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From Livestock to Game Farming

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From Livestock to Game Farming From Livestock to Game Farming: Farmers’ understandings of land use changes, sustainable agriculture and biodiversity conservation in the Ubuntu Municipality, South Africa by Charmaine Rudo Sanelisiwe Manyani Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Prof Cherryl Walker March 2020 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. March 2020 Copyright © 2020 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract Through a case study of commercial game farming in the Ubuntu Local Municipality in the arid Nama Karoo Biome of the Northern Cape, this dissertation has three main aims: firstly, to understand the views of commercial farmers in the Ubuntu Local Municipality on game farming and its relationship to sustainable agriculture in this region, including the motivations of those who are making the switch from livestock to game farming; secondly, to bring to the fore the views of black small-scale and emerging farmers, a neglected constituency in the debate on the merits of game farming, and thirdly, to address if and how the trend towards game farming in the Northern Cape could be aligned to sustainable land and agrarian reform. My theoretical framing draws on political ecology and understandings of sustainable development that consider social and economic justice as non-negotiable imperatives, along with respect for planetary boundaries. The growth of game farming in South Africa has been variously attributed to socio-political, economic, climatic and ecological reasons. There are an estimated 11,500 wildlife ranches in South Africa that, according to Wildlife Ranching South Africa (2017), have converted 20 million hectares of marginal land to productive land. However, despite its reported success, game farming in South Africa is mired in controversy. While its proponents argue that farmers who are making the switch are aligned with sustainable agricultural practices and the promotion of biodiversity conservation, its critics argue that game farming is being driven by other motives, including evading land reform through manipulating conservation narratives. Analysing and contextualising these debates in an under-researched area with a very specific history and ecology is thus an important task. In addressing these issues, I have used a case study design that utilised a mixed-methods approach to gathering data. Methods utilised included a self-administered survey of commercial farmers in the Ubuntu Local Municipality, in-depth interviews with commercial and small-scale farmers as well as officials and other key informants, focus group discussions, observations and documentary analysis. My main findings are, firstly, that the switch to game farming in the Ubuntu Local Municipality has been spurred primarily by economic factors (increasing production costs, market fluctuations, etc.); however, ecological considerations in terms of managing drought and climate change concerns and the depletion of the natural veld are also encouraging farmers to diversify their income portfolios. Secondly, game farming is, no more or less complicit in unsustainable farming than other forms of farming; it depends on how it is practised. In a ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za context of social-ecological change it could contribute to more sustainable land management and local economic development in arid environments (for instance through new forms of employment) if appropriately regulated, as part of a larger suite of more effectively supported land and agrarian reform projects. Thirdly, small-scale farmers’ entry into commercial livestock farming is severely hampered by their lack of access to critical resources that include land, financial assistance, extension support and production skills. In this context game farming is seen as beyond what they can envisage or aspire to in the Ubuntu Local Municipality. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Deur middel van ‘n gevallestudie van kommersiële wildboerdery in die Ubuntu Plaaslike Munisipaliteit in die dorre Nama Karoo Bioom van die Noord-Kaap, het hierdie proefskrif drie hoofdoelstellings: eerstens, om die siening van kommersiële boere in die Ubuntu Plaaslike Munisipaliteit oor wildboerdery en dié se verhouding tot volhoubare landbou in hierdie streek te verstaan, insluitend die motiverings van diegene wat die oorskakeling van vee na wildboerdery doen; tweedens, om die standpunte van swart en opkomende boere na vore te bring, 'n verwaarloosde kiesafdeling in die debat oor die meriete van wildboerdery, en derdens om aan te spreek óf en hoe die neiging na wildboerdery in die Noord-Kaap kan bydra tot volhoubare grond- en landbouhervorming. My teoretiese raamwerk berus op politieke ekologie en begrippe van volhoubare ontwikkeling wat sosiale en ekonomiese geregtigheid as ononderhandelbare noodsaaklikhede beskou, tesame met respek vir planetêre grense. Die groei van wildboerdery in Suid-Afrika word onderskeidelik toegeskryf aan sosio-politieke, ekonomiese, klimaats en ekologiese redes. Daar is na raming 11,500 wildplase in Suid-Afrika wat, volgens Wildbedryf Suid-Afrika (2017), 20 miljoen hektaar marginale grond na produktiewe grond omgeskakel het. Ondanks wildboerdery se gerapporteerde sukses, word dit in Suid-Afrika betwis. Terwyl die voorstanders daarvan argumenteer dat boere wat oorskakel in lyn is met volhoubare landboupraktyke en die bevordering van die bewaring van biodiversiteit, meen kritici dat wildboerdery deur ander motiewe gedryf word, insluitend die ontwyking van grondhervorming deur die misgebruik van bewaring verhaaltrante. Dit is dus ‘n belangrike taak om hierdie debatte te analiseer en te kontekstualiseer in ‘n onder- ondersoekte gebied met ‘n baie spesifieke geskiedenis en ekologie. In die aanspreking van hierdie kwessies het ek ‘n gevallestudie-ontwerp gebruik wat ‘n gemengde-metodes- benadering aangewend het om data in te samel. Metodes wat gebruik is sluit in ‘n self- geadministreerde opname van kommersiële boere in die Ubuntu Plaaslike Munisipaliteit, in- diepte onderhoude met kommersiële en kleinboere, sowel as amptenare en ander sleutel informante, fokusgroep besprekings, waarnemings en dokumentêre analise. My belangrikste bevindings is, eerstens, dat die oorskakeling na wildboerdery in die Ubuntu Plaaslike Munisipaliteit hoofsaaklik aangespoor is deur ekonomiese faktore (toenemende produksiekoste, mark fluktuerings, ens.); nogtans, ekologiese oorwegings ten opsigte van die bestuur van droogte en klimaatsverandering en die uitputting van die natuurlike veld moedig boere aan om hul inkomste portefeuljes te diversifiseer. Tweedens, wildboerdery is nie meer iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za of minder medepligtig in onvolhoubare boerdery as ander vorme van boerdery nie; dit hang af van hoe dit beoefen word. In ‘n konteks van sosiaal-ekologiese verandering, kan dit bydra tot meer volhoubare grondbestuur en plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkeling in droë omgewings (byvoorbeeld deur nuwe vorme van indiensneming) indien dit toepaslik gereguleer word as deel van ‘n groter reeks meer doeltreffende grond- en landbouhervorming projekte. Derdens, die toetreding van kleinboere tot kommersiële veeboerdery word ernstig belemmer deur ‘n gebrek aan toegang tot kritieke hulpbronne wat grond, finansiële hulp, voorligtingsdienste en produksievaardighede insluit. In hierdie konteks word wildboerdery gesien as verder as wat hulle in die Ubuntu Plaaslike Munisipaliteit kan visualiseer of nastreef. v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements This study was made possible by Prof Cherryl Walker’s DST/NRF SARChI Research Chair in The Sociology of Land, Environment and Sustainable Development. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof Cherryl Walker whose encouragement, patience, kindness and enthusiasm have anchored me throughout this journey. Despite the difficulties and challenges I’ve gone through this journey, her support remained steadfast. I would also like to thank the Graduate School of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University for its financial and other support, through its scholarship programme. Special mention to Dr Cindy Steenkamp and Tanja Malan who through their efforts have made this journey hassle free. Gratitude is also owed to the Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology for its financial support at a time I needed it the most. A big thank you to Genay Dhelmine and Nwabisa Madikane for their unwavering administrative support. To my research participants who welcomed me into their homes and their offices and made time to speak to me, my gratitude. Without your voices, this study would not have been possible. To the Karoosters who have become family, thank you for making this journey exceptional and fun. It was a delight to be amongst such a dynamic group of individuals; I wish you all the best in your journeys and may we meet again. To my siblings and niece, Joyce,
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