black duck's status some detail, the potential reasons for (Maine, 1982; Blandin, 1982; Spencer, the black duck population decline, the i 982; Heusmann, 1982; Fig. 1) caused failure of the FWS and the States to take The Humane Society of the United necessary corrective action, and the rea States (HSUS), the Maine Audubon Soci sons for that failure, in the hope that ety, and one HSUS member from Maine recognition of the factors involved will to sue the FWS for a closed season. The help prevent future failures and simulta suit was unsuccessfu I (Green, 1982). neously help insure the welfare of wild However, all agree that the decline of life. the black duck is real. Indeed, the Judge began the legal decision by noting that Materials and Methods there had been a sharp decline in the black duck population (Green, 1982:3). Literature on black ducks has been The question remains for wildlife systematically reviewed. Primary sources biologists, wildlife administrators, and of this literature were the files of the m Breeding lfiB Breeding and wintering TABLE 1 Atlantic Flyway Hunting Regulations-1953-1982* §wintering Bag Bag Bag Bag Season Black or Season Black or Season Black or Season Black Year Length Total Duck Length Total Duck Length Total Duck Length Total Duck 1953 60 4 4 1 1954 60 4 4 essentially rangewide (Fig. 2), being and wildlife) agencies, regulations gov 1955 70 4 4 most pronounced in the U.S. and western erning black duck hunting have, in sum, 1956 70 4 4 1957 70 4 4 portions of the Canadian breeding range only been liberalized since 1968 (Table 1958 60 4 4 (see, for example, Stotts and Davis' 1 ). Indeed, since 1970, hunting seasons 1959 40 4 4 50 3 3 1960 40 4 4 50 3 3 (1960) study of what was then a major have, each year, been more permissive 1961 40 3 2 50 2 2 1962 40 3 2 50 2 2 breeding population in the Chesapeake than in 1968, and the status of the black 1963 40 4 2 50 3 2 Bay area). duck population has continued to deter 1964 40 4 4 50 3 3 1965 40 4 4 50 3 3 However, despite the decline, iorate (Fig. 1 ). Furthermore, the negative 1966 45 4 4 55 3 3 1967 40 4 2 50 3 2 acknowledged repeatedly by the U.S. effect of liberalized seasons has been 1968 40 4 2 50 3 2 Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the compounded because the numbers of 1969 40 4 2 50 3 2 47 4 1 57 3 1970 40 5 2 50 4 2 60 3 1 Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS), and by hunters and hunter days increased sharply 1971 40 5 2 50 4 2 60 3 1 1972 50 5 1 50 4 2 60 3 1 the relevant State conservation (or fish between 1968 and the early 1970's, and 1973 45 4 2 45 5 1 50 pts. "70" have remained relatively high since then 1974 45·· 4 2 45•• 5 1 50t pts. "70" 'The one possible exception to the rangewide de 1975 45·· 4 2 45·· 5 1 45•• pts. "70" (Administrative Reports, files, Office of 1976 45·· 4 2 45·· 5 1 45•· pts. "70" cline is the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Newell 1977 45·· 4 2 45·· 5 1 45•· pts. "70" and Boyd (1978) presented data suggesting that the Migratory Bird Management, Patuxent 1978 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" population had not declined there. However, the Wildlife Research Center; Martin and 1979 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" 1980 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" Newell and Boyd analysis only covered data through Carney, 1977). And, 1968 was, signifi 1981 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" 1982 50 4 2 50 5 1 pts. "70" 1976. Recent data (Spencer, 1982) showing a 76% cantly, the year that Black Duck Sympo 50 decrease in Maine's black duck breeding popula sium participants (Barske, 1968; Addy *Possession limit is double the daily bag in all instances. Split season allowed with 10% penalty through tions strongly suggest that breeding populations 1969 and no penalty thereafter. Table 1 was provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982. may now be declining in the adjacent Canadian Mari and Martinson, 1968:183-188; Addy, 1968a) **50 Days, with Wednesday noon opening. time Provinces. concluded that the black duck popula- tSS Days, with Wednesday noon opening. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[3) 1983 4 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 5 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

FIGURE 2 Range of the Black Duck (Courtesy U.S. FWS (Anon., 1983)). tion was at its lowest point in about 20 the interested lay public: what happened years and that major restrictions on to the system of wildlife management in black duck kill were necessary to allow the United States (and to some extent, the population to rebuild. Canada) that caused it to so consistently In 1982, continued failure of the fai I to take necessary protective action FWS to take action (Table 1) to protect on behalf of the black duck? the black duck and the continuing deter To that end, this paper examines, in ioration of the black duck's status some detail, the potential reasons for (Maine, 1982; Blandin, 1982; Spencer, the black duck population decline, the i 982; Heusmann, 1982; Fig. 1) caused failure of the FWS and the States to take The Humane Society of the United necessary corrective action, and the rea States (HSUS), the Maine Audubon Soci sons for that failure, in the hope that ety, and one HSUS member from Maine recognition of the factors involved will to sue the FWS for a closed season. The help prevent future failures and simulta suit was unsuccessfu I (Green, 1982). neously help insure the welfare of wild However, all agree that the decline of life. the black duck is real. Indeed, the Judge began the legal decision by noting that Materials and Methods there had been a sharp decline in the black duck population (Green, 1982:3). Literature on black ducks has been The question remains for wildlife systematically reviewed. Primary sources biologists, wildlife administrators, and of this literature were the files of the m Breeding lfiB Breeding and wintering TABLE 1 Atlantic Flyway Hunting Regulations-1953-1982* §wintering Bag Bag Bag Bag Season Black or Season Black or Season Black or Season Black Year Length Total Duck Length Total Duck Length Total Duck Length Total Duck 1953 60 4 4 1 1954 60 4 4 essentially rangewide (Fig. 2), being and wildlife) agencies, regulations gov 1955 70 4 4 most pronounced in the U.S. and western erning black duck hunting have, in sum, 1956 70 4 4 1957 70 4 4 portions of the Canadian breeding range only been liberalized since 1968 (Table 1958 60 4 4 (see, for example, Stotts and Davis' 1 ). Indeed, since 1970, hunting seasons 1959 40 4 4 50 3 3 1960 40 4 4 50 3 3 (1960) study of what was then a major have, each year, been more permissive 1961 40 3 2 50 2 2 1962 40 3 2 50 2 2 breeding population in the Chesapeake than in 1968, and the status of the black 1963 40 4 2 50 3 2 Bay area). duck population has continued to deter 1964 40 4 4 50 3 3 1965 40 4 4 50 3 3 However, despite the decline, iorate (Fig. 1 ). Furthermore, the negative 1966 45 4 4 55 3 3 1967 40 4 2 50 3 2 acknowledged repeatedly by the U.S. effect of liberalized seasons has been 1968 40 4 2 50 3 2 Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the compounded because the numbers of 1969 40 4 2 50 3 2 47 4 1 57 3 1970 40 5 2 50 4 2 60 3 1 Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS), and by hunters and hunter days increased sharply 1971 40 5 2 50 4 2 60 3 1 1972 50 5 1 50 4 2 60 3 1 the relevant State conservation (or fish between 1968 and the early 1970's, and 1973 45 4 2 45 5 1 50 pts. "70" have remained relatively high since then 1974 45·· 4 2 45•• 5 1 50t pts. "70" 'The one possible exception to the rangewide de 1975 45·· 4 2 45·· 5 1 45•• pts. "70" (Administrative Reports, files, Office of 1976 45·· 4 2 45·· 5 1 45•· pts. "70" cline is the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Newell 1977 45·· 4 2 45·· 5 1 45•· pts. "70" and Boyd (1978) presented data suggesting that the Migratory Bird Management, Patuxent 1978 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" population had not declined there. However, the Wildlife Research Center; Martin and 1979 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" 1980 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" Newell and Boyd analysis only covered data through Carney, 1977). And, 1968 was, signifi 1981 50 4 2 50 5 1 50 pts. "70" 1982 50 4 2 50 5 1 pts. "70" 1976. Recent data (Spencer, 1982) showing a 76% cantly, the year that Black Duck Sympo 50 decrease in Maine's black duck breeding popula sium participants (Barske, 1968; Addy *Possession limit is double the daily bag in all instances. Split season allowed with 10% penalty through tions strongly suggest that breeding populations 1969 and no penalty thereafter. Table 1 was provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982. may now be declining in the adjacent Canadian Mari and Martinson, 1968:183-188; Addy, 1968a) **50 Days, with Wednesday noon opening. time Provinces. concluded that the black duck popula- tSS Days, with Wednesday noon opening. /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[3) 1983 4 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 5 J. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Office of sponsible for the content and conclu cies in the United States; 6 from the tween late summer and mid-January Migratory Bird Management in Washing sions of this paper. Canadian Wildlife Service ((CWS), Cana [a period which corresponds close ton, D.C., 20240, and related files at the dian equivalent of the FWS); 5 from Pro ly with the hunting season)." (Reed, FWS's Patuxent Wildlife Research Center vincial conservation agencies in Canada; 1968:82). Results and Discussion 6 from Canadian or U.S. universities; and in Laurel, Maryland 20708. R. K. Martinson, A. D. Geis, and R. I. 5 from private organizations. The pur I should note here that this paper is Cause of Population Decline Smith, all FWS employees responsible pose of the Symposium, in recognition a scientific and technical analysis of a The cause of the population de for waterfowl investigations at Patuxent of the declining status of the black duck, situation which contains elements of cline must be, and must have been, total Wildlife Research Center, reported that was to bring "together most of the known science, politics, and other factors. For annual mortality that exceeds total an hunting caused 50% to 60% of total information on this species and to focus that reason, the literature cited is not nual production (Anon., 1980:16) or the mortality and concluded: ability of the population to replenish attention on its future needs." (Anon., always scientific literature; rather it is "At that time [mid 1950's], hunting itself. For the purposes of this discus 1968:1). sometimes scientific, and sometimes con regulations were then relaxed and sion, however, causes of the decline are The 1968 Symposium on black ducks sists of memos, letters, and unpublished large kills were made. Despite a divided into hunting mortality and other provided substantial evidence of a cau reports (authored by acknowledged experts high population, the rate of kill was potential causes of the population de sal link between hunting and the popula or officials in positions of responsibility) sufficient to boost total mortality cline. Additional discussion is provided tion decline, as the following excerpts which often represented the best and on higher than productivity, and the of the role of competition and/or hybrid show. ly information on which to base black black duck population began to de ization with the mallard (Anas platyrhyn C. E. Addy, then Atlantic Flyway duck management decisions. In present cline. By 1959, the black duck pop chos), because this has been mentioned Representative (biologist) for the FWS, ing the "Literature Cited" section, I have ulation was obviously at a low level often by the FWS as a cause of the black stated: attempted to present enough information and hunting regulations were made duck population decline. to allow the interested reader to locate, ob "[T]he evidence indicates that very restrictive. The resu /ting an tain, and evaluate the information which Hunting harvest has been excessive in rela nual kills were small compared to I have analyzed and which leads me to Results of major investigations into tion to production. Kill has been earlier years but still large enough, the conclusions I have reached. the cause or causes of the black duck the primary factor responsible for with the much reduced size of the population decline were not widely pub holding the population down to the black duck population, to result in level that it is." (Addy, 1968:4). Acknowledgments lished during the late 1950's and early a kill rate of a magnitude that ap 1960's. Rather, it appears that much re William T. Munro, Wildlife Bio pears to have prevented an increase I acknowledge and appreciate the search was underway during this period logist, Eastern Region, Canadian Wild in the population." (Martinson et help of the late Dr. Warren W. Blandin, but was not reported until the Black life Service stated: a/., 1968:43,50). former Atlantic Flyway Representative 2 Duck Symposium in 1968 (Barske, 1968) . C. E. Addy and R. K. Martinson in (biologist), Patuxent Wildlife Research "Most field workers in Canada be Indeed, the Black Duck Symposium presenting the final paper at the Sym Center, in assembling most of the infor lieve that the major cause of this convened most of those then interested posium stated: mation discussed herein. Henry M. Reeves, in or acknowledged as experts on black [black duck] decline is over-harvest." formerly of the Office of Migratory Bird ducks. Sixty-nine participants registered: (Munro, 1968:7). "Speakers at this symposium generally share the opinion that the Management, FWS, provided legally per 20 from the U.S. Bureau of Sport Austin Reed, biologist with the black duck population is low and mitted access to the files in Washington, Fisheries and Wildlife (hereinafter refer Quebec Wildlife Service, stated: D.C, and critically commented on the red to as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser that wise management dictates that manuscript. Dr. Stephen Kellert, Yale vice (FWS), the Federal agency responsi "The consensus of opinion [among we do something to increase the University; Dr. Warren B. King, Chair ble for migratory bird conservation and Canadian biologists] is that the size size of the population. Most speakers man, U.S. Section of the International management in the U.S.); 27 from State of the hunting kill is the most likely also felt that hunting regulations ef Council for Bird Preservation; and How conservation (or fish and wildlife) agen- explanation [for the population de fect the size and rate of kill and, ard Spencer, Wildlife Research Super c/ in e). ... A close correlation has thus, the survival of black ducks." been observed between Mid-Winter visor, Maine Department of Inland Fish 'The Black Duck Symposium, containing 16 papers (Addy and Martinson, 1968:183). Survey counts of black ducks in the eries and Wildlife provided helpful com and a record of discussions, was published in 1968 After the Symposium, Addy sum Atlantic Flyway and the breeding ments, as did Joseph A. Hagar, former by the Atlantic Waterfowl Council and Wildlife marized the proceedings for his super Management Institute (WMI), and was edited by WMI population on lie aux Pommes the Massachusetts State Ornithologist, and iors at FWS, stating: employee Philip Barske. Throughout this paper, the following spring [Figure V). This John W. Lanier, Chief Biologist, White Symposium as a whole is cited as Barske (1968); in suggests the like/ ihood that popu la "It was the consensus of the group Mountain National Forest in New Hamp dividual papers and/or discussions are cited as shire. Despite this help, I alone am re- "Author" (1968). tion level is being regulated be- that while surveys were unreliable

6 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 7 J. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

6 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 7 /. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph /. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

indicators of population status and ently due to a continued high kill a/., 1971) suggesting a definite causal fowl biologist, FWS, concluded that kill that no surveys gave an accurate rate." (Geis eta/., 1971:49, 63). relationship between hunting mortality of black ducks, particularly immatures, current population figure, the overall and the black duck population decline. had been excessive throughout the prin In 1974, Frank B. McGilvery, a FWS Flyway population had been de Anderson and Burnham also did not cipal breeding range of the species. He waterfowl biologist then stationed at clining and was probably at its low show or even suggest that the program further concluded that such kill would Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, was est level of the past 20 years. Papers designed by Addy and Martinson (1968) ensure a declining population (Blandin asked to evaluate the black duck winter were presented on the various fac to restore the black duck population 1982:122). In reaching his conclusion, inventories over the preceding ten years. tors which tend to reduce- the popu would not have been successful. Blandin (1982:89; 1982a:2) presented He reported to his superiors: lation or lower its productivity such I.R.P. is the abbreviation for an "Im data comparing hunting mortality for as predation, loss of habitat, pollu "In reviewing the material compiled portant Resource Problem." Identifica the black duck and the mallard. (See be tion, pesticides and others. How herein and in re-reading the material tion of such a problem provides a mecha low.) These figures show that hunting is a ever, with these factors in operation in the black duck symposium held nism within the FWS for devising a far more important mortality factor for it was generally agreed that hunting at Chestertown in 1968, I am struck strategy to combat the problem and for the black duck than for the mallard. Fur kill was too great for the population by what appears to be an inescapa procuring funds to solve the problem. In thermore, the detrimental effect of hunt to maintain itself at a high level. In ble fact- the major, amendable prob 1980, the Service prepared an I.R.P. ing for black ducks is compounded by fact, it was generally acknowledged lem with the black duck is excessive strategy paper to assess problems asso the fact that total mortality for im that hunting kill is the only major harvest." (Emphasis in original). (Mc ciated with declining populations of mature black ducks is 7% higher than mortality factor we can do anything Gilvery, 1974:1). black ducks and designated the contin for immature mallards (Blandin, 1982a:2). about at the present time." (Addy, uing decline of the black duck popula In 1976, Walter F. Crissey, formerly In 1982, Joseph A. Hagar, former 1968a). tion the twentieth most pressing re FWS Senior Scientist and for ten years source problem in the United States Massachusetts State Ornithologist and a Director of the FWS's Migratory Bird respected authority on black ducks, con In 1971, a Special Scientific Report (Anon., 1980). As a result of the I.R.P. de Population Station, wrote an authorita cluded on the basis of available data by three FWS biologists (Aelred D. Geis, signation, in 1980 the FWS assembled a tive report on black ducks in which he and his knowledge, that hunting is a Robert I. Smith (now in charge of black group of 19 waterfowl, coastal, and es concluded: significant contributing cause of the duck management, FWS) and John P. Rog tuarine experts to examine the problems black duck decline. Hagar also noted ers, (now and since 1972 the Chief of the "[J]t seems to me that all of the facing black ducks. These experts con "that black ducks are under heavy gun FWS Migratory Bird Management program) available information favors the hy cluded: ning pressure and that many hunters in analyzed all banding data from 1922 to pothesis that over-harvest has been "[T]he declining numbers of black the northeast try to shoot black ducks 1960. The report noted that about 50% the most likely cause of the de ducks are primarily the result of an above all other species." (Hagar, 1982). of total mortality was caused by hunting cline." (Crissey 1976:6). nual mortality that exceeds produc In 1982, the Black Duck Manage and concluded, in part: tion. Most of that mortality is di ment Plan, developed by professional In 1976, Anderson and Burnham rectly related to hunting." (Anon., "According to the winter survey, (1976), both FWS biostatisticians at waterfowl biologists working for U.S. 1980:16). the continental black duck popula Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, pub States and Canadian Provinces in the tion declined greatly between 1952 lished part of a study on mallards in In 1982, H.W. Heusmann, water Atlantic Flyway, together with CWS and and 1962. It is believed that the which they concluded that past regres fowl biologist for Massachusetts stated FWS officials, explicity acknowledged a survey data correctly reflect the sion analyses which had been used in when discussing the decline of the con" link between hunting and population de population trend during these years. Martinson et a/. (1968) and Geis et a/. tinental black duck population: cline and stated: Although the population was at a (1971) to "prove" an additive relation "[H]unting is responsible for further "Present levels of sport hunting are lower level, and the kill much ship between hunting mortality and to reducing the [black duck] popula depressing black duck populations smaller in 1959-1962 than in 1952- tal mortality in black ducks, were in tion." (Heusmann, 1982:17) by reducing the survival of imma 1954, band recovery data show that valid. Anderson and Burnham did not In 1982, Dr. Warren W. Blandin, ture birds." (Spencer, 1982a:15). kill rates were equally high in the show that such a relationship does not based on the extensive analyses in .his The FWS agreed with this assess two periods. The population decline exist. They simply used mathematical dissertation and his many years of ex ment in a publication dated September was probably due to a high rate of techniques to invalidate the regression perience as the Atlantic Flyway water- 17,1982 (Potter, 1982:41253). kill associated with 70-day seasons analysis which biologists had previously and 4-bird bag limits during 1955- used. Anderson and Burnham did not re HUNTING MORTALITY AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL MORTALITY 1958. Failure of the black duck fute- or even discuss- all of the other ADULT MALES ADULT FEMALES YOUNG MALES YOUNG FEMALES population to recover in recent points made at the Black Duck Symposium Black Duck 57% 47% 66% 64% years despite a lower kill is appar- (Barske, 1968) and elsewhere (i.e., Geis et Mallard 55% 42% 51% 46%

9 8 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph /. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

9 8 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

The implication, or easily drawn in The 1971 FWS Special Scientific Re quency (Grandy, 1972:25), as did Hagar's Canadian boreal forest, the Maritime ference, that the population is declining port concluded that "[T]here was no (1948, 1950) experience. However, even Provinces, Quebec, and much of Onta only because of the death of immature evidence of unusual mortality of black if severe winter mortality occurs somewhat rio. Substantial additional potential black ducks seems questionable at best. ducks during the late winter and early more frequently than once every ten breeding range is found in the Eastern The assertion is apparently based on spring.", and that "[l]t appears that after years, it is a natural mortality factor with United States (Fig. 2). Blandin's (1982a:2) comparative mortali the close of the hunting season black which black ducks have always contended Breeding populations have declined ty figures which show substantially ducks survived at a relatively high rate" and to which they have presumably substantially or disappeared in major higher juvenile mortality rates from hun and that "[L]ate winter and early spring adapted, and over which managers have parts of the historic breeding range, in ting for black ducks than for juvenile non-hunting mortality is not serious no practical control because of the u n cluding areas of the mid-Atlantic States, mallards. This fact is certainly cause for when viewed on a continent-wide scale." predictable and localized nature of such New England, New York, Quebec, and concern; however, when a population (Geis eta/., 1971 :66). mortality. Ontario. These declines are not, except declines by about 60%, as the black My doctoral research (concluded in As an aside, however, even if severe in a few instances, demonstrably associ duck population has, "the loss of adults 1972) suggests that more than adequate winter mortality occurs somewhat more ated with habitat changes. For example, from the breeding population due to food exists for black ducks in major frequently than once every ten years, Canadian officials have consistently hunting must have a negative impact on wintering areas, except under extremely such a situation provides no rationale or concluded, beginning at the 1968 Black the population" (Hagar 1982). In addi severe winter conditions (Grandy, 1972: justification for encouraging a high level Duck Symposium, that breeding habitat tion, as wildlife managers have long 25). Indeed, since far fewer black ducks of black duck hunting kill (as New jersey is not a limiting factor in Canada (Munro recognized, since adults are presumably are using important coastal wintering officials have suggested) on the expecta 1968:7; Reed 1968:82; Spencer, 1976). experienced breeders, they are probably grounds, as compared with 10 to 15 years tion that severe winter weather may New York State biologist Dirck Benson more successful in producing young than ago, and their habitat has not been occu sometimes follow. Indeed, wildlife man reported a similar, and increasing, trend are ducks breeding for the first time. pied by other species, it seems logical to agers typically have never managed on of vacant breeding habitat in the United Therefore, the loss of adults to the popu conclude that there must be adequate the basis of the lowest possible carrying States (Benson, 1968:14). Participants at lation is probably more debilitating to winter food and habitat. For example, no capacity, as caused by unpredictable tending the two-day Black Duck Workshop the population (per duck killed) than is one has suggested that the 52% decline and nearly random catastrophic events in Calais, Maine, in July 1976 (including the loss of immatures, and any sugges (Avg. 1972-76 com pared with Avg. 1977- such as severe winter weather. For exam FWS, CWS, State and Provincial offi tion or hypothesis that the population is 1981) in the wintering population in ple, neither deer (Odocoileus v1rg1- cials) concluded that the available infor declining only because of hunting mor Maine (Spencer, 1982: App. A) has been nianus) nor waterfowl have ever been mation indicated that Canadian breed tality of immatures should be rejected. associated with a comparable deteriora managed to attain the lowest possible ing habitat for the black duck is not a limiting factor (Spencer, 1976:6, App.:10). Other Potential Causes tion in quantity or quality of available pre-winter population based on an ana habitat. Indeed, the contrary is more lysis of the lowest possible carrying cap The FWS, officially, and others such Crissey, in his 1976 black duck re- likely true of the entire Atlantic Flyway: acity, as caused by occasional severe as New jersey officials have consistently port, concluded: stated that "other" factors are "major" still-suitable areas of habitat are unused winters. Rather, managers typically at causes of the population decline. Among or underutilized by black ducks in com tempt to manage for a high over-winter "In this respect, lack of either quan those consistently cited are deteriora parison to carrying capacity and to past population, so as to maximize reproduc tity or quality of breeding habitat tion or loss of habitat, and in the case of use levels. tion. To do otherwise would completely does not appear to be a limiting fac New jersey, severe winter mortality. Crissey (1976:6) concluded that "I remove the beneficial effects on wildlife. tor at present population levels. While some losses certainly are attribu know of nothing that supports" the con populations of genetic selection caused Rather, the high rate of reproduc table to these causes, the data suggest tention that deterioration of wintering by events such as winter mortality in tion associated with black ducks in that they are not in any sense "major", habitat is a possible cause of the black duced by food shortage, would reduce recent years is characteristic of a when compared with hunting. duck decline. the "margin for error" in traditional population that is well below the The quantity and quality of black Local winter mortality may some wildlife management, and would neces carrying capacity of its breeding duck wintering habitat has no doubt de times be substantial during severe win sitate extremely low wildlife popula habitat." (Crissey, 1976:7). tions. creased since 1955; however, the availa ters (Hagar, 1948, 1950; Grandy, 1972; Blandin, in his 1982 doctoral disser- The situation with respect to the ble evidence suggests that wintering Ferrigno (New jersey Fish and Game), tation, reaffirmed this conclusion: habitat and winter mortality are not 1982, pers. comm.; Anon., 1980:13). The quantity and quality of available breeding limiting factors for the black duck. In I.R.P. analysis noted that severe winter habitat is quite similar to that for winter "The implication for black ducks is deed, the FWS I.R.P. paper essentially mortality may occur about one year in ing habitat. The black duck breeding that although annual production concluded (in 1980) that wintering habi ten (Anon., 1980:13). My analysis of range in eastern Canada is more than may be high in response to a declin tat was sufficient for black duck popula weather patterns in New England sug 1,000,000 square miles (Reed, 1978; ing breeding population, the re tions (Anon., 1980:13). gested a somewhat greater potential fre- Spencer, 1979). It includes the eastern cruitment of young birds into the SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 11 10 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

The implication, or easily drawn in The 1971 FWS Special Scientific Re quency (Grandy, 1972:25), as did Hagar's Canadian boreal forest, the Maritime ference, that the population is declining port concluded that "[T]here was no (1948, 1950) experience. However, even Provinces, Quebec, and much of Onta only because of the death of immature evidence of unusual mortality of black if severe winter mortality occurs somewhat rio. Substantial additional potential black ducks seems questionable at best. ducks during the late winter and early more frequently than once every ten breeding range is found in the Eastern The assertion is apparently based on spring.", and that "[l]t appears that after years, it is a natural mortality factor with United States (Fig. 2). Blandin's (1982a:2) comparative mortali the close of the hunting season black which black ducks have always contended Breeding populations have declined ty figures which show substantially ducks survived at a relatively high rate" and to which they have presumably substantially or disappeared in major higher juvenile mortality rates from hun and that "[L]ate winter and early spring adapted, and over which managers have parts of the historic breeding range, in ting for black ducks than for juvenile non-hunting mortality is not serious no practical control because of the u n cluding areas of the mid-Atlantic States, mallards. This fact is certainly cause for when viewed on a continent-wide scale." predictable and localized nature of such New England, New York, Quebec, and concern; however, when a population (Geis eta/., 1971 :66). mortality. Ontario. These declines are not, except declines by about 60%, as the black My doctoral research (concluded in As an aside, however, even if severe in a few instances, demonstrably associ duck population has, "the loss of adults 1972) suggests that more than adequate winter mortality occurs somewhat more ated with habitat changes. For example, from the breeding population due to food exists for black ducks in major frequently than once every ten years, Canadian officials have consistently hunting must have a negative impact on wintering areas, except under extremely such a situation provides no rationale or concluded, beginning at the 1968 Black the population" (Hagar 1982). In addi severe winter conditions (Grandy, 1972: justification for encouraging a high level Duck Symposium, that breeding habitat tion, as wildlife managers have long 25). Indeed, since far fewer black ducks of black duck hunting kill (as New jersey is not a limiting factor in Canada (Munro recognized, since adults are presumably are using important coastal wintering officials have suggested) on the expecta 1968:7; Reed 1968:82; Spencer, 1976). experienced breeders, they are probably grounds, as compared with 10 to 15 years tion that severe winter weather may New York State biologist Dirck Benson more successful in producing young than ago, and their habitat has not been occu sometimes follow. Indeed, wildlife man reported a similar, and increasing, trend are ducks breeding for the first time. pied by other species, it seems logical to agers typically have never managed on of vacant breeding habitat in the United Therefore, the loss of adults to the popu conclude that there must be adequate the basis of the lowest possible carrying States (Benson, 1968:14). Participants at lation is probably more debilitating to winter food and habitat. For example, no capacity, as caused by unpredictable tending the two-day Black Duck Workshop the population (per duck killed) than is one has suggested that the 52% decline and nearly random catastrophic events in Calais, Maine, in July 1976 (including the loss of immatures, and any sugges (Avg. 1972-76 com pared with Avg. 1977- such as severe winter weather. For exam FWS, CWS, State and Provincial offi tion or hypothesis that the population is 1981) in the wintering population in ple, neither deer (Odocoileus v1rg1- cials) concluded that the available infor declining only because of hunting mor Maine (Spencer, 1982: App. A) has been nianus) nor waterfowl have ever been mation indicated that Canadian breed tality of immatures should be rejected. associated with a comparable deteriora managed to attain the lowest possible ing habitat for the black duck is not a limiting factor (Spencer, 1976:6, App.:10). Other Potential Causes tion in quantity or quality of available pre-winter population based on an ana habitat. Indeed, the contrary is more lysis of the lowest possible carrying cap The FWS, officially, and others such Crissey, in his 1976 black duck re- likely true of the entire Atlantic Flyway: acity, as caused by occasional severe as New jersey officials have consistently port, concluded: stated that "other" factors are "major" still-suitable areas of habitat are unused winters. Rather, managers typically at causes of the population decline. Among or underutilized by black ducks in com tempt to manage for a high over-winter "In this respect, lack of either quan those consistently cited are deteriora parison to carrying capacity and to past population, so as to maximize reproduc tity or quality of breeding habitat tion or loss of habitat, and in the case of use levels. tion. To do otherwise would completely does not appear to be a limiting fac New jersey, severe winter mortality. Crissey (1976:6) concluded that "I remove the beneficial effects on wildlife. tor at present population levels. While some losses certainly are attribu know of nothing that supports" the con populations of genetic selection caused Rather, the high rate of reproduc table to these causes, the data suggest tention that deterioration of wintering by events such as winter mortality in tion associated with black ducks in that they are not in any sense "major", habitat is a possible cause of the black duced by food shortage, would reduce recent years is characteristic of a when compared with hunting. duck decline. the "margin for error" in traditional population that is well below the The quantity and quality of black Local winter mortality may some wildlife management, and would neces carrying capacity of its breeding duck wintering habitat has no doubt de times be substantial during severe win sitate extremely low wildlife popula habitat." (Crissey, 1976:7). tions. creased since 1955; however, the availa ters (Hagar, 1948, 1950; Grandy, 1972; Blandin, in his 1982 doctoral disser- The situation with respect to the ble evidence suggests that wintering Ferrigno (New jersey Fish and Game), tation, reaffirmed this conclusion: habitat and winter mortality are not 1982, pers. comm.; Anon., 1980:13). The quantity and quality of available breeding limiting factors for the black duck. In I.R.P. analysis noted that severe winter habitat is quite similar to that for winter "The implication for black ducks is deed, the FWS I.R.P. paper essentially mortality may occur about one year in ing habitat. The black duck breeding that although annual production concluded (in 1980) that wintering habi ten (Anon., 1980:13). My analysis of range in eastern Canada is more than may be high in response to a declin tat was sufficient for black duck popula weather patterns in New England sug 1,000,000 square miles (Reed, 1978; ing breeding population, the re tions (Anon., 1980:13). gested a somewhat greater potential fre- Spencer, 1979). It includes the eastern cruitment of young birds into the SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 11 10 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

breeding population is insufficient In Massachusetts, in 1967, 276 black l.R.P. analysis the assembled experts Among ducks, competition in the bier to attain the rate of growth inherent ducks and 216 mallards were banded by suggested that, while black duck pro logical sense seldom involves physical in the population and attainable rel state employees. In 1981, only 51 black ductivity may once have been decreased competition. To be sure, two male ducks ative to the carrying capacity of its ducks and 293 mallards were banded us by DDT-induced eggshell thinning, this of different species (i.e., mallard and habitat." (Blandin, 1982:119). ing comparable techniques, relatively influence was gone after 1978 (Anon., black duck) may fight over a given nest constant effort, and in essentially the 1980:12). This evidence strongly suggests site or territory. However, this would be Thus, Blandin and Crissey indepen same habitat (Hagar, 1982:4; Heusmann that black duck productivity is not being the exception; far more likely, either the dently concluded that breeding habitat (Mass. State Waterfowl biologist), 1982, depressed (at least below levels found in black duck or the mallard finds a par is not a limiting factor. pers. comm.). These data indicate that other species) by environmental contam ticular area already occupied. In such a Additional support for the sugges habitat is still available, and the relative inants. case, the bird not occupying the area tion that breeding habitat is not limiting ly small increase in mallards (as com Finally, it is important to put the would almost certainly be displaced but is found in recent data from Maine and pared to the relatively large decrease in problem of these other potentially lim no competition, in the physical sense, Massachusetts. Surveys of the same black ducks) cannot be the chief cause iting factors in perspective. The 19 FWS would have occurred. In either circum marsh areas in Maine "suggest a 76% of the black duck decline. The salient professional biologists and experts who stance (displacement or physical com decline in production [of young black points are that breeding black ducks are compiled the 1980 l.R.P. analysis con petition), the male and his mate would ducks] from 1956-1981" (Spencer, present in far smaller numbers than cluded that only 15% of the problem of simply try to find a suitable alternative 1982:App. B). Furthermore, "none of the previously and that suitable breeding annual mortality of black ducks winter territory and nest site. data revealed any changing trends in the habitat is apparently still available. ing on the Atlantic Coast was caused by Therein lies the essential fallacy in average brood size" (Spencer, 1982:App. Taken together, these data indicate the following seven factors taken to the view that competition for nesting B). Maine biologists (Spencer, 1983, pers. the availability of large amounts of gether: disease, predation, accidents, oil sites or territory, as suggested in official comm.) also report that there has not unused or under-utilized breeding habitat spills, contaminants, weather and cli publications of the FWS, is a cause of been any major influx of mallards into in Canada, New York, Maine, Massachu mate, and mallard hybridization and black duck decline. Much suitable high traditional black duck nesting areas and setts, and probably other areas as well. competition (Anon., 1980:4). Hybridiza quality breeding habitat is underutilized that measured declines in breeding While some local decreases in potential tion and competition are discussed in throughout the range of the black duck black ducks have not been correlated black duck production have undoubtedly the following section. Of the remainder, and has been for many years (see pages with a concomitant increase in mallards occurred due to habitat degradation and predation, most accidents, weather and 11 to 12). Hence, while competition for or any other species. Thus, the drastic destruction, essentially all of the actual climate, and most diseases are natural or displacement from a suitable territory decline in black duck production is decreased production may be attributed population forces which cannot be con must occasionally occur, there are num caused by a lack of breeders, not by to the insufficient number of breeders to trolled. Oil spills and contaminants may erous unoccupied areas available in high some factor which might be causing a occupy available habitat. certainly be important and should be quality habitat. Thus, this type of com decrease in the number of ducklings per If environmental contaminants such controlled to the extent possible; how petition cannot be a cause of the contin brood. Further, high quality nesting as DDT are a serious cause of the black ever, based on the I RP analysis and logic uing black duck population decline. areas are still available; there are not duck decline, one would expect produc they cumulatively represent at most a enough black ducks to occupy them. The word "competition" can also tivity (in terms of number of young pro small contributing factor in the decline This conclusion is buttressed by the be applied to the process of mate selec duced per breeding female) to be reduc of the black duck population. results of jerry R. Longcore, a FWS tion in ducks. Closely related species ed. This apparently has not been the waterfowl research biologist studying Relationships with Mallards such as the black duck and mallard in case. Howard Spencer, the Migratory black ducks in Maine. The preliminary The FWS in its recent official terbreed occasionally and must, on oc Bird Research Leader in Maine and results of Longcore's work show: publications suggests that another "ma casion, compete for mates. This permits Chairman of the Atlantic Flyway Black jor factor" in the black duck decline is hybridization which has always occur Duck Committee, reported the results of "[T]hat habitat quantity and quality "competition with mallards, and hybridi red on the margins of the black duck a study of brood size and production have improved substantially [in zation with mallards" (Arnett, 1982:36581). breeding range, where mallards and from 1956 to 1981, and concluded that south-central Maine] but without a While some hybridization with mallards black ducks intermingle. "none of the data revealed any changing corresponding increase in black has always occurred on the edges of the Hybridization of black ducks and (Longcore, 1981 :7). trends in brood size .... " (Spencer, 1982). duck numbers." breeding range, there is no reason to mallards, which has now reached 13% Crissey (1976) and Blandin (1982:121) conclude that either hybridization or as measured in Atlantic Flyway wing The inescapable conclusion is that likewise reported that the production competition with the mallard could be samples (Anon., 1980:13), has certainly black duck production in Maine is down rate in individual black ducks is high the "major" cause of the continuing de been exacerbated by the practice of because there are fewer black ducks (1.49 immatures per adult as estimated cline of the black duck population, for various State conservation (or fish and present to produce, not because of a from wing samples; Crissey, 1976:4) when the reasons which follow. wildlife) agencies, as well as private loss of habitat. compared with other species. Also, in the

12 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4] 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4] 1983 13 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

12 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4] 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4] 1983 13 f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

organizations, of releasing tame or the black duck breeding range where Finally, it is important to note that, 1968, 1968a; Anon., 1980:16-17; Heus "game farm" mallards. Programs such as they were not present before, that if I and the others are wrong about the mann, 1982; Spencer, 1982; Connor (quot these have been conducted by the Penn there is no evidence as yet that the current impact of mallard competition ing FWS Director Robert A. Jantzen), sylvania Game Commission, the Mary presence of mallards is inhibiting and hybridization (i.e., they are serious 1983:2). land Fish and Wildlife Agency, and the ability of blacks to reproduce. causes of the decline), the appropriate And, this guiding principle of wild groups along the Mississippi Flyway. It is a moot question whether mal management strategy is to eliminate life and black duck management is Hybridization along the margins of lards would withdraw from areas in hunter kill and allow the black duck deeply imbedded in the principles which the black duck range must, however, be to which they have extended their breeding population to increase to the presumably guide black duck and all viewed in context. The increasing per range if black ducks were allowed extent possible (presumably to carrying waterfowl management by the FWS. For centage of hybrids in the population is to increase to former levels. So, of capacity) (see: Crissey 1976:9; Smith example, then FWS Director Greenwalt caused by the decline of the black duck course, is the question of whether 1983:4). This would dilute the effect of (1976) stated in approving "stabilized population as much as by an absolute in the overall black duck breeding hybridization and at least give black regulations" that they were "designed to crease in hybrids. When the availability range is as capable of producing ducks the greatest competitive chance. protect the resource base." In the en of mates for prospective breeders has birds as it was before the mallards vironmental assessment of the stabilized been reduced, black ducks may tend to moved in. I suggest the only answer Hunting: The One Factor Managers regulations program for black ducks, breed with the more available and num to questions like these is to manage Control FWS stated that the "[l]ntegrity of the re erous mallard (where the two occur to so as to allow the black duck breeding Clearly, the possibility exists that source base will be maintained." (Anon., gether). Also, the number of hybrids, population to increase and then see my analysis and the quoted or cited ana 1976:i). Finally, the FWS, in its "Objec when tallied, will be divided by a smaller what happens." (Crissey, 1976:9). lyses of others may be in error. After all, tives of the Migratory Bird Hunting one may never know with absolute cer black duck population to achieve the Regulations" published each year (with Blandin, in his 1982 doctoral disser tainty which, among many, mortality percentage. Under this circumstance the the regulations) states as an objective: tation, came to much the same conclu factors would have killed the ducks that percentage of hybrids cannot help but "To limit harvest of migratory game sion: otherwise would have nested. show an increase. When pioneering into birds to levels compatible with their However, it is only reasonable to traditional black duck habitat, mallards "Recruitment to the breeding ability to maintain their popula assume that hunting is the likely cause are finding much of the suitable habitat population probably has been de tions." (Arnett, 1982a:16720). of a population decline (and is preven available and unoccupied by black ducks pressed by the removal of too many ting population recovery) when, as in the Yet, as Table 1 and the analyses (see pages 11 to 12). Thus, the mallard young birds. Not only does this en case of the black duck, hunting is the presented in this paper show, making will be recorded as spreading and, in the sure a declining population, but in known cause of 50 to 60 percent of total adequate and effective reduction in the terminology of some, the black duck areas where the black duck must annual mortality (Martinson eta/., 1968; kill is the one action which nearly all of will have been "displaced." But the compete with the mallard, a numer Geis eta/., 1971; Blandin, 1982, 1982a) the managers or administrators responsi cause of the increase in hybridization ically depressed breeding popula and other mortality causes have been ex ble for the black duck have consistently and displacement may not, under these tion is a decided disadvantage." amined and found to be within "rea failed to take to reverse the population circumstances, properly be attributed to (Blandin, 1982:122-123). the mallard; rather it must be attributed sonable," "normal" I im its. decline, or even maintain the population. to the substantial mortality of the black It is also important to put the cur Moreover, it is nearly axiomatic in In 1976, Anderson and Burnham duck, which has resulted in much under rent status of this problem into per wildlife management that hunting is the (1976) showed that, in some mallard utilized breeding habitat. spective. The FWS, in its official an only mortality factor that managers can populations which are subject to hunt nouncements, has described the prob control, in a practical sense. For exam ing, the phenomenon of compensatory This conclusion is not new. Crissey lem of competition and hybridization ple, Gabrielson (1941) emphasized the mortality occurs, that is: at some level concluded in his 1976 report that: with mallards as "major." However, the importance of limiting hunter kill as the of resources and population pressure, "Much has been said lately about FWS's I.R.P. strategy paper compiled by primary tool for insuring the preserva and below a certain (threshold) level of the increase in mallards in the east 19 experts concluded that only 15% of tion of adequate "breeding stock." This exploitation (kill), as the rate of hunting and the possibility that mallards are the current problem could be attributed point was again made by Trippensee (1953) mortality increases, the rate of non pushing blacks out of portions of to seven factors, only one of which was in Volume II of his textbook on wildlife hunting mortality decreases, thereby their breeding range. However, it hybridization and competition with mal management. Specifically in reference "compensating." Anderson and Burn seems evident that within the black lards (Anon., 1980:9). Thus, hybridization to the black duck, the point has been ham also noted that it may be easy for duck population as a whole there and competition with the mallard must made, implicitly and explicitly, time and kill rates to exceed these threshold productive rate is very high. This currently represent a substantially again that hunting kill is the only mor levels, particularly in areas where, or at suggests to me that although mal smaller portion of the problem of declin tality factor that can be controlled in times when, ducks are especially vulner lards are nesting now in portions of ing black ducks than 15%. the short run (see particularly Addy, able.

14 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 15 f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

14 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 15 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

Interestingly, from 1976 onward, "concepts of carrying capacity, resource TABLE 2 Estimated Retrieved Kill of Black Ducks in Canada and the United the FWS used the findings by Anderson limitation, and population regulation States, 1953-1980.1 and Burnham (1976) of some compensa through density dependent feedback tory mortality in mallards as a rationale processes" (Anderson and Burnham, or partial justification for failing to take 1976:7). In short, the phenomenon of Atlantic Mississippi Total Total Total Canada' N.A. action to restrict or close the season on compensation is based on resource limita Year Flyway Flyway U.S.' black ducks. Paraphrased, the FWS posi tion (i.e., if an animal dies of something, tion has been: "that Anderson and Burn more resources will remain for those 1953 321,500 188,200 522,700 ham found some compensatory mortality left, thereby increasing their chances of 1954 324,600 197,500 524,000 in mallards, and no one has been able to survival). However, in a population, such 1955 387,900 230,800 620,200 prove conclusively that total mortality is as the black duck's, which has declined by 1956 315,900 185,700 503,700 increased in black ducks because of hunt about 60%, and in which there is no 1957 318,200 202,100 522,000 ing. In short, there is no guarantee that evidence of resource limitation on breed 1958 276,100 168,500 447,600 the population will increase if hunting is ing areas or wintering areas (except tem 1959 183,400 123,000 307,500 stopped." (see: FWS comments in refus porarily during extremely severe winters), 1960 258,100 135,200 409,200 ing to close the 1976 black duck season there is essentially no resource limita 1961 204,800 62,900 268,700 (Anon., 1976:19)). tion on which the compensation can be 1962 214,500 47,900 262,900 Such use of Anderson and Burnham's based. Inferential support for this con 1963 215,800 70,400 287,300 work is, in my opinion, a misuse of valid clusion may be provided by the fact that 1964 234,400 96,900 332,200 scientific research. The results of Ander Blandin (1982:113), after an exhaustive 1965 217,100 97,600 315,200 son and Burnham, showing a compensa analysis of black duck banding data, 1966 281,400 114,600 397,700 tory relationship between some hunting could find no evidence of compensatory 1967 265,400 113,100 381,400 and non-hunting mortality in mallards at mortality in wintering black ducks. 1968 301,500 68,300 370,800 274,000 644,800 certain times and in certain areas does 1969 307,400 88,100 396,900 281,800 678,700 not absolve wildlife managers, and oth 1970 297,400 119,700 417,300 306,200 723,500 FWS Failure to Act: Chronology ers responsible for migratory birds, of 1971 293,100 96,000 389,300 310,200 699,600 of Events using their one major management tool 1972 236,300 117,900 355,600 290,100 645,800 (limiting or eliminating kill) in an effort As noted, the decline of the black 1973 262,700 110,900 374,300 316,700 691,000 to restore a declining population. After duck is widely recognized among knowl 1974 294,600 93,300 388,900 308,600 697,500 all, Anderson and Burnham's work could edgeable wildlife biologists. During the 1975 274,900 81,000 357,100 303,700 660,700 not in any manner be used as strong sup years since 1968, the evidence has 1976 327,400 98,000 426,200 345,400 771,600 port for a hypothesis that the black duck changed in character and in response to 1977 195,000 78,900 274,100 359,200 633,300 population decline (averaging about 2% changes in methodology; however, the 1978 262,300 74,800 337,100 378,400 714,500 per year) could not be reversed if the basic conclusions over the years have re 1979 218,700 66,500 285,220 315,400 600,700 FWS and CWS were to eliminate the 50 mained remarkably consistent. The pop 19BO 309,000 87,000 396,800 365,200 762,000 to 60 percent (Blandin, 1982a:2) of total ulation is declining and in trouble (Addy, 1968; Addy and Martinson, 1968; Geis et mortality currently caused by hunting. 'Source: Anon., (1976:28, 1983). And even if someone were to seriously a/., 1971; Crissey, 1976; Anon., 1976, 'Includes Central Flyway totals. make such a hypothesis, the only way to 1980; Blandin, 1982; Fig. 1). In spite of 'Canadian kill estimates not available prior to 1968 test it with certainty would be to close this acknowledgment, however, during the black duck hunting season and moni the period since even before 1968, there has been a lack of effective regulatory tor the population response. migratory birds may be seen by compar years from 1955 through 1958, the FWS restriction to protect black ducks. Of Moreover, there is substantial rea ing significant chronicled events with restricted the black duck season from 70 ficials and managers responsible for son to conclude that the findings of Table 1 (regulations), Figure 1 (winter in days to 40 days, and kill dropped sharp black ducks demonstrated a strong Anderson and Burnham regarding the ventory record), and Table 2 (kill record). ly. In 1960, kill rose again significantly, adherence to the status quo, while the compensatory nature of hunting and 1955-1967 and FWS again limited kill. In 1964, the black duck population continued to non-hunting mortality would not be ap In 1959, after the high U.S. black FWS began liberalizing regulations, and decline (Fig. 1, Table 1). plicable to a seriously declining popula duck kills (averaging 523,375 per year; kill of black ducks increased significantly tion I ike the black duck. The phenome The magnitude of the failure of the Table 2) that were recorded in the four (Martinson eta/., 1968:23; Table 1; Table non of compensatory mortality includes regulatory system for North American SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 17 16 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

2; Fig. 1]3. In 1967, regulations were to give credence to the long term is not a new problem but perhaps Payne; Newfoundland, Doug Gil restricted slightly (Table 1). Winter Survey figures." (Addy). occurs more frequently." (Benson lespie, Dave Pike and jim Inder]. 1968 (biologist, N.Y. Department of Con Bartlett (1963) recorded an appar "If we can agree in this meeting that In 1968, the Black Duck Sym servation), 1968:14). ent decrease in breeding popula the black duck population is and posium convened most of the then ex tion on Prince Edward Island be has been at or near its historic low perts and officials knowledgeable and "At that time [mid 1950's] hunting tween 1958 and 1961. None of the for the past several years, we concerned about black ducks. The offi regulations were then relaxed and biologists mentioned above felt should endeavor to determine why. cials were deeply troubled, as demon large kills were made. Despite a that the present situation could be In this regard, the evidence in strated by the following excerpts: high population, the rate of kill was explained by habitat loss, local dicates that harvest has been ex sufficient to boost total mortality pesticide use or other habitat fac "Recognizing the importance of the cessive in relation to production. higher than productivity and the tors. Many felt that available habi black duck to the Atlantic Flyway Kill has been the primary factor re black duck population began to de tat was underpopulated (see also and recognizing that the)species is sponsible for holding the population c/ in e. By 1959, the black duck pop Bartlett, 1963). Competition with an not maintaining itself at population down to the level that it is." (Addy). ulation was obviously at a low level expanding population of breeding levels compared to those of a few "In the last analysis, however, black and hunting regulations were made mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) has years past, the Atlantic Waterfowl duck production is the end product very restrictive. The resulting an been .suggested as a cause of de Council at its meeting of August 2 resulting from the interaction of all nual kills were small compared to c/ ine in Ontario (Cringan, 1960: see and 3, 1967, in Easton, Maryland, the positive and negative natural earlier years but still large enough, also ]ohnsgard, 1967). The consen created a Black Duck Committee to and man-made forces operating in with the much reduced size of the sus of opinion is that the size of the give added emphasis to the needs the environment and on the popula black duck population, to result in hunting kill is the most likely expla of this species. The first action of tion. Whatever the production is, a kill rate of a magnitude that ap nation." (Reed (biologist, Quebec the committee was to authorize a hunting can take only so much if pears to have prevented an increase Wildlife Service), 1968:82). symposium on the black duck for the population is to remain stable in the population." (Martinson et the purpose of bringing together "Speakers at this symposium or allowed to increase. In other a/. (biologists, FWS), 1968:50). most of the known information on generally shared the opinion that words, if the productivity of the this species and to focus attention "The thing that really emerges for the black duck population is low black duck is lower than what it used on its future needs." (Anon., 1968:1 ). me is that I cannot see where there and that wise management dictates to be, hunter harvest has to be ad is any need for more research on that we do something to increase "[T]he conclusion I arrive at is that justed accordingly." (Addy (Atlan black ducks. It seems to me that the size of the population. Most here we have survey information tic Flyway biologist and FWS em what you have been showing is that speakers also felt that hunting for a span of more than ten years ployee), 1968:3-5). the place where we need the effort regulations affect the size and rate which indicates that the status of "[T]he observed Canadian wintering is on the relation between hunting of kill and thus the survival of black the black duck has deteriorated population of black ducks decreased and the public we are dealing with. ducks. This paper outlines the regu significantly. True, we are using the by 60 percent from the early 1950's By continuing to press for studies latory measures needed in order to Winter Survey as a primary indica to the early 1960's. Meanwhile, the on production, which seems to me bring about an increase in the black tor .... On the other hand, the long U.S. wintering population decreased from the data available to be essen duck popu /ation." (Addy and Mar term trend, as portrayed by the sur about 25 percent." (Munro). tially stable looking at the total pic tinson, 1968:183). vey, may be reasonably close to be ture, we are merely trying to put off Addy and Martinson (1968:184-188) ing true. In a general way, the trend "Most field workers in Canada the evil day when we have to make went on to outline and recommend a in kill and number of hunters tend believe that the major cause of this unpalatable decisions." (Boyd (bio detailed 5-year program to restore the [black duck's] decline is over-har logist, Canadian Wildlife Service), black duck by increasing the population 'It is important to note here that the regulatory vest." (Munro). restrictions begun during the late 1950's and reaching 1968:56). by 10 percent per year by reducing kill. "most restrictive levels" during the early to mid 1960's "Most Canadian biologists are of "Although quantitative data is lack In his memorandum to the FWS sum were apparently not aimed primarily at restricting the opinion that not all available marizing the Symposium, Addy (1968a) black duck kill (except slightly during the period ing, most biologists in eastern Can habitat is being used because there stated: 1961-63). Rather, the restrictive regulations were ada feel that breeding populations are not enough black ducks to oc aimed primarily at limiting overall kill of ducks in are dec/ ining or are at least at a very "It was the consensus of the group cupy it." (Munro (biologist, Cana response to low reproduction and populations of low level (personal communica that while surveys were unreliable most prairie nesters. This may be seen by comparison dian Wildlife Service), 1968:6,7,9). tions; Ontario, Blair Dawson; New indicators of population status and of black duck restrictions (Table 1 ), overall season that no surveys gave an accurate lengths in all flyways (Anon., 1975:75), and overall "Habitat outwardly suitable to the Brunswick, Bruce Wright; Nova kill limits (Anon., 1975:94). black duck is not always used .... It Scotia, Anthony Erskine and Fred current population figure, the 19 18 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT/ STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT/ STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

2; Fig. 1]3. In 1967, regulations were to give credence to the long term is not a new problem but perhaps Payne; Newfoundland, Doug Gil restricted slightly (Table 1). Winter Survey figures." (Addy). occurs more frequently." (Benson lespie, Dave Pike and jim Inder]. 1968 (biologist, N.Y. Department of Con Bartlett (1963) recorded an appar "If we can agree in this meeting that In 1968, the Black Duck Sym servation), 1968:14). ent decrease in breeding popula the black duck population is and posium convened most of the then ex tion on Prince Edward Island be has been at or near its historic low perts and officials knowledgeable and "At that time [mid 1950's] hunting tween 1958 and 1961. None of the for the past several years, we concerned about black ducks. The offi regulations were then relaxed and biologists mentioned above felt should endeavor to determine why. cials were deeply troubled, as demon large kills were made. Despite a that the present situation could be In this regard, the evidence in strated by the following excerpts: high population, the rate of kill was explained by habitat loss, local dicates that harvest has been ex sufficient to boost total mortality pesticide use or other habitat fac "Recognizing the importance of the cessive in relation to production. higher than productivity and the tors. Many felt that available habi black duck to the Atlantic Flyway Kill has been the primary factor re black duck population began to de tat was underpopulated (see also and recognizing that the)species is sponsible for holding the population c/ in e. By 1959, the black duck pop Bartlett, 1963). Competition with an not maintaining itself at population down to the level that it is." (Addy). ulation was obviously at a low level expanding population of breeding levels compared to those of a few "In the last analysis, however, black and hunting regulations were made mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) has years past, the Atlantic Waterfowl duck production is the end product very restrictive. The resulting an been .suggested as a cause of de Council at its meeting of August 2 resulting from the interaction of all nual kills were small compared to c/ ine in Ontario (Cringan, 1960: see and 3, 1967, in Easton, Maryland, the positive and negative natural earlier years but still large enough, also ]ohnsgard, 1967). The consen created a Black Duck Committee to and man-made forces operating in with the much reduced size of the sus of opinion is that the size of the give added emphasis to the needs the environment and on the popula black duck population, to result in hunting kill is the most likely expla of this species. The first action of tion. Whatever the production is, a kill rate of a magnitude that ap nation." (Reed (biologist, Quebec the committee was to authorize a hunting can take only so much if pears to have prevented an increase Wildlife Service), 1968:82). symposium on the black duck for the population is to remain stable in the population." (Martinson et the purpose of bringing together "Speakers at this symposium or allowed to increase. In other a/. (biologists, FWS), 1968:50). most of the known information on generally shared the opinion that words, if the productivity of the this species and to focus attention "The thing that really emerges for the black duck population is low black duck is lower than what it used on its future needs." (Anon., 1968:1 ). me is that I cannot see where there and that wise management dictates to be, hunter harvest has to be ad is any need for more research on that we do something to increase "[T]he conclusion I arrive at is that justed accordingly." (Addy (Atlan black ducks. It seems to me that the size of the population. Most here we have survey information tic Flyway biologist and FWS em what you have been showing is that speakers also felt that hunting for a span of more than ten years ployee), 1968:3-5). the place where we need the effort regulations affect the size and rate which indicates that the status of "[T]he observed Canadian wintering is on the relation between hunting of kill and thus the survival of black the black duck has deteriorated population of black ducks decreased and the public we are dealing with. ducks. This paper outlines the regu significantly. True, we are using the by 60 percent from the early 1950's By continuing to press for studies latory measures needed in order to Winter Survey as a primary indica to the early 1960's. Meanwhile, the on production, which seems to me bring about an increase in the black tor .... On the other hand, the long U.S. wintering population decreased from the data available to be essen duck popu /ation." (Addy and Mar term trend, as portrayed by the sur about 25 percent." (Munro). tially stable looking at the total pic tinson, 1968:183). vey, may be reasonably close to be ture, we are merely trying to put off Addy and Martinson (1968:184-188) ing true. In a general way, the trend "Most field workers in Canada the evil day when we have to make went on to outline and recommend a in kill and number of hunters tend believe that the major cause of this unpalatable decisions." (Boyd (bio detailed 5-year program to restore the [black duck's] decline is over-har logist, Canadian Wildlife Service), black duck by increasing the population 'It is important to note here that the regulatory vest." (Munro). restrictions begun during the late 1950's and reaching 1968:56). by 10 percent per year by reducing kill. "most restrictive levels" during the early to mid 1960's "Most Canadian biologists are of "Although quantitative data is lack In his memorandum to the FWS sum were apparently not aimed primarily at restricting the opinion that not all available marizing the Symposium, Addy (1968a) black duck kill (except slightly during the period ing, most biologists in eastern Can habitat is being used because there stated: 1961-63). Rather, the restrictive regulations were ada feel that breeding populations are not enough black ducks to oc aimed primarily at limiting overall kill of ducks in are dec/ ining or are at least at a very "It was the consensus of the group cupy it." (Munro (biologist, Cana response to low reproduction and populations of low level (personal communica that while surveys were unreliable most prairie nesters. This may be seen by comparison dian Wildlife Service), 1968:6,7,9). tions; Ontario, Blair Dawson; New indicators of population status and of black duck restrictions (Table 1 ), overall season that no surveys gave an accurate lengths in all flyways (Anon., 1975:75), and overall "Habitat outwardly suitable to the Brunswick, Bruce Wright; Nova kill limits (Anon., 1975:94). black duck is not always used .... It Scotia, Anthony Erskine and Fred current population figure, the 19 18 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT/ STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT/ STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

overall Flyway population had been periods. The population decline Symposium called for major reductions 1975 declining and was probably at its was probably due to a high rate of in hunting mortality (Table 1). In 1975, the winter inventory count lowest level of the past 20 years. Pa kill associated with 70 day seasons 1973 was at the lowest level that had ever pers were presented on the various and 4 bird bag limits during 1955-58. been recorded (Fig. 1 ). factors which tend to reduce the Failure of the black duck popula In 1973, again, FWS restricted black duck regulations slightly, but still did not In 1975, I addressed the Atlantic population or lower its productivity tion to recover in recent years des Waterfowl Council meeting in Atlantic such as predation, loss of habitat, pite a lower kill is apparently due to even make them as restrictive as those that existed in 1968 (Table 1). City, New jersey. I noted that the black pollution, pesticides, and others. a continued high kill rate". (Geis et duck population was at a 21-year low 1974 However, with these factors in a/.). and asked for a moratorium on hunting operation it was generally agreed In 1974, FWS restricted black duck "The distribution of mortality to allow the population to rebuild to that hunting kill was too great for regulations slightly, but still did not even within the year was examined. The former levels. In 1975, Warren Blandin the population to maintain itself at make them as restrictive as those that ex rate at which black ducks died was prepared a paper for the Atlantic Water a high level. In fact, it was generally isted in 1968 (Table 1). 4 to 5 times greater during the hunt fowl Council and his FWS superiors in acknowledged that hunting kill is the ing season than during the remain In November of 1974, a biologist in which he noted that the increasing only major mortality factor we can do der of the year. Because there was no the FWS Migratory Bird and Habitat Re numbers of hunters had nullified much anything about at the present time." evidence of unusual mortality dur search Laboratory wrote to the Director of the effect of past reductions in season In 1968, despite the Symposium, the ing the late winter and early spring of that Laboratory after being asked to length and other regulatory restrictions. recommended kill restrictions, and Addy's it appears that after the close of evaluate the black duck winter inven Blandin proposed various alternative memorandum, FWS took no regulatory the hunting season black ducks sur tories in the Atlantic Flyway in the past types of regulatory restrictions which action to restrict kill or to provide addi vived at a relatively high rate. This 10 years. He announced that he had also would (he hoped) reduce black duck kill tional protection for the black duck finding reaffirms the importance of examined relevant kill figures. His substantially (Blandin, 1975). In 1975, (Table 1). hunting as a mortality factor and memorandum to FWS concluded: the Atlantic Waterfowl Council voted to 1969 further suggests that late winter and increase the black duck population, but "In reviewing the material compiled In 1969, FWS took no regu /a tory ac early spring nonhunting mortality is failed to recommend to the FWS any herein and in rereading the material tion to further restrict kill or to provide not serious when viewed on a conti regulatory or other action to accomplish in the black duck symposium held additional protection for the black duck nent-wide scale." (Geis eta/., 1971: the objective. at Chestertown in 1968, I am struck (Table 1). 63,66). In 1975, the FWS approved a season by what appears to be an inescapa 1970 with no more restrictions or protection In 1971, FWS permitted the same ble fact- the major amendable prob In 1970, FWS Iiberal ized black duck for the black duck than had been in place liberalized season restrictions which lem with the black duck is excessive hunting regulations allowing more op the year before. The season was exactly were in effect in 1970 (Table 1). harvest." (emphasis in original). portunity for kill by hunters. U.S. kill rose the same as 1974 (Table 1). 1972 to 417,400. This was the first time since 1976 In 1972, the Atlantic Waterfowl "It seems to me that administrators 1960 that U.S. kill had been over 400,000 In March 1976, the Atlantic Water Council's Technical Section Black Duck are at a point where they can make (Table 1, Table 2]. fowl Council black duck subcommittee sub-committee decided to encourage one of three decisions: (/) they can 1971 defined the goal: "To produce a rangewide more banding "to determine the well be recognize that the resource is in In 1971, Geis, Smith, and Rogers (all species management plan [for the black ing of black duck populations ... " and trouble and that a reduced harvest FWS biologists) concluded a major study duck] acceptable to the council." It pro greater study of wetland habitat man is necessary and opt for Martinson's of black duck population dynamics: posed no restrictions on kill (files, Office agement, including pursuit of the sug solution [Addy and Martinson, 1968], of Migratory Bird Management, Patuxent "According to the winter survey, gestion for a "habitat management sym (2) they can decide that realistically Wildlife Research Center). the continental black duck popula posium." It recommended no hunting the hunter is too powerful a consti In June of 1976, the Director of the tion declined greatly between 1952 restrictions. (Report of the sub-committee tuency to buck and continue the Migratory Bird Habitat and Research and 1962. It is believed that the to the 1972 Atlantic Waterfowl Council present regulations knowing that Laboratory, FWS, mailed to the "Black survey data correctly reflect the meeting, files, Office of Migratory Bird the population will remain perma Duck Group" (subcommittee), of the At population trend during these Management, Patuxent Wildlife Research nently depressed, and (3) they can lantic Waterfowl Council, a statement years. Although the population was Center). pass the buck by declaring the need of suggested research topics (Martin, at a lower level, and the kill much In 1972, FWS restricted black duck for more research into all phases of smaller in 1959-62 than in 1952-54, regulations slightly, but did not make black duck ecology and put off 1976). band recovery data show that kill regulations as restrictive as those that ex hard decisions for several years." In 1976, Crissey (former Director rates were equally high in the two isted in 1968, the year the Black Duck (McGilvery, 1974:1,2). (for 10 years) of the Migratory Bird

20 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 21 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

Population Station, FWS, and FWS for the next four years, so as to gather decisions are required" (Reeves, the stabilized hunting regulations for Senior Scientist) concluded that the base line data for studying the impact of 1979). black ducks for another five years black duck population was in a serious hunting on the black duck population (Anon., 198Gb) and approved the same In 1979, the FWS approved the same decline that was largely caused by hunt (Anon., 1976:1). This program was designed regulations which had been in effect in regulations which had been in effect in ing mortality: to hold the kill constant at the level for 1978 and 1979 (Table 1). previous years (Anon., 1976:13). Thus, in 1978 (Table 1). "[S]ome people would like to 1981 1976, the FWS approved the same regula 1980 believe that the decrease in black In January 1981, the winter inven tions which had been in effect in 1974 In January 1980, the black duck duck numbers since the 1950's has tory count rose slightly from its all-time and 1975, which were themselves more winter inventory was at the lowest level been due to environmental factors low. liberal than the regulations in effect that had ever been recorded (Fig. 1 ). other than shooting, and that little On July 28-29, 1981, the Atlantic when the 1968 Symposium called forma In June 1980, the FWS published its would be accomplished by reduc Waterfowl Council held its summer jor reductions in kill (Table 1). official Migratory Bird Program Manage ing the harvest. Specifically, a ment Document in which it adopted an meeting. At the meeting, Black Duck 1977 finger has been pointed at a deter explicit goal: Subcommittee Chairman Spencer (Maine's In 1977, FWS employees Martin and ioration of wintering habitat as a then Migratory Bird Research Leader) Carney (1977) showed that hunters were "21.04 Achieve by 1982, a wintering possible cause. I know of nothing discussed the draft black duck manage spending more time hunting each year, black duck population index in the which supports such a contention. ment plan and stated: thereby showing that even more hunting Rather, it seems to me that all of the U.S. of 450,000 based on a 3-year "The current survival rate informa available information favors the pressure was being put on black duck moving average of winter surveys." tion indicates that t!.e young birds hypothesis that over-harvest has populations. (Anon., 1980a:11). In 1977, the FWS approved the same are being harvested at a rate that been the most likely cause of the Unstated was the fact that the goal, regulations which had been in effect in doesn't allow the population to decline." (Crissey, 1976:6). adopted at the Black Duck Symposium 1974, 1975, and 1976 (Table 1). maintain itself." (Minutes of the in 1968 (Addy and Martinson, 1968), of Crissey suggested two alternatives: 1978 Atlantic Waterfowl Council Tech reducing kill by 10 percent per year for season closure, or substantial reductions In 1978, in spite of the four-year nical Section, Summer Meeting five years to allow restoration of the in season length to severely limit black "stabilized regulations" program put into 1981, files, Patuxent Wildlife Re species had now been unofficially aban duck mortality. effect in 1976, the FWS approved regula search Center). doned. The goal of 450,000 is a winter in In 1976, the FWS made the follow- tions which slightly liberalized the re ventory level last achieved in January, In 1981, the FWS adopted the same ing statements of note: strictions on killing of black ducks (i.e., 1969, less than one year after the Black regulations on killing of black ducks as the provision for a noon Wednesday sea "The upward trend in black duck Duck Symposium recommended, to no had been used since 1978 (Table 1). son opening, which was designed to re harvest since 1961 is statistically avail, major reductions in kill (Fig. 1). These regulations were less restrictive duce opening day hunting pressure, was significant at the .05 (95% confi In September 1980, the FWS pub than the regulations in effect in 1968, removed; Table 1). dence) level." lished the I.R.P. analysis in which it con when the Black Duck Symposium called 1979 cluded that most of the mortality caus for major reductions in hunting kill. "However, the greatly increased In 1979, a draft of the black duck ing the black duck population decline number of active hunters has more "species management plan" was provided 1982 was caused by hunting (Anon., 1980:16). than compensated for the present for review to the Atlantic Waterfowl In January 1982, the winter inven On September 25, 1980, in response reduction in season length and bag Council and the FWS. In commenting on tory went down again, this time by 6 per to another draft of the Atlantic Water limit." (Anon., 1976:9). the draft species management plan, cent, to a level of 309,600 (Fig. 1). In the fowl Council's proposed species man Henry M. Reeves, biologist and Chief, years since the FWS produced the Mi In other words, the minor reduction in agement plan for the black duck, Henry Branch of Operations, Office of Migra gratory Bird Program Management Doc season length by five days (made in M. Reeves wrote: 1973, Table 1) and the option for a tory Bird Management, FWS, concluded: ument, which adopted the objective of "It appears that we're trying to achieving a winter inventory count of "noon Wednesday opening" which was "The bullet-biting time is upon us. I avoid admitting that we have great 450,000, the FWS had taken not one reg added in 1974 (neither of which were as don't think that we can seriously concern about the status and trend ulatory action to achieve the objective restrictive as the season restrictions in consider the possibility that 30 of the species, and are reluctant to (Table 1) and had tabulated winter in the late or early 1960's) had been ren years from now the black ducks consider drastic but needed regula ventory counts as follows: 1980:281 ,480; dered ineffective by increases in the plight will be continuing ever tory measures." (Reeves, 1980). 1981:330,461; 1982:309,600. (Fig. 1 ). number of hunters. downward. The public and our "pro In 1976, the Service approved a pro fession" deserves better- even if In the fall of 1980, the FWS im In March 1982, the Service pub I ished posal to "stabilize" hunting regulations some very difficult and unpopular plemented its own proposal to extend the National Waterfowl Management Plan

22 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 23 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

22 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 23 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

for the United States, in which it stated a in essentially the same areas and with lawsuit from The Humane Society of the tion [Blandin [Atlantic Flyway new goal for the black duck: the same methods in Massachusetts by United States, the FWS stated (Potter, biologist, FWS]; Spencer [Maine state personnel decreased from 276 in 1982:41253-41254) that it would take "nec Migratory Bird Research Leader and "[3) Achieve an upward trend in 1967 to 51 in 1981. In the same period, essary and desirable action" in 1983 "to Chairman, Black Duck Comm., At black duck populations as meas the number of mallards banded increased effectively reduce hunting pressure". lantic Waterfowl Council]; Com ured by the winter survey." (Anon., from 216 to 293. These figures suggest that In 1982, biologists and administra ments at the Atlantic Waterfowl 1982:20). the number of breeding black ducks has tors in Maine felt so strongly about the Council meeting, Charleston, S.C., july 1982). Now gone from FWS planning was decreased alarmingly in Massachusetts decline of the black duck that even (Hagar, 1982). Hagar concluded that hunt any suggestion that the Service would though overall U.S. waterfowl manage [2) It is the maximum reduction ing is a significant contributing cause of impose kill restrictions, such as those ment is the responsibility of FWS, they which State Fish and Came Direc the black duck decline. proposed at the Black Duck Symposium, recommended that Maine close the sea tors in the Atlantic Flyway will ac to restore the black duck population. In the summer of 1982, Dr. Warren son unilaterally. Maine officials de cept [Statements made by Atlantic Gone even was the goal of raising the W. Blandin, Atlantic Flyway biologist, clined because they felt it would be un Flyway State Waterfowl biologists winter inventory to 450,000. In the FWS, completed and made available to fair to Maine hunters unless the FWS at the Marc~ 1983 meeting of A tlan March 1982 plan, the FWS was apparent the FWS his doctoral dissertation. Based closed the season in the other Atlantic tic Waterfowl Council, Technical ly content to "achieve an upward trend on his experience, years of FWS banding Flyway States. As a compromise, Maine Section, Torrington, Conn.). in the black duck population as meas data, and modelling techniques, Dr. took action designed to reduce the kill In other words, neither the FWS (Potter, ured by the winter survey." Blandin concluded that hunting through in Maine by about 50%. Three other New 1983) nor any other Atlantic Flyway On April19, 1982, Howard Spencer, out the principal breeding range of the England States also felt strongly enough state conservation agency has given any as Migratory Bird Research Leader of species was causing the population de about the black duck decline to take rationale (or data) suggesting that the Maine, published a memorandum enti cline (Blandin, 1982:122-123). Blandin minimal restrictive action on their own. 12% reduction in total kill was selected tled "Black Ducks: A Statement of Con recommended hunting restrictions (Blan 1983 because it is a number designed to cern." He noted that kill of black ducks din, 1982:160-161 ). In January of 1983, the winter in achieve restoration of the population. in Maine had dropped substantially des In summer 1982, Howard Spencer, ventory was at the lowest level ever re Indeed, the Maine Chapter of the Wild pite the fact that hunting pressure was Chairman of the Black Duck Subcommit corded (Fig. 1 ). life Society (a North American organiza essentially constant at about 100,000 tee, submitted the Black Duck Manage In the spring of 1983, the FWS an tion representing many professional wild hunter days. He also presented data ment Plan (which had been six years in nounced a new objective for black life biologists) in a 1983 statement, noted showing for Maine that: the breeding preparation) to the Atlantic Waterfowl ducks: to stop the downward population that there is no biological reason for be black duck population had declined Council members for consideration at trend as measured by the winter inven lieving that such a reduction in total kill 76%; the wintering population had de their upcoming meeting. In the plan, the tory (Smith, 1983:4). Now gone, and un is sufficient to achieve restoration of the clined substantially; and fewer than Subcommittee concluded: acknowledged, were the objectives of black duck population (Spencer, 1983, 45% of young black ducks banded in Harvest restrictions will be (1982) achieving an upward trend, (1980) pers. comm.; see also Anon., 1983a). The Maine survive to breed. Spencer recom necessary and should be imposed achieving a 450,000 winter index level, Maine Chapter went on to recommend a mended that Maine close the black duck for at least a five-year period begin and (1968) restoring the population. three year moratorium on all black duck season (Spencer, 1982; Maine, 1982). ning with the 1982 hunting season." In the spring of 1983, the FWS an hunting in the Atlantic Flyway. In early summer 1982, H. W. Heus (emphasis in original). (Spencer, nounced plans to reduce kill of black Finally, with the spring 1983 an mann, the waterfowl biologist for Mas 1982a:15). ducks by 25% in each U.S. State of the nouncement from FWS that black duck sachusetts, reported continuing and ser Atlantic Flyway where annual kill cur kill will be reduced by 25% in Atlantic ious declines of black ducks in Massa On July 29, 1982, the Black Duck rently exceeds 5,000 black ducks. This Flyway States (12% overall) comes rec chusetts (Heusmann, 1982:14-19). These Management Plan was presented to the would amount to a reduction in kill of ognition that the FWS has now essential and other relevant data were summarized Atlantic Waterfowl Council for approv some 12 percent overall since only about ly reneged on the statement published in by Joseph A. Hagar, former Massachu al. After discussion, the Council voted to 50 percent of total kill occurs in the the March 1982 National Waterfowl Man setts State Ornithologist and an ac accept the plan, but to put off consider United States (Table 2). Moreover, the 25 agement plan: ation of any restrictions on kill until next knowledged authority on black ducks. percent reduction in State kill was adopted year. The data show a 45% decline between solely for the following reasons: "Current harvest regulations pro 1980 and 1981 in kill of black ducks by On September 17, 1982, the FWS an vide nearly all the regulatory safe hunters, while the number of hunters de nounced the same regulations which had [1) It is the minimum reduction in guards possible for the species short clined by only 2%. Similarly, the num been in effect the previous year[Table 1). kill which biologists believe they of complete closure." (Anon., 1982: ber of black ducks banded in preseason However, in response to the threat of a can make and measure the reduc- 8).

24 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 25 ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

24 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 25 Monograph f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management

Thus throughout the period of the ment-a failure which should never be ture, we are merely trying to put off gratory Bird Management, Patux 60% black duck decline, the FWS con repeated. the evil day when we have to make ent Wildlife Research Center). sistently: (1) ignored its own self-ex Reasons for the failure of the FWS unpalatable decisions." (Boyd (bio The above quotes from experienced pressed duty (see p. 15) and black duck and officials responsible for the black logist, Canadian Wildlife Service), FWS biologists indicate that one reason population goals, (2) failed to follow the duck to "bite the bullet" and provide 1968:56). for the failure of the management com advice of its own officials and experts, necessary protection for the black duck "It seems to me that administrators munity to take effective protective ac and (3) failed to take sufficient protective can only be inferred from the official are at a point where they can make tion for the black duck is the necessity action to reverse the population decline literature of those involved. Obviously, one of three decisions: (1) they can for making "hard" or "unpalatable" or and restore the species. no employees, even mavericks, inside a recognize that the resource is in "difficult" decisions. This reference is governmental agency can spend much trouble and that a reduced harvest primarily to the fact that the black duck Reasons for FWS Failure to time criticizing the official position of is necessary and opt for Martinson's is a species highly desired by hunters. Take Action their employer and still be employed. [Addy and Martinson, 1968] solu Decisions described as "hard" or "un And, most potential employers in the palatable" mean decisions which hunt The question remains, WHY? Why tion, (2) they can decide that realis wildlife management field are linked di ers would find hard to accept or unpal has the FWS allowed this situation to tically the hunter is too powerful a rectly or indirectly through contribu atable. Hunters, being the primary influ develop without taking corrective ac constituency to buck and continue tions of funds, cooperative working rela ential constituency of State fish and tion? Why has FWS ignored the guiding the present regulations knowing tionships, professional societies, and wildlife agencies and the FWS, have an tenet of wildlife management that the that the population will remain per other similar "ties that bind." While inordinate influence over decisions, and first duty is to preserve and protect the manently depressed, and (3) they these ties are essential for the timely if administrators believe that many hunt population base? Why has FWS consis can pass the buck by declaring the transfer of information among profes ers will find a prospective decision un tently ignored the principle that mortali need for more research into all sionals and interest groups, they also palatable, there will be- as there has ty due to sport hunting is the one form phases of black duck ecology and tend, in my experience, to inhibit critical been in the case of the black duck- an of mortality that wildlife managers can put off hard decisions for several analyses of the management actions of aversion to making the decision. control? Why has FWS consistently ig years." (McGilvery (biologist, FWS), one's associates. Yet, some candid and In the case of the black duck, this nored the best recommendations and 1974). revealing remarks bear repeating for unpalatability would be heightened by suggestions of its own experts that hunt their illustrative value. "The bullet-biting time is upon us. I the fact that even though the black duck ing be severely limited to allow the don't think that we can seriously population has declined markedly, it is population to rebuild to the extent "The thing that really emerges for consider the possibility that 30 still very important in the average "hunter's possible? After all, the annual kill of me is that I cannot see where there years from now the black ducks bag" (and is one of a relatively small black ducks is about 700,000; hunting is any need for more research on plight will be continuing ever number of ducks to shoot) throughout causes between 50 and 60 percent of the black ducks. It seems to me that downward. The public and our 'pro the New England states. In other words, total annual mortality; and the popula what you have been showing is that fess ion' deserves better- even if even though the black duck population tion has continued its gradual decline the place where we need the effort some very difficult and unpopular has declined by about 60%, hunters in and will undoubtedly never be able to is on the relation between hunting decisions are required." (Reeves New England and as far south as New recover its population (even if hunting and the public we are dealing with. (biologist, FWS), 1979). jersey still "see a lot". Hunters would, it mortality ends immediately) in some By continuing to press for studies has been widely perceived, be "upset" if portions of its former range from which on production, which seems to me "We should consider the hunter they "see a lot" of black ducks and can it has been eliminated. With all this from the data available to be essen and the species collectively. We not shoot them. Thus as the Blandin evidence, the question remains: why has tially stable looking at the total pic- say we want to improve the status quote makes clear, one reason for fail this been allowed to happen? 4 And the of the black duck and if we do, we ing to take action, and defending the answer, while it is perhaps best exempli 'The question, it should be noted, is not whether are not going to do it by defending status quo, has been the desire to "keep fied by the case of the black duck, is the information available in any year noted in the the current status to keep the sports the sportsman happy". also important for many other species of chronology was later proven to be accurate in every respect or was the best that could ever have man happy because we are progres American wildlife, because this case is "Sixth, there is a question about been obtained. The fact is that at essentially each sively taking it away from them by not an anomaly. year, the best information available at the time and doing so." (Blandin (Atlantic Fly how a reduction in harvest should And, even if the FWS and other offi the expert opinion of FWS personnel and others in way Biologist), comments in the be accomplished- and at this point cials reconsider in 1983, and close the dicated that the black duck population was declin Minutes of the Atlantic Waterfowl politics rears its ugly head." (Cris ing and in trouble; yet the FWS and other officials sey (former FWS Chief of Migrato black duck season, the record of inac failed and often refused to take effective regulato Council Technical Session Summer ry Bird Management), 1976:8). tion will still have been a classic as a ry action to protect the black duck. The question Meeting (1981 ), files, Office of Mi- failure of modern day wildlife manage- is: why did the failure occur? 27 26 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 Monograph f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management

Thus throughout the period of the ment-a failure which should never be ture, we are merely trying to put off gratory Bird Management, Patux 60% black duck decline, the FWS con repeated. the evil day when we have to make ent Wildlife Research Center). sistently: (1) ignored its own self-ex Reasons for the failure of the FWS unpalatable decisions." (Boyd (bio The above quotes from experienced pressed duty (see p. 15) and black duck and officials responsible for the black logist, Canadian Wildlife Service), FWS biologists indicate that one reason population goals, (2) failed to follow the duck to "bite the bullet" and provide 1968:56). for the failure of the management com advice of its own officials and experts, necessary protection for the black duck "It seems to me that administrators munity to take effective protective ac and (3) failed to take sufficient protective can only be inferred from the official are at a point where they can make tion for the black duck is the necessity action to reverse the population decline literature of those involved. Obviously, one of three decisions: (1) they can for making "hard" or "unpalatable" or and restore the species. no employees, even mavericks, inside a recognize that the resource is in "difficult" decisions. This reference is governmental agency can spend much trouble and that a reduced harvest primarily to the fact that the black duck Reasons for FWS Failure to time criticizing the official position of is necessary and opt for Martinson's is a species highly desired by hunters. Take Action their employer and still be employed. [Addy and Martinson, 1968] solu Decisions described as "hard" or "un And, most potential employers in the palatable" mean decisions which hunt The question remains, WHY? Why tion, (2) they can decide that realis wildlife management field are linked di ers would find hard to accept or unpal has the FWS allowed this situation to tically the hunter is too powerful a rectly or indirectly through contribu atable. Hunters, being the primary influ develop without taking corrective ac constituency to buck and continue tions of funds, cooperative working rela ential constituency of State fish and tion? Why has FWS ignored the guiding the present regulations knowing tionships, professional societies, and wildlife agencies and the FWS, have an tenet of wildlife management that the that the population will remain per other similar "ties that bind." While inordinate influence over decisions, and first duty is to preserve and protect the manently depressed, and (3) they these ties are essential for the timely if administrators believe that many hunt population base? Why has FWS consis can pass the buck by declaring the transfer of information among profes ers will find a prospective decision un tently ignored the principle that mortali need for more research into all sionals and interest groups, they also palatable, there will be- as there has ty due to sport hunting is the one form phases of black duck ecology and tend, in my experience, to inhibit critical been in the case of the black duck- an of mortality that wildlife managers can put off hard decisions for several analyses of the management actions of aversion to making the decision. control? Why has FWS consistently ig years." (McGilvery (biologist, FWS), one's associates. Yet, some candid and In the case of the black duck, this nored the best recommendations and 1974). revealing remarks bear repeating for unpalatability would be heightened by suggestions of its own experts that hunt their illustrative value. "The bullet-biting time is upon us. I the fact that even though the black duck ing be severely limited to allow the don't think that we can seriously population has declined markedly, it is population to rebuild to the extent "The thing that really emerges for consider the possibility that 30 still very important in the average "hunter's possible? After all, the annual kill of me is that I cannot see where there years from now the black ducks bag" (and is one of a relatively small black ducks is about 700,000; hunting is any need for more research on plight will be continuing ever number of ducks to shoot) throughout causes between 50 and 60 percent of the black ducks. It seems to me that downward. The public and our 'pro the New England states. In other words, total annual mortality; and the popula what you have been showing is that fess ion' deserves better- even if even though the black duck population tion has continued its gradual decline the place where we need the effort some very difficult and unpopular has declined by about 60%, hunters in and will undoubtedly never be able to is on the relation between hunting decisions are required." (Reeves New England and as far south as New recover its population (even if hunting and the public we are dealing with. (biologist, FWS), 1979). jersey still "see a lot". Hunters would, it mortality ends immediately) in some By continuing to press for studies has been widely perceived, be "upset" if portions of its former range from which on production, which seems to me "We should consider the hunter they "see a lot" of black ducks and can it has been eliminated. With all this from the data available to be essen and the species collectively. We not shoot them. Thus as the Blandin evidence, the question remains: why has tially stable looking at the total pic- say we want to improve the status quote makes clear, one reason for fail this been allowed to happen? 4 And the of the black duck and if we do, we ing to take action, and defending the answer, while it is perhaps best exempli 'The question, it should be noted, is not whether are not going to do it by defending status quo, has been the desire to "keep fied by the case of the black duck, is the information available in any year noted in the the current status to keep the sports the sportsman happy". also important for many other species of chronology was later proven to be accurate in every respect or was the best that could ever have man happy because we are progres American wildlife, because this case is "Sixth, there is a question about been obtained. The fact is that at essentially each sively taking it away from them by not an anomaly. year, the best information available at the time and doing so." (Blandin (Atlantic Fly how a reduction in harvest should And, even if the FWS and other offi the expert opinion of FWS personnel and others in way Biologist), comments in the be accomplished- and at this point cials reconsider in 1983, and close the dicated that the black duck population was declin Minutes of the Atlantic Waterfowl politics rears its ugly head." (Cris ing and in trouble; yet the FWS and other officials sey (former FWS Chief of Migrato black duck season, the record of inac failed and often refused to take effective regulato Council Technical Session Summer ry Bird Management), 1976:8). tion will still have been a classic as a ry action to protect the black duck. The question Meeting (1981 ), files, Office of Mi- failure of modern day wildlife manage- is: why did the failure occur? 27 26 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

Crissey's quote brings up another Flyway and in Maine, and so recom numbers may not be a reality (i.e., maintained that their first duty was to reason for failing to act: politics. In the mended (Spencer, 1982; Maine, 1982; comments on quality of winter sur protect and preserve viable wildlife case of setting regulations, political in Discussions at Atlantic Waterfowl Coun vey on p. 8-9) and that hunting may populations, presumably throughout their fluence can take a wide variety of forms. cil meeting, S\Jmmer, 1982). Atlantic not be preventing population in ranges. Yet, the resistance to making The most basic one is the one to which Flyway waterfowl biologists could all crease (p. 18). Those two points will necessary restrictions engendered by Crissey alludes: perceived political equi agree that at least some restrictions on be our main defense against exter this fear is tantamount to putting the ty. Each state and indeed each country kill were necessary beginning in 1982 nal pressures for closure and other welfare of hunters and hunting above in the Atlantic Flyway wants to be treated and so recommended (Spencer, 1982a:15). attacks which could prevent us the welfare of the black duck popula equally, politically. One state does not However, at the Atlantic Waterfowl from implementing the plan." tions in question. For example, this fear want to take action that will make its Council summer meeting (where all (Reed (biologist, Canadian Wildlife is, in my opinion, a major reason why the hunters unhappy and will benefit the states in the Atlantic Flyway met to Service), 1980: comments in a let FWS in 1983 is suggesting an admittedly other states, unless the other states take "agree" on seasons to be recommended ter to Spencer concerning a draft minimum reduction (12%) in total kill a similar action. The same analogy ap to FWS), some states (most notably New of the black duck management plan). (see page 25) in spite of the March 1982 Na plies somewhat less rigidly to actions of jersey) objected to any restrictions in tional Waterfowl Management Plan state This quote elucidates another the U.S. and Canada. 1982. The FWS did not want to force ment that : reason for failing to protect the black This reaction, which is fully under restrictions without agreement from the duck which is particularly ironic. My "Current harvest regulations pro standable as a matter perceived politi states and some protective action from analysis of the quote, based on my ex vide nearly all the regulatory safe cal equity, is a major deterrent to having Canada. The result was that the Atlantic perience, is that the author is thanking guards possible for the species short the individual states in the Atlantic Waterfowl Council voted (the lowest Spencer (as Black Duck Committee Chair of complete closure." (Anon., 1982:8). Flyway agree on a common plan of ac common denominator) to put off any restrictions until at least 1983. man of the Atlantic Waterfowl Council) tion. The problem is that political equity Ironically, in a case like the black duck Subsequently, Maine refused to for not emphasizing the decline por or equality often does not comport with where the population has declined marked close the season in 1982 because politi trayed by the winter inventory and not biological necessity or management ly, such fear-engendered-action (or inac cal officials in Maine believed it would emphasizing the negative impact which needs. tion) only gives anti-hunters and non be "unfair" to Maine's hunters unless hunting kill (50 to 60 percent of total As an hypothetical example, some hunters more reasons to be against hunting. the other Atlantic flyway states also mortality) was almost certainly having states may not wish to reduce kill of There is, in my view, another reason closed the season (see: newspaper arti on the population. The author notes that black ducks, because (inter alia) they do for the FWS failure to act which is ap cle quoting Maine Fish and Wildlife these two points will be the main de not have many black ducks and their parent from the information at hand. Commissioner Manuel by Brian Thayer, fense against efforts to close the black hunters cannot distinguish them from The black duck decline occurred slowly, Maine Sunday Telegram, August 15, 1982, duck hunting season (so that Canada can other ducks, or because they have "plen except in the late 1950's (Fig. 1). FWS page 7B, (files, Office of Migratory Bird implement "the plan", which called for ty" and want their hunters to shoot them personnel and others, as scientists, did Management, FWS, Washington D.C.)). relatively modest reductions in black regardless of the overall status of the duck kill (Spencer, 1982a)). not want to "overreact", particularly in Maine's "compromise" was to adopt population. In such circumstances, the In my view, the reason for the au light of political pressures and group regulations designed to reduce the kill easiest and most common reaction is for thor's concern is an increasingly appar pressure to maintain the status quo or by about 50%. The regulations they the states to maintain the status quo or ent fear in much of the wildlife manage adopt the "lowest common denomina adopted were designed to avoid, as adopt a solution which represents the ment community of closing hunting sea tor" (see page 28). For that reason, begin much as possible, shooting black ducks "lowest common denominator". And sons. In the black duck situation, the ning with the serious advocacy of major that bred or were hatched in Maine, the detrimental impact of this pheno fear of many officials of closing the sea restrictions on black duck hunting (as while allowing hunters to kill migrants menon is compounded since, for what son is that the season may never be re represented by the 1968 Black Duck from Canada. Such a decision made per ever reasons, the FWS consistently fails opened, the "anti-hunting element" may Symposium), cautious and politically fect political sense for Maine, but large to exert "leadership" on any group of be credited with a victory, and/or the aware officials resisted making the rec ly ignored the needs of the black duck. state fish and wildlife agencies unless it agencies affected will lose support and/ ommended restrictions, and they were Indeed, throughout the process, the obtains unanimous or nearly unanimous or revenues (since hunter constituencies not made. Officials began to rationalize, needs of the black duck had been con agreement beforehand. and/or I icense fees are very important to in spite of the continuing population de I sistently relegated to a lower status than For example, consider what occur- FWS, CWS, and State and Provincial agen cline, and to develop "reasons" for not preserving the status quo and attaining red in setting the 1982-83 black duck cies). taking regulatory action to protect black the lowest common denominator. season in the Atlantic flyway. Maine The point is, however, that, all ducks and stop the population decline biologists believed that the black duck "I am pleased with the way you arguments about hunting and anti-hunt (see: for example, Anon., 1975; 1976; Pot season should be closed throughout the show that the apparent decline in ing aside, wildlife biologists have always ter, 1982, 1983; Arnett, 1982).

28 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 29 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

28 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 29 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

Eventually, having these rationali have annually accounted for be selves The Friends of the Black principles." (Williams, 1976:34- 35). zations continue to be accepted and be tween 15 and 25 percent of the pop Duck, argued for a brief morato Although Williams utilizes rhetoric lieved became, in my view, a matter on ulation, certainly a significant rium on black duck hunting, citing and broad generalizations which rely, in which those involved felt that their pro chunk when you consider the other 21 years of dwindling winter counts this quotation, on some points which are fessional integrity or credibility depended. pressures on the species. Further as evidence of the need, they were technically inaccurate, his broad con For example, to finally admit that the more, in the current black duck informed by the management com clusions are, in my view, compelling and population was declining or in trouble population there is an abnormally plex that the counts were unreli- · essentially accurate. Unfortunately, Wil would have been to "lose face" or lose high percentage of juveniles- a able. Managers can't have it both liams omits, probably because of his professional credibility. At that point, solid indication in any species of ways. Winter counts can't be effec familiarity with the regulatory process, the arguments became nearly self-gene heavy mortality among adults. Al tive tools for modern game manage substantial and critical portions of the rating. Each rationalization for not tak though the daily bag limit was cut ment when they want to sell li analysis. First, the black duck is val ing action begat another rationalization from four to two quite a while after censes, and worthless guesstimates uable: even in reduced numbers, it is for not taking regulatory action. it became evident that the black when someone wants to limit im still the prize duck for hunters in New These rationalizations have now re duck was in serious trouble, the mediate hunting opportunity. England states. Put another way, many versed the wildlife manager's duty, as number of black duck hunters has hunters prize the black duck above all expressed by Gabrielson (1941) and num since doubled. Thus despite the at "When the conservation group communicated their concern over other species (Hagar, 1982), because it is erous others, to take action to I im it ki II tempted cutback, the rate of har the black duck's plight to some of wary and reputedly difficult to kill. Fur as the major technique to preserve pop vest has essentially remained con game thermore, many hunters view success in ulations. And, the concepts of Gabriel stant. As one courageous federal the fish and departments in killing a black duck as an indication of son and the others are fully imbedded in waterfowl biologist publicly de the Atlantic Flyway they received their skill as hunters. Thus, the black the FWS principles guiding migratory clared .... lncreased hunting pressure the most curious responses- to the effect that the black was such a duck is valuable, beyond any monetary bird management: has nullified much of the manage ment effort. Administrators must popular game species that hunters value; to the individual hunter who es "To limit harvest of migratory game decide on a population objective couldn't be asked to refrain from teems the black duck as a trophy, prize, birds to levels compatible with their for the black duck. If they sanction shooting out the resource. Typical or symbol of excellence. For avid hunt ability to maintain their popula a program of population increase, of this doublethink was the aston ers who do not know or do not care about the decline of the black duck, tions." (Arnett, 1982a:16720). they must recognize that the meas ishing declaration of the Migratory Bird Research Leader of Maine. 'I'm there is a powerful lobby for continued Yet, the FWS now supports its decision ures necessary to achieve that ob sure you're aware,' said he, 'that the or increased hunting of black ducks; not to close the 1983 black duck season jective will hurt! black duck is the only significant even hunters who do know and do care by stating: "Sadly, however, the management puddle duck in most of the North will be intimidated from taking on their bosses who dictate fish and wildlife "There is no demonstrable cause east and to deprive Maine hunters of fellow hunters and changing the status policy lack self- discipline. The pro and effect relationship between any chance to harvest some would quo. blem is that they are funded almost harvest /eve/ and the size of the create very serious sociological Furthermore, the black duck is of entirely by sportsmen- the very continental black duck population." problems.' (Emphasis added.) critical value- or is thought to be of party they are obligated to regulate (Potter, 1983:27802). critical value- to the State fish and and educate. Imagine the curricu "The trouble with fish and game wildlife (or conservation) agencies of the An analysis of the final, and over lum at a school where the children departments these days is that they individual states in New England. Li riding, reason for the failure of the FWS signed the teachers' paychecks. The don't manage fish and game, they cense fees largely support the opera regulatory system with respect to the current set-up is as unfair to sports manage sportsmen; and they aren't tions of these agencies. It is widely be black duck was conducted in 1976 by men- whose long-term best inter staffed by biologists, they're staffed lieved in much of New England that if Ted Williams (former editor of the Mas ests are not being served- as it is to by sociologists. The concern is not hunters could not hunt black ducks, sachusetts Fish and Wildlife Agency non-sporting conservationists who for the problems of the black duck many would not hunt, thus substantially magazine, in the Massachusetts Wildlife) are denied representation in conser hunter of 1980. It is for the appetites reducing the revenues that pay for sal prestigious hunting journal Gray's Sport vation decision making. of the vociferous, a typical black aries and programs of the agencies. And ing journal. Williams concluded: "Managers have traditionally duck hunter of the moment- the one inevitably in the Atlantic Waterfowl Coun "And indeed, it appears that the employed winter counts as a tool breathing down the manager's cil, there is the feeling that "I'll help you management complex has permitted for setting waterfowl seasons. Yet, neck. Such is the effect of special with your seasons (and license fees), if the black to be sorely overshot. Since last year when a group of conserva interest funding on professional you help me with mine." the peak in the mid-fifties, hunters tion organizations, calling them-

30 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 31 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph ]. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

30 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 31 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Manaf!ement Monograph

Conclusion Literature Cited of Migratory Bird Management, Wash., fowl Council, Summer 1975. 9pp. + D.C. 20240. 43pp. tables + App. The key to the failure of the Addy, C.E. (1968) General review. In Anon. (1980b) Stabi I ized season lengths Blandin, W.W. (1982) Population charac regulatory system is, in my view, the real Barske, P. (ed.). The black duck eval and basic bag limits for hunting ducks. teristics and simulation modelling of or perceived value of black ducks to the uation, management, and research: a Environmental Assessment. U.S.D.I., black ducks. Ph.D. Dissertation, Clark hunter or to the bureaucracy which is symposium. Atlantic Waterfowl Coun FWS, Office of Migratory Bird Manage Univ., Worcester, Mass. 345pp. dependent upon hunting license fees and/ cil and Wildlife Management Institute ment, Wash., D.C. 20240. 16pp. Blandin, W.W. (1982a) Summary of the (pub.): 2-5. or a hunter constituency. Without the Anon. (1982) National waterfowl manage black duck banding data analysis. Un value of license fees there would be lit Addy, C.E. (1968a) Summary of the black ment plan for the United States. pub. Ms. presented to the Atlantic tle concern over closing a season. With duck symposium held March 5, 1968, U.S.D.l., FWS, Office of Migratory Waterfowl Council, Summer 1982. out the value, there would not be an in at Remington Farms, Chestertown, Md. Bird Management, Wash., D.C. 20240. Files, Office of Migratory Bird Manage fluential constituency composed almost Unpub. Memo. Files, Office of Migra (March 1982). 32pp + App. ment, FWS, Wash., D.C. 20240. 9pp. solely of hunters. Without the value, the tory Bird Management, FWS, Patuxent Anon. (1983) Public information package + tables. political pressure would not be for equi Wildl. Res. Centr., Laurel, Md. 20708. concerning black ducks. U.S.D.I., FWS, Boyd, H. (1968) Comment during discus ty in opportunities to kill, but rather for 2pp. Office of Public Affairs, Wash., D.C. sion. In The black duck evaluation, re preserving the species. Without the val Addy, C.E., and Martinson, R.K. (1968) Epi 20240. Unnumbered looseleaf pages. search, and management: a symposium. ue, politicians and others would not feel logue. In Barske, P. (ed.). The black Anon. (1983a) Preliminary comments of Barske, P. (ed.). Atlantic Waterfowl the same political pressures for preserv duck evaluation, management, and re the Humane Society of the United Council and Wildlife Management In ing the status quo and building ration search: a symposium. Atlantic Water States on the regulations setting pro stitute. (pub.): 56. alizations. fowl Council and Wildlife Management cess for black ducks for the 1983-84 Connor, I. (1983) Campaign launched by In case after case, to varying de Institute (pub.): 183-189. waterfowl season. (April 14, 1983). Service, States to support black duck. grees, this pattern of yielding to vocal U.S.D.I., FWS. Fish and Wildlife News Anderson, D.R., and Burnham, K.P. (1976) H.S.U.S., 2100 L St., N.W., Wash., D.C. consumptive interests (or just failing to (Feb.-March 1983): 2-3. Population ecology of the mallard VI. 20037. 9pp. take action) to the detriment of wildlife Crissey, W.F. (1976) Status of the black The effect of exploitation on survival. Arnett, G.R. (1982) Migratory bird hunt has become apparent wherever the wild duck population. Unpub. Ms. Files, U.S.D.I., FWS, Resource Publication ing; proposed frameworks for late life species at issue is perceived as val Office of Migratory Bird Management, 128. 66pp. season migratory bird hunting regula uable for recreational, trophy or com tions. U.S.D.l., FWS. Federal Register FWS, Wash., D.C. 20240. 17pp. Anon. (1968) Preamble. In Barske, P. (ed.). mercial purposes, or is perceived as hav V.47, #162 (Aug. 20, 1982): 36578-36590. Gabrielson, I.N. (1941) Wildlife conserva The black duck evaluation, manage ing great significance for generating Arnett, G.R. (1982a) Proposed 1982-83 tion. The Macmillian Co., N.Y., N.Y. ment, and research: a symposium. At hunter interest and license fees; and migratory game bird hunting regula 250pp. lantic Waterfowl Council and Wildlife wherever active demand exceeds the tions (preliminary). U.S.D.I., FWS. Fed Geis, A.D., Smith, R.I., and Rogers, J.P. Management Institute (pub.): 1. capacity of the species for regeneration. eral Register V.47, #75 (April19, 1982): (1971) Black duck distribution, harvest Anon. (1975) Issuance of annual regulations This pattern has been apparent most re 16718-16731. characteristics, and survival. U.S.D.I., permitting the sport hunting of migra cently with respect to bobcats (Lynx ru Barske, P. (ed.). (1968) The black duck FWS. Spec. Sci. Rept.-Wildl. #139. tory birds. Final Environmental Im fus) and east coast striped bass (Roccus evaluation, management, and research: 241 pp. saxatilis), and is becoming increasingly pact Statement. U.S.D.I., FWS, Office a symposium. Atlantic Waterfowl Grandy, J.W. (1972) Winter ecology of mari apparent with respect to regulations of Migratory Bird Management, Wash., Council and Wildlife Management In time black ducks (Anas rubripes) in concerning highly sought-after species D.C. 20240. 228pp. stitute (pub.) 193pp. Massachusetts, with special reference of waterfowl such as mallards, canvas Anon. (1976) Proposed [stabilized] hunt Benson, D. (1968) Historical and current to Nauset Marsh, Orleans and East backs (Aythya valisineria), and pintails ing regulations on black ducks. Envi status: United States situation. In Bar ham. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Mass., (Anas acuta acuta), all of which are cur ronmental Assessment. U.S.D.I., FWS. ske, P. (ed.). The black duck evalua Amherst. 111 pp. rently at or near historic low population Office of Migratory Bird Management, tion, management, and research: a sym Grandy, JW. (1982) Affidavit filed with levels, and all of which have been sub Wash., D.C. 20240. 45pp. posium. Atlantic Waterfowl Council the FWS in the 1982 rulemaking pro ject to essentially the same regulations Anon. (1980) Important resource problem ·and Wildlife Management Institute ceeding for black duck hunting regula for many years. strategy paper: black duck- coastal (pub.): 11-15. tions (Aug. 30, 1982). Files, Humane So Unless corrective action is taken, mid-Atlantic (IRP #504). Habitat Preser Blandin, W.W. (1975) The black duck: sta ciety of the United States, 2100 L St., black duck-like regulatory failures will in vation, Region 5, FWS, Newton Corner, tus, management objectives, and alter N.W., Wash., D.C. 20037. 45pp. crease if waterfowl and other wildlife pop Ma. 02158. 19pp. native actions. U.S.D.I., FWS Unpub. Green, J.H. (1982) Memorandum opinion ulations decline, while hunter pressure Anon. (1980a) Program management Ms. presented to the Atlantic Water- [of U.S. Dist. Court, Washington, D.C. on and demand for the species remain document. Migratory birds program. high. (June 20, 1980). U.S.D.I., FWS,Office SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 33 32 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Manaf!ement Monograph

Conclusion Literature Cited of Migratory Bird Management, Wash., fowl Council, Summer 1975. 9pp. + D.C. 20240. 43pp. tables + App. The key to the failure of the Addy, C.E. (1968) General review. In Anon. (1980b) Stabi I ized season lengths Blandin, W.W. (1982) Population charac regulatory system is, in my view, the real Barske, P. (ed.). The black duck eval and basic bag limits for hunting ducks. teristics and simulation modelling of or perceived value of black ducks to the uation, management, and research: a Environmental Assessment. U.S.D.I., black ducks. Ph.D. Dissertation, Clark hunter or to the bureaucracy which is symposium. Atlantic Waterfowl Coun FWS, Office of Migratory Bird Manage Univ., Worcester, Mass. 345pp. dependent upon hunting license fees and/ cil and Wildlife Management Institute ment, Wash., D.C. 20240. 16pp. Blandin, W.W. (1982a) Summary of the (pub.): 2-5. or a hunter constituency. Without the Anon. (1982) National waterfowl manage black duck banding data analysis. Un value of license fees there would be lit Addy, C.E. (1968a) Summary of the black ment plan for the United States. pub. Ms. presented to the Atlantic tle concern over closing a season. With duck symposium held March 5, 1968, U.S.D.l., FWS, Office of Migratory Waterfowl Council, Summer 1982. out the value, there would not be an in at Remington Farms, Chestertown, Md. Bird Management, Wash., D.C. 20240. Files, Office of Migratory Bird Manage fluential constituency composed almost Unpub. Memo. Files, Office of Migra (March 1982). 32pp + App. ment, FWS, Wash., D.C. 20240. 9pp. solely of hunters. Without the value, the tory Bird Management, FWS, Patuxent Anon. (1983) Public information package + tables. political pressure would not be for equi Wildl. Res. Centr., Laurel, Md. 20708. concerning black ducks. U.S.D.I., FWS, Boyd, H. (1968) Comment during discus ty in opportunities to kill, but rather for 2pp. Office of Public Affairs, Wash., D.C. sion. In The black duck evaluation, re preserving the species. Without the val Addy, C.E., and Martinson, R.K. (1968) Epi 20240. Unnumbered looseleaf pages. search, and management: a symposium. ue, politicians and others would not feel logue. In Barske, P. (ed.). The black Anon. (1983a) Preliminary comments of Barske, P. (ed.). Atlantic Waterfowl the same political pressures for preserv duck evaluation, management, and re the Humane Society of the United Council and Wildlife Management In ing the status quo and building ration search: a symposium. Atlantic Water States on the regulations setting pro stitute. (pub.): 56. alizations. fowl Council and Wildlife Management cess for black ducks for the 1983-84 Connor, I. (1983) Campaign launched by In case after case, to varying de Institute (pub.): 183-189. waterfowl season. (April 14, 1983). Service, States to support black duck. grees, this pattern of yielding to vocal U.S.D.I., FWS. Fish and Wildlife News Anderson, D.R., and Burnham, K.P. (1976) H.S.U.S., 2100 L St., N.W., Wash., D.C. consumptive interests (or just failing to (Feb.-March 1983): 2-3. Population ecology of the mallard VI. 20037. 9pp. take action) to the detriment of wildlife Crissey, W.F. (1976) Status of the black The effect of exploitation on survival. Arnett, G.R. (1982) Migratory bird hunt has become apparent wherever the wild duck population. Unpub. Ms. Files, U.S.D.I., FWS, Resource Publication ing; proposed frameworks for late life species at issue is perceived as val Office of Migratory Bird Management, 128. 66pp. season migratory bird hunting regula uable for recreational, trophy or com tions. U.S.D.l., FWS. Federal Register FWS, Wash., D.C. 20240. 17pp. Anon. (1968) Preamble. In Barske, P. (ed.). mercial purposes, or is perceived as hav V.47, #162 (Aug. 20, 1982): 36578-36590. Gabrielson, I.N. (1941) Wildlife conserva The black duck evaluation, manage ing great significance for generating Arnett, G.R. (1982a) Proposed 1982-83 tion. The Macmillian Co., N.Y., N.Y. ment, and research: a symposium. At hunter interest and license fees; and migratory game bird hunting regula 250pp. lantic Waterfowl Council and Wildlife wherever active demand exceeds the tions (preliminary). U.S.D.I., FWS. Fed Geis, A.D., Smith, R.I., and Rogers, J.P. Management Institute (pub.): 1. capacity of the species for regeneration. eral Register V.47, #75 (April19, 1982): (1971) Black duck distribution, harvest Anon. (1975) Issuance of annual regulations This pattern has been apparent most re 16718-16731. characteristics, and survival. U.S.D.I., permitting the sport hunting of migra cently with respect to bobcats (Lynx ru Barske, P. (ed.). (1968) The black duck FWS. Spec. Sci. Rept.-Wildl. #139. tory birds. Final Environmental Im fus) and east coast striped bass (Roccus evaluation, management, and research: 241 pp. saxatilis), and is becoming increasingly pact Statement. U.S.D.I., FWS, Office a symposium. Atlantic Waterfowl Grandy, J.W. (1972) Winter ecology of mari apparent with respect to regulations of Migratory Bird Management, Wash., Council and Wildlife Management In time black ducks (Anas rubripes) in concerning highly sought-after species D.C. 20240. 228pp. stitute (pub.) 193pp. Massachusetts, with special reference of waterfowl such as mallards, canvas Anon. (1976) Proposed [stabilized] hunt Benson, D. (1968) Historical and current to Nauset Marsh, Orleans and East backs (Aythya valisineria), and pintails ing regulations on black ducks. Envi status: United States situation. In Bar ham. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Mass., (Anas acuta acuta), all of which are cur ronmental Assessment. U.S.D.I., FWS. ske, P. (ed.). The black duck evalua Amherst. 111 pp. rently at or near historic low population Office of Migratory Bird Management, tion, management, and research: a sym Grandy, JW. (1982) Affidavit filed with levels, and all of which have been sub Wash., D.C. 20240. 45pp. posium. Atlantic Waterfowl Council the FWS in the 1982 rulemaking pro ject to essentially the same regulations Anon. (1980) Important resource problem ·and Wildlife Management Institute ceeding for black duck hunting regula for many years. strategy paper: black duck- coastal (pub.): 11-15. tions (Aug. 30, 1982). Files, Humane So Unless corrective action is taken, mid-Atlantic (IRP #504). Habitat Preser Blandin, W.W. (1975) The black duck: sta ciety of the United States, 2100 L St., black duck-like regulatory failures will in vation, Region 5, FWS, Newton Corner, tus, management objectives, and alter N.W., Wash., D.C. 20037. 45pp. crease if waterfowl and other wildlife pop Ma. 02158. 19pp. native actions. U.S.D.I., FWS Unpub. Green, J.H. (1982) Memorandum opinion ulations decline, while hunter pressure Anon. (1980a) Program management Ms. presented to the Atlantic Water- [of U.S. Dist. Court, Washington, D.C. on and demand for the species remain document. Migratory birds program. high. (June 20, 1980). U.S.D.I., FWS,Office SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 33 32 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

on Case #82-2689, "The black duck Martin, E.M., Sorensen, C.F., Kaczynski, 1968-76. In H. Boyd and G.H. Finney Files, Office of Migratory Bird Man case"] (Nov. 29, 1982). Files, Office of C.F., and Martinson, R.K. (1967) (eds.). Migratory game bird hunters agement, FWS, Patuxent Wildl. Res. Migratory Bird Management, FWS, 1966-67 Experimental late black duck and hunting in Canada. Canadian Wild Cent., Laurel, Md. 20708. 1 p. Wash., D.C. 20240. 28p. hunting season in Maine, New Hamp life Service, Rep. Ser. #43: 84-100. Smith, R.I. (1983) The black duck: popu Greenwalt, L.A. (1976) Negative declara shire, and Massachusetts. U.S.D.I., Potter, J.C. (1982) Final frameworks for lation ecology and management. Fish tion [on stabilization of black duck FWS, Office of Migratory Bird Man late season migratory bird hunting reg and Wildlife Facts. U.S.D.I., FWS, Of hunting regulations]. Files. U.S.D.I., agement, Patuxent Wildlife Research ulations. U.S.D.I., FWS. Federal Register fice of Migratory Bird Management, FWS, Office of Migratory Bird Manage Center, Laurel, Md. 20708. Admin. V.47, #181 (Sept. 17, 1982): 41252- Wash., D.C. 20240. 4pp. ment, Wash., D.C. 20240. (August Rept. 140. 36pp. 41269. Spencer, H.E. (1976) Report [including 1976). 1 p. Martin, E.M., and Carney, S.M. (1977) Pop Potter, J.C. (1983) Migratory bird hunt attachments] on black duck work Hagar, J.A. (1948) Black duck mortality ulation ecology of the mallard: IV. A ing. Supplemental proposals for mi shop Calais, Maine. July 7-8, 1976. in the Parker River region, Winter review of duck hunting regulations, gratory game bird hunting regula Files, Office of Migratory Bird Man 1947-48. Mass. Div. Fish and Game, activity, and success, with special tions. U.S.D.I., FWS. Federal Register agement, Patuxent Wild I ife Research Bur. Wild I. Res. and Mgmt. 31 pp. reference to the mallard. U.S.D.I., V.48, #118 (June 17, 1983): 27799-27807. Center, Laurel, Md. 20708. 6pp + Att. Hagar, J.A. (1950) Black duck mortality FWS. Res. Publ. 130. 137pp. Reed, A. (1968) Habitat and breeding Spencer, H.E. (Compiler). (1979) Black duck in the Parker River region, Winter Martin, F.W. (1976) Attachment to a ecology: eastern Canada. In Barske, P. management plan for North America. 1949-50. Mass. Div. Fish and Game, memorandum: To, black duck group (ed.). The black duck evaluation, man Black Duck Committee, Atlantic Wa Bur. Wildl. Res. and Mgmt. 17pp. Atlantic flyway; From, Director, Migra agement, and research: a symposium. terfowl Council (June 1979). Files. Of Hagar, J.A. (1982) Affidavit filed with the tory Bird & Habitat Research Labora Atlantic Waterfowl Council and Wild fice of Migratory Bird Management, FWS in the 1982 rulemaking proceed tory; Subj., suggested black duck re life Management Institute (pub.): 57- FWS, Patuxent Wildl. Res. Cent., ing for black duck hunting regula search topics at Moosehorn meeting 89. Laurel, Md. 20708. (unnumbered) tions (July 6, 1983). Files, Office of Mi (undated). Files, Office of Migratory Reed, A. (1978) Attachment to a: letter Spencer, H.E. (1982) Black ducks- a state gratory Bird Management, FWS, Wash., Bird Management, FWS, Patuxent Wild I. (27 June 1978). To H.E. Spencer: Enti ment of concern. Maine Dept. of In D.C. 20240. 7pp. Res. Cent., Laurel, Md. 20708. 3pp. tled "Atlantic flyway black duck man land Fisheries and Wildlife, Augusta. Heusmann, H.W. (1980) Letter: To, How Martinson, R.K., Geis, A.S., and Smith, R.I. agement plan" "black duck breeding (4/19/82). 3pp. + App. ard E. Spencer (1 October 1980). Files, (1968) Black duck harvest and popula habitat in Canada." Unpub. Ms. Files, Spencer, H.E. (Chairman). (1982a) Black Office of Migratory Bird Management, tion dynamics in eastern Canada and Office of Migratory Bird Management, duck management plan for Nprth FWS, Patuxent Wildl. Res. Cent., Lau the Atlantic flyway. In Barske, P. (ed.). FWS, Patuxent Wildl. Res. Cent., Lau America. Part 1-Operational Plans rel, Md. 20708. 2pp. The black duck evaluation, manage rel, Md. 20708. 8pp. and Programs. The Black Duck Com Heusmann, H.W. (1982) The black duck ment, and research: a symposium. Reed, A. (1980) Letter: To, Howard E. Spen mittee, Atlantic Waterfowl Council. situation (and what to do about it). Mass. Atlantic Waterfowl Council and Wild cer; Subj., Vol. I black duck manage Files, Office of Migratory Bird Manage Div. Fish. and Wildl. Mgmt. Massachu life Management Institute (pub.): ment plan. (21 Oct. 1980). Files, Office ment, Patuxent Wildl. Res. Cent., Lau setts Wildlife (May-June 1982): 14-19. 21-52. of Migratory Bird Management, FWS, rel, Md. 20708. 35pp. Hunt, R.A. (1978) Letter: To, J.R. Longcore, McGilvery, F.B. (1974) Memorandum and Patuxent Wildl. Res. Cent., Laurel, Stotts, V.D., and Davis, D.E. (1960) The Patuxent Wildlife Research Center; Subj., attachments: To, Director, Migratory Md. 20708. 2pp. black duck in the Chesapeake Bay of black ducks breeding in Wisconsin Bird Habitat & Res. Lab; From, Re Reeves, H.M. (1979) Comments on [draft] Maryland: breeding behavior and bio (April17, 1978). Files, Office of Migra search Biologist, MBH&RL; Subj., black duck management plan for logy. Chesapeake Sci. V.l (3&4): 127-154. tory Bird Management, FWS, Patuxent Survey of black duck winter inven North America. Unpub. Memo. Files, Trippensee, R.E. (1953) Wildlife manage Wild I. Res. Cent., Laurel, Md. 20708. 1 p. tory. (Nov. 20, 1974). Files, Office of Office of Migratory Bird Management, ment (V. II): fur bearers, waterfowl, Longcore, J.R. (1981) Memorandum: To, Migratory Bird Management, FWS, FWS, Patuxent Wildl. Res. Cent., Lau and fish. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Acting Director MBHRL; From, Biolo Wash., D.C. 20240. 2pp + att. rel, Md. 20708. 3pp. Inc., N.Y., N.Y. 572pp. gist-In-Charge, Maine Field Station; Munro, W.T. (1968) Historical and current Reeves, H.M. (1980) Letter: To, Warren W. Williams, T. (1976) The east wind is empty. Subj., Review of Support, Activities status: Canadian situation. In Barske, W. Blandin; Subj., the [draft] black Gray's Sporting journal. (Fall1976): 30- and Accomplishments. July 1976-April P. (ed.). The black duck evaluation, duck management plan. (Sept. 25, 1980). 35. 1981. Files, Office of Migratory Bird management, and research: a sympo Management, FWS, Patuxent Wildl. Res. sium. Atlantic Waterfowl Council and Cent., Laurel, Md. 20708. 11 pp. Wildlife Management Institute (pub.): Maine (1982) Black duck decline serious. 6-10. Maine Dept. of Inland Fish. and Wildl. Newell, K.L., and Boyd, H. (1978) The News Release (4 July 1982). 2p. sport kill of black ducks in Canada

35 34 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 f. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph }. W. Grandy- Failure in American Wildlife Management Monograph

35 34 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 SUPPLEMENT TO /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983