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Not Every Man Was Male Gender Passing in Nineteenth Century

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Not Every Man Was Male Gender Passing in Nineteenth Century NOT EVERY MAN WAS MALE GENDER PASSING IN NINETEENTH CENTURY BRITAIN BILLIE-GINA THOMASON A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Liverpool John Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2020 Contents Abstract pg. 3 Acknowledgments pg. 4 List of Illustrations pg. 5 Introduction pg. 7 Chapter One: An Intellectual Discussion A Historiographical Discussion pg. 45 A Methodological Discussion pg. 65 Chapter Two: What Makes a Man? Introduction pg. 74 Part I: Gendered Performances pg. 77 Part II: Clothing the Masculine Body pg. 97 Part III: Gender Slippages pg. 110 Conclusion pg. 117 Chapter Three: Queer Intimacies Introduction pg. 119 Part I: The Language of Queer Intimacies pg. 123 Part II: Lived Experiences pg. 129 1 | P a g e Part III: Disrupting the Institution of Marriage pg. 146 Conclusion pg. 157 Chapter Four: Conforming in the Unsuspecting Community Introduction pg. 159 Part I: Creating Family pg. 163 Part II: On the Street pg. 171 Part III: The Public House pg. 188 Part IV: Public Interest pg. 196 Conclusion pg. 214 Chapter Five: After Lives Introduction pg. 216 Part I: The Concealed Body pg. 218 Part II: Good Dead and Bad Death pg. 223 Part III: Customs, Dissections and Discovery pg. 233 Part IV: The Death of James Allen pg. 241 Conclusion pg. 249 Conclusion pg. 250 Bibliography pg. 270 2 | P a g e Abstract Not Every Man was Male: Gender Passing in Nineteenth Century Britain uses the nineteenth- century press to create microbiographies about the lives of twenty-five working-class female to male gender passing individuals. These microbiographies have been developed using newspapers, census material, and trade directories. By using a combination of microhistory (Carlo Ginzburg and Levi Magnusson) and record linkage this thesis recovers the life stories of gender passing individuals who have, until now, largely remained obscured in history. This thesis demonstrates how individuals attempted to live their lives in a way that was not bound to their biological identity. It also highlights how nineteenth-century society understood gender passing individuals and marked their ability to practice their masculinity in a recognisable manner. At the core of this thesis is the assertion that gender was performative, malleable, and unstable. Consequently, this thesis builds on Judith Butler’s idea of gender being a ‘free- floating artifice’ and like Don Zimmerman and Candace West, recognises that gender is something to be ‘done’. To fully examine these assertions, I have developed new terminology and a conceptual framework to understand ‘gender passing individuals’ in a historical context. The concept of ‘gender passing’ has been coined by me and builds on the work of Elaine Ginsberg and Irving Goffman, who both argue that ‘passing’ is used to understand how people moved beyond race, class and gender. Gender passing individuals performed aspects of nineteenth-century masculinity in a way that was recognisable by others. Similarly, this thesis develops the ‘4 C’s of Passing’ framework to consider how gender passing individuals were confident, consistent, and committed to their gender performativity and reflects on how they concealed their biological bodies. 3 | P a g e Acknowledgements To Liverpool John Moores University, thank you for the last eight years. You have seen me through my undergraduate degree, MRes degree and now my PhD. Without your financial support and belief in my project I would not have been in the position to complete it, so thank you. To my incredible supervisors, Lucie and Emma. This would not have been possible without your support, your experience, your knowledge, or your kind words of encouragement. Since I started this journey, I have wanted to make you both proud and I hope I have achieved that, this is as much your thesis as it is mine! You have always pushed me to continue with my research and have been my biggest cheerleaders throughout my time at LJMU and have always remained enthusiastic about my research. At times I have wanted to give up and have had a couple of teary meetings with you both, but you have always encouraged me to push through. I cannot thank you enough for all you have done for me and how you have helped me to achieve what I have wanted to. To my incredible mum and dad, you are my world. I exist to make you proud and hopefully I have achieved that! You have always supported me in everything that I do. You may not completely understand what I have been doing for the last three and a half years in ‘The Office’, but I appreciate how you have given me time and space to do what I have needed to do. Thank you for listening to my drafts, lectures, and conference papers over the last few years and for my dad for going completely method and acting like a student and putting his hand up to ask questions halfway through! I love you both. To Mischa (Mooshoo) for always providing me with company on those freezing cold, dark, wintry days when I did not want to get out of bed – your loud snoring calms me… sometimes! To Claire, thank you for saying that this route was possible and suggesting that I could do a PhD. To my darling Holly, you have been my rock since we met in school. You have always pushed me in the right direction, supported me and encouraged me. Even when I have been overwhelmed and upset you have always told me how proud you are of me and how much I have achieved – although I still don’t think I have achieved that much in my 27 years! Thank you for listening to my conference papers, drafts, and lectures over the years, I know that they have nearly always put you to sleep, but I appreciated you being there to listen. You mean everything to me, and I love you. Finally, a special thank you to my examiners, Professor Joanne Begiato and Dr Mike Benbough- Jackson. Thank you for agreeing to read my thesis and to take the time to examine me on it, especially during a pandemic when everything is up in the air! This has been an intense few years of study that has allowed me to explore the lives of historic gender nonconforming people and have fantastic opportunities throughout, which I will always be grateful for. As my favourite winner of Rupaul’s Drag Race said, ‘Gender is a construct, lets fucking tear it apart!’ (Sasha Velour) Post Viva: These last few months have been a struggle for my family, particularly for my mum. This thesis is dedicated to her because she is a superstar, and she is my best friend. I am so proud of what she has overcame and achieved and she is my inspiration. This is for you and I will *hopefully* keep making you proud for the rest of my life. I love you. 4 | P a g e List of Illustrations Figure 1: Liverpool Albion article, copy and paste journalism, pg. 26. Figure 2: Dundee Courier, copy and journalism, pg. 26. Figure 3: Screenshot of Biographical Information database, sheet 1, pg. 35. Figure 4: Screenshot of Gendering the Body database, sheet 2, pg. 37. Figure 5: Screenshot of Death database, sheet 3, pg. 39. Figure 6: Ford Madox Brown’s painting ‘Work’ 1852-1865, pg. 84. Figure 7: The British Workman, no. 12, 1856, pg. 87. Figure 8: Portrait of James and Abigail Allen published in ‘An Authentic Narrative’, 1829, pg. 91. Figure 9: Thomas Howell-Jones’s etching, ‘Abigail, Mary Allen and James Allen’, c. 1829, pg. 95. Figure 10: Comparison portraits of James Allen taken from ‘An Authentic Narrative’ and Digital Transgender Archive, pg. 108. Figure 11: Marriage registration of Mr James Allen and Miss Abigail Naylor, 1807, pg. 133. Figure 12: Marriage registration of Mr Henry Stoake and Miss Ann Hants, 1817, pg. 142. Figure 13: Copy of Quarter Sessions 1875 of William Seymour being tried, 1875, pg. 182. Figure 14: Cartoon from Punch magazine 1875 of ‘The Cabmen’s Shelter’, pg. 185. Figure 15: Copy of ‘Mary Newell’ being sentenced for larceny at Westminster Police Court, 1861, pg. 204. Figure 16: Copy of the front page of An Authentic Narrative pamphlet, 1829, pg. 208. Figure 17: ‘Mademoiselle de Beaumont or the Chevalier d’Eon’, The London Magazine, 1777, pg. 212. 5 | P a g e Figure 18: Death certificate of John Murphy, 1860, pg. 228. Figure 19: Harry Stokes’s death certificate, 1859, pg. 231. Figure 20: Registration of James Allen’s death, 1829, pg. 245. Figure 21: Letter to The Times from Mr Thomas, 1829, pg. 247. Figure 22: Light Night, May 2018, pg. 263. Figure 23: ‘All That Lives’ event at the University of Leeds, May 2019, pg. 265. Figure 24: ‘April Ashley and Trans Lives of Liverpool’, Liverpool Central Library, July 2019, pg. 267. 6 | P a g e Introduction In October 1859, a body was found in the River Irwell in Manchester. It was believed that the person was around sixty years of age and had committed suicide. According to newspaper reports, the person ‘had kept beerhouses and served customers at the tap as a “jolly landlord”’.1 They were also described as a ‘master bricklayer’ and had earned ‘the reputation of being the most skilful “chimney doctor” in the neighbourhood’.2 The Liverpool Mercury, Ashton Weekly, Daily News and Bell’s Weekly Messenger all ran articles on the ‘jolly landlord’ and ‘master bricklayer’ whose name was Harry Stokes.3 These articles described the deceased individual as a ‘man-woman’ and a ‘female husband’, a woman who had in fact lived as a man for at least forty years.4 Harry Stokes was born biologically female but lived most of his life identifying as male.
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