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Hillary Wasserman, Michael Quinn, and Tyler Jacobs

Conflicts, , and Diaspora: A Case Study in

Johanna Mendelson Forman, School of International Service

Wasserman and Jacobs: University Honors

Quinn: University Honors in International Studies

Spring 2014 2

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship of a country’s cuisine and its history of conflict through the lens of a Washington, D.C. area restaurant. Specifically focusing on Iraq, the paper provides historical context for the - and the First and follows the story of local restaurateurs Laheeb and Mowafak Ashagra. Their journey from Iraq to

Sweden to the United States, and their experience opening a restaurant, shows the unexpected and important role that a country’s plays during conflict, as a connector

in the Diaspora, and as a source of healing. 3

Conflicts, Cuisine, and Diaspora: A Case Study in Iraq

Conflict in Iraq has been a part of Laheeb and Mowafak Ashagra’s lives for decades. Mowafak fought during the Iran-Iraq War and the family chose to leave Iraq at the start of the First Gulf War. They then watched with horror as the Second Gulf War continued to destroy the country they loved so dearly and rendered it unrecognizable.

Their restaurant, Grill in Oakton, VA, shows Americans the positive side of Iraqi culture that they do not learn about in the news. The served at the restaurant is comforting to both and Americans alike, and brings a piece of home to the

Ashagras and to the broader Iraqi community in the DC area.

A History of Conflict

The Iran-Iraq War was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts of the twentieth century, lasting nearly eight years from 1980-1988, resulting in over one million deaths in both countries. The war was the thought child of Iraqi dictator , who sought to take advantage of Iran’s weakness in the aftermath of their Islamic Revolution in 1979 to annex territory that he claimed to be part of the Arab homeland. He also had hopes to tilt the regional balance of power from Iran to Iraq and to curb the new revolutionary regime’s influence on Iraq’s Shia majority.1 Although Saddam had hoped for an easy victory over Iranian military forces that had been weakened by post- revolution purges, this was not to be the case. Despite gaining territory for the first two years of the war, by June of 1982, Iraq was on the defensive, and would remain so until

1988 when a UN-sponsored a ceasefire that saw a return to prewar borders.2 The Iran-

1 Ian Black, “Iran and Iraq remember a war that cost more than a million lives,” The Guardian, September 23, 2010. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/23/iran-iraq-war-anniversary. 2 Afshin Molavi. The Soul of Iran: A Nation's Journey to Freedom, (London: WW Norton & Company, 2005): 152. 4

Iraq War has often been compared to World War I, both seeing heavy use of trench- warfare, human wave attacks through no-man’s land, and use of chemical weapons.3 Like

World War I, however, it has been overshadowed by other wars. In the West especially, the Iran-Iraq War is largely forgotten in the aftermath of the Gulf War and the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. Despite this, the war continues to cast a shadow over the people of Iran and Iraq, where its brutality is not forgotten.4

Following the World War I comparison, the Iran-Iraq War became a war of attrition after June 1982, when Ayatollah Khomeini rejected a ceasefire offer by

Saddam.5 As Saddam’s envisioned quick annexation became a prolonged and brutal affair, the civilian populations of both countries were strongly affected. In Iraq, the

Dynamic Defense strategy was adopted in 1986, and it was announced that all civilians had to take part in the war effort. All male university students were drafted, and the universities shut down. Saddam began to strengthen his personality cult, and an increasing number of demonstrations were held in support of him.6 As early as 1982

Saddam had already begun a domestic terror campaign: he executed officers for failures in the battlefield, and cracked down on the Shia community.7 The worst internal actions taken by Saddam at this time were against the , mostly through the al-Anfal

Campaign from 1986-1988. As the Iranians supported Kurdish insurgents, Saddam undertook genocidal action, killing 50,000-100,000 Kurds, including through the use of

3 Ervand Abrahamian. A History of Modern Iran, (Cambridge University Press, 2008): 171. 4 Black. 5 Roger Hardy. “The Iran-Iraq War: 25 years on.” BBC News, September 22, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4260420.stm. 6 Efraim Karsh. The Iran-Iraq War: 1980-1988, (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002): 1-8. 7 Ibid: 12-16. 5 chemical weapons.8 Likewise, Saddam and his Baathist Party increased repression against Shia Muslims, including the massacre of 143 civilians in Dujail.9 Iran likewise saw repression and civilian suffering. There were mass executions of members of the left- wing MEK party, who were opposed to the war. The economic toll was also quite hard on

Iran, and it saw a deep decline in morale from 1987-1988 as its citizens grew weary of total war, contributing to Iran’s eventual acceptance of a ceasefire in 1988.10 Ultimately, the Iran-Iraq War produced one of the largest conflicts of the post-World War II world, with great suffering on both sides, while neither saw any strategic gain. It would also open the door to even more conflict in the future.

The first continuation of the conflict that began during the Iran-Iraq War was the

Gulf War. Like the war before it, the Gulf War had elements of irredentism. Saddam claimed that Kuwait was part of Iraq, and had been separated only by colonial adventurism by the British.11 The more immediate cause, however, was the massive debt

Iraq had incurred during the Iran-Iraq War. Iraq had a debt of $130 billion after the war,

$67 billion of which had been loaned by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, and

Jordan.12 Iraq accused Kuwait of producing oil beyond quotas set by OPEC to keep oil prices low, which hurt both Iraq’s ability to pay back its debt and its economic recovery from the damage inflicted by the war.13 Amidst these disputes, Saddam made the decision to invade Kuwait in early August 1990, quickly defeating the smaller Kuwaiti forces.

8 Human Rights Watch. “Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds,” July 1993. http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/. 9 James Menendez. “Seeking justice in Dujail.” BBC News, November 25, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4350104.stm. 10 Abrahamian: 182-85. 11 Jose Stork and Ann M. Lesch. “Background to Crisis: Why War?” Middle East Report 167, 1990: 11-18. 12 John Pike. “Iraq debt: Non-Paris Club Creditors,” GlobalSecurity.org, September 30, 2004. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/2004/isg-final-report/ch2_anxd_img06.jpg. 13 Stork and Lesch: 23-24. 6

Despite having supported Iraq during its war against Iran, after the and Saddam’s subsequent verbal attacks on Saudi Arabia, the United States intervened in

January 1991 with aerial bombardment. Unlike the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War was swift. Only 100 hours after the U.S. and its allies began a ground assault in late February, a ceasefire was declared.14 The true toll on Iraq of the war was not the actual conflict, which saw relatively low casualties, but the aftermath.

Immediately after the ceasefire, goaded by broadcasts from CIA radio stations and

Voice of America, an uprising against Saddam began in March 1991. Nearly 100,000 civilians were killed in the military’s suppression of the uprisings, and some two million people were displaced, many fleeing the country.15 The other enduring effect of the Gulf

War were the imposed by the UN Security Council with the intent to force payment of war reparations and prevent the further development of weapons of mass destruction. These sanctions placed restrictions on imports and exports, greatly restricting oil exports.16 The oil sector formed 61% of Iraq’s GNP in 1989, and the effects of restrictions on oil exports was devastating. Per capita income fell from $3,510 in 1989 to $450 in 1996. As well, Iraq was forced to introduce food rations of 1000 calories per person per day, which is only 40% of the daily requirement.17 The food situation only began to improve after 1997 when the Oil-for-Food Program was initiated, with consumption eventually reaching 2150 calories per day in 1999. However, it was still

14 Frontline. “Chronology of the Gulf War,” PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/cron/ 15 Human Rights Watch. “Endless Torment: Uprising in Iraq and Its Aftermath,” June, 1992. http://www.hrw.org/reports/1992/Iraq926.htm. 16 UN Security Council Resolution 687. April 8, 1991. http://www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/documents/687.pdf. 17 B. Sen. “2003 IRQ: Iraq Watching Briefs – Overview Report, July 2003,” UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/index_29697.html. 7 estimated that in 2000 families spent 75% of their income on food.18 As a result of post- war turmoil and the sanctions, UNICEF estimates that as many 500,000 unnecessary deaths of children occurred.19 A further and far more costly legacy of the sanctions is that they were used as one of the pretexts for the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. The Bush administration accused of not complying with UN sanctions in regards to WMD inspections, and that failure to disarm was a justification for invasion.20 That invasion would start a series of conflicts that continues to this day.

Iraqi Diaspora and the Tigris Grill

With Iraqi restaurants opening up around the country, Tigris Grill is the only Iraqi restaurant in the greater DC area, situated about 30 minutes outside of town in Oakton,

Virginia. This unimposing storefront is home to an excellent menu for the many workers in nearby offices, but it is also home to a vibrant and growing Iraqi Diaspora community in the DC area. Mowafak Ashagra and his wife Laheeb opened Tigris Grill in

2001 as a way to earn quick money after immigrating to the United States from Sweden.

Little did they know that Tigris would serve as not only a focal point for the Iraqi community in Washington, DC, but also a bridge between combat and home for many

US soldiers and veterans.

Tigris Grill serves traditional Iraqi cuisine including, , , and

Mowafak’s favorite . Cooked over an all-natural charcoal open flame grill, the restaurant is as close to authentic as you can find outside of Iraq. Throughout the week it serves the usual lunch customers from nearby offices, however on the weekend this small

18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 “Bush, Blair: Time running out for Saddam,” CNN, January 31, 2003. http://edition.cnn.com/2003/US/01/31/sprj.irq.bush.blair.topics/. 8 restaurant becomes a hub for the local Iraqi community. Each weekend Iraqis arrive to enjoy not only a home-cooked , but also the company of fellow-Iraqis. This restaurant, with only 6 tables, offers a welcoming atmosphere where Iraqis can come and enjoy a meal, exchange stories, and meet others from Iraq. As Laheeb said, the Iraqi culture is very tribal and it’s hard to go three connections without knowing someone. Just recently a man arrived at their store whose family helped hide the Ashagras during the

First Gulf War. Laheeb goes out of her way to ensure that everyone feels welcome, attended to, and leaves happy. The Iraqi community in DC does not have many mosques, organizations, or clubs that join them all together. However, Laheeb has said that Tigris

Grill serves as a focal point and a meeting ground for the Diaspora community in DC and is often encouraged to expand the restaurant or form an official organization for Iraqis in

DC.

Looking at the Diaspora from a broader level, the Iraqi community in America has always had a presence, but its numbers have increased dramatically since 1980. By

2007, the number of Iraqi immigrants to the United States increased from 32,121 to

102,000, constituting less than 0.5 percent of total U.S. immigration. The overwhelming majority of these Iraqi immigrants settle in Michigan and California; over half the total population of Iraqis live in these two states.21 The Iraqi community in the DC area is not large, but it does have a strong presence. The Tigris Grill has become a place that reminds Iraqis of the comforts of their home country.

Tigris Grill has become an institution within both the Iraqi community and a great many other Middle Eastern immigrants. With currencies from Saudi Arabia, Jordan,

21 “Iraqi immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, March 5, 2009, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/iraqi-immigrants-united-states. 9

Thailand, , and Morocco, it is clear that it’s appeal crosses the borders of

Iraq. However, Mowafak will always prepare a specially requested meal for any Iraqi who misses home. Iraqis come to their restaurant on the weekends to maintain their ties to their homeland, the Iraqi culture, and their cuisine. Following the Second Gulf War, an increased number of Iraqis began immigrating to the US, and DC in particular. These people found comfort and often jobs at Tigris Grill, with the entire staff having come to

America following 2003. Beyond this, Tigris Grill also serves an important role for the soldiers and veterans returning from Iraq.

After 10 years of war in Iraq, young Americans are returning to their homes and families profoundly changed. Beyond the constant threats and insecurity of combat in

Iraq, US soldiers were placed in a country they knew nothing about, with a language they don’t understand, and a culture entirely unknown to them. Soldiers were exposed to Iraqi culture and cuisine on a daily basis. Upon returning home they experienced reverse culture shock and yearned for the common bonds and things to help them readjust to life in America.

According to Laheeb, Tigris Grill has served an important role in the homecoming of many US soldiers. Upon finding the restaurant she said they instantly feel a level of comfort they cannot find elsewhere. She referenced their desire to share common experiences with the Iraqis in the restaurant, such as cities, shops, and food.

With such a spotlight on mental illness, PTSD, and other combat related injuries suffered by veterans, it is important to recognize when small gestures go a long way to help. As

Laheeb said, soldiers have trouble relating to their neighbors and families who are so focused on work, their lawns, and reality television. A recent Washington Post/Kaiser 10

Foundation poll showed that nearly 50% of veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan found it difficult or extremely difficult adjusting to civilian life.22 Instead of worrying constantly for your life they are brought home and must readjust. Tigris Grill serves as a familiar environment for many veterans to seek approval or even just comfort from the

Iraqi employees and customers.

Similarly, the influx of veterans to Iraqi restaurants not only helps them bridge the gap between combat in Iraq and their homes, but it also can help the local Iraqi community feel more welcomed and included. As evidenced in 2012 when an act of vandalism damaged a local Iraqi restaurant in Lowell, Massachusetts. The local veterans mobilized and filed every seat of the restaurant to show their support for the Iraqi immigrant family. According to the owner, “this solidarity gives us courage to stand.”23

Support for Iraqis and their cuisine by veterans is not only symbolic, but it can help to dispel the negative stereotypes and stigma surrounding Iraq.

Iraqi Cuisine

Iraq is one of the few countries in the Middle East without a unique cuisine because of heavy cultural influences from neighboring countries. They stuff and eat lamb, , and like the Turks. Similar to the Iranians, they cook with meat and poultry.24 The traditional Iraqi that the food at Tigris Grill was served with is strikingly similar to Indian . The influences vary by region. The northern region features more of the Turkish influences, while the southern areas take cues from the Gulf countries. Some staples, like , can be found anywhere in Iraq.

22 “After the Wars,” Washington Post, April 2, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/page/2010- 2019/WashingtonPost/2014/03/30/National-Politics/Polling/release_305.xml. 23 Robert Mills, “Downtown Iraqi eatery's plate full with vets' support,” Lowell Sun, January 12, 2012. http://www.lowellsun.com/local/ci_19718719. 24 “Iraq,” Food in Every Country, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Germany-to-Japan/Iraq.html. 11

What differentiates Iraqi cuisine from the food of its neighbors is its simplicity. It is so simple that some customers at Tigris Grill have even described it as bland. Kebabs, for example, are simply meat and without any . Laheeb described the way of is just cooking it enough, not any more than it needs to be. She found that food from other Middle Eastern cultures, like Afghani food, has too many and it overwhelms the dish. Customers compare the Iraqi food to other of the Middle

East, which makes them think it’s bland. American food is also very complicated as compared to Iraqi food. While everything American seems to be covered in , Iraqis see cheese as something to serve with and bread as its own meal. Iraqis do not like to mix many types of food together like .

Iraq is home to a wide variety of crops due to its richly fertilized soil surrounding the Tigris and Rivers. The area has been known as the “Fertile Crescent” for thousands of years, producing , onions, , , and . trees are also native to Iraq, bearing for consumption and for oil. The usage of native-grown figs can be dated back to 2500 BC, when the fruit was used as a sweetener.25 These locally grown are part of the dishes served by Iraqis.

An average Iraqi meal is a festive but casual experience. Good hospitality is of the utmost importance, and guests show respect by trying all the dishes that hosts provide.

The meal usually starts with a mezze (appetizer), then that is drunk from the bowl.

The appetizer is usually kebabs, but at Tigris Grill, the mezze options include and tabouleh salad. Next comes a simple main like lamb with rice and a salad. For

25 Ibid. 12 dessert, only fruit is served. Iraqis love sweets, but only fruit is appropriate to serve at the end of a meal.26

However, not all Iraqis are able to access this abundance of food in the war-torn country. One quarter of the population lives below $2 a day. Iraqis living in the south and northwest areas of the country suffer from the worst food deprivation. Overall, 6 percent of Iraqis were food deprived as of 2011, according to the World Food Programme. The recent influx of Syrian refugees has also compounded the problem. Food assistance that would be going to Iraqis has been provided to refugee camps in northern Iraq.27

This situation in Iraq today is unrecognizable to the Iraq that the Ashagras grew up in. Given the current status of the country, Laheeb and Mowafak are not willing to leave the Diaspora and return home. Laheeb believes that “thugs” are running the country, which is even worse than Saddam’s dictatorship. Drug problems run rampant and religion has become an issue, problems that Laheeb had never encountered when she lived there. Tigris Grill has become their piece of Iraq in America that preserves the place where they were raised.

26 Ibid. 27 “Iraq,” World Food Programme, http://www.wfp.org/countries/iraq/overview. 13

Works Cited

Abrahamian, Ervand. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press, 2008.

“After the Wars,” Washington Post, April 2, 2014,

http://www.washingtonpost.com/page/2010-

2019/WashingtonPost/2014/03/30/National-Politics/Polling/release_305.xml.

Black, Ian. “Iran and Iraq remember a war that cost more than a million lives.” The

Guardian, September 23, 2010.

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/23/iran-iraq-war-anniversary.

“Bush, Blair: Time running out for Saddam,” CNN, January 31, 2003.

http://edition.cnn.com/2003/US/01/31/sprj.irq.bush.blair.topics/.

Frontline. “Chronology of the Gulf War.” PBS.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/cron/.

Hardy, Roger. “The Iran-Iraq War: 25 years on.” BBC News, September 22, 2005.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4260420.stm

Human Rights Watch. “Endless Torment: Uprising in Iraq and Its Aftermath.” June,

1992. http://www.hrw.org/reports/1992/Iraq926.htm

Human Rights Watch. “Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds.” July

1993. http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/.

“Iraq.” Food in Every Country. http://www.foodbycountry.com/Germany-to-

Japan/Iraq.html.

“Iraq.” World Food Programme. http://www.wfp.org/countries/iraq/overview.

“Iraqi immigrants in the United States.” Migration Information Source. March 5, 2009.

http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/iraqi-immigrants-united-states. 14

Karsh, Efraim. The Iran-Iraq War: 1980-1988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002.

Menendez, James. “Seeking justice in Dujail.” BBC News, November 25, 2005.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4350104.stm.

Mills, Robert. “Downtown Iraqi eatery's plate full with vets' support.” Lowell Sun.

January 12, 2012. http://www.lowellsun.com/local/ci_19718719.

Molavi, Afshin. The Soul of Iran: A Nation's Journey to Freedom. London: WW Norton

& Company, 2005.

Pike, John. “Iraq debt: Non-Paris Club Creditors.” GlobalSecurity.org, September 30,

2004. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/2004/isg-final-

report/ch2_anxd_img06.jpg.

Sen, B. “2003 IRQ: Iraq Watching Briefs – Overview Report, July 2003.” UNICEF.

http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/index_29697.html.

Stork, Jose and Ann M. Lesch. “Background to Crisis: Why War?” Middle East Report

167, (1990).

UN Security Council Resolution 687. April 8, 1991.

http://www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/documents/687.pdf.