No. 23 Debating Land Reform, Natural DECEMBER Resources and Poverty 2006
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No. 23 Debating land reform, natural DECEMBER resources and poverty 2006 Management of some commons in southern Africa: Implications for policy CASS/PLAAS Commons Southern Africa Doreen Atkinson, Michael Taylor and Frank Matose Profound transformations in communal land tenure systems are taking place in parts of southern Africa that have resulted from decades of interventions, particularly the shrinking of the commonage through capture of extensive tracts of lands by private interests. Some policies have been into place that envisage improved management of common rangeland resources through privatisation. However, empirical evidence is lacking as to what extent these may have been successful. Traditional management systems in communal areas have been broken down to the extent that many of them are now more characteristic of open access systems. An alternative to meeting the challenge of managing resources in common rangelands is to develop community-based rangeland resource management systems that build on the strengths of traditional management approaches. Therefore a call is made on the use of indigenous knowledge systems and empowering communities to manage their rangeland resources, in order to prevent open access and promoting improved rangeland management and more sustainable livelihoods. Introduction Formalising common property management regimes, Recognising the dynamics of power into which community- therefore, is one route to legitimate and formalise a form based natural resource management (CBNRM) is inserted of common property ownership on commons that may brings to the fore questions of governance, and the rights, otherwise have been regarded as available for private or lack of rights, which rural dwellers have to access, use, accumulation. As such, one of the most important manage, or own, natural resources so as to control their contributions of CBNRM may become the crucial role it own destinies. An analysis of CBNRM is an important can play in protecting remaining land in the commonage part of understanding the wider trends of land and tenure from further alienation by individual interests. With this reform in Africa. perspective, it is crucial that CBNRM is able to become The critical bearing that land tenure has on development established in rangelands, as it is in these semi-arid and poverty reduction is beginning to be more widely realised. production areas of Africa that the poor are most vulnerable Especially in semi-arid ecosystems, rural populations rely to large-scale privatisation of previously common-pool more on extensive use of common rangelands, rather than resources. Three experiences from Namibia, the Nama intensive use of small private plots. However, a significant Karoo in South Africa and from Botswana’s communal trend in African rangelands has become the fragmentation rangelands are used to explore issues of people-centred of previously common rangelands into private parcels by approaches around the management of commonly held a growing number of agrarian capitalists, elites and state rangelands. agents. Processes of land capture by a privileged minority are often Community institutions for rangeland driven by state-led ‘reforms’, those governing agricultural management in Namibia development in Botswana being a prime example. Land is On the whole, community institutions appeared to be very the basic means of production in predominantly agrarian active in conservation and development in Namibia, and and pastoral economies, and a safety net from absolute to work effectively with NGOs and relevant government poverty for many households. The far-reaching changes departments in achieving community objectives in these in patterns of land tenure in Africa that have taken place areas. The following factors seemed to contribute to the in the post-independence era are therefore likely to have effective functioning of such community institutions: profound impacts on the ability of households to get out • A good chain of communication and operation between of, or keep out of, poverty. Diminishing access to land in interest groups, community institutions, NGOs and Africa, obfuscated by the common characterisation of government departments. Africa as being land-abundant, is a fundamental constraint • The ability to raise and manage their own funds, for to effective environmental management and poverty example through community camp sites and the reduction. proposed lodge in Grootberg. PLAAS POLICY BRIEF NO. 23 DECEMBER 2006 Page 1 • A high level of ownership by the community of projects eco-tourism and livestock ventures. Other key stakeholders that have been started, because there is often significant such as the donor community and NGOs also play a big investment in such projects by community members role in implementing the plan. In particular, they have themselves, such as, in the goat breeding schemes. been supporting the establishment of conservancies by • There is also a high level of ownership by the community providing funding as well as technical support. of the natural resources in their vicinity. Communities The conservancy model of development recognises the regard such resources as their own, rather than belonging need to empower local communities through giving them to the government. This acts as an incentive to invest in power to manage range resources within their localities. management. Community empowerment in resource • The community institutions have highly motivated monitoring leaders. In order to assist communities to develop sound project • The committees’ members are well trained and educated management practices, the Ministry of Agriculture through in their technical and administrative responsibilities. the co-operative movement provides training in all aspects • Extension workers on the ground appear to be effective, of project management, including financial management motivated and trained in participatory techniques and reporting. Other stakeholders also contribute to project The process of building effective CBNRM institutions development by visiting regularly to assess project progress is a lengthy one. For example, over ten years of capacity and to advise on any matters relating to the project. building and other assistance has been invested into Such techniques include local-level monitoring of Grootberg committees to get them to the point they are range conditions and resource conditions in general. The at today. government is committed to providing training to both All participating stakeholders have been together in the communal and commercial ranches as well. Training is based Forum for Integrated Resource Management (FIRM) to on simple techniques that can easily be used and findings provide planning and implementation assistance to the interpreted by the local farmers. Through these techniques umbrella community-based organisation (CBO). This farmers are able to collect information that allows them to has promoted strong and well functioning community make informed decision on range management. conservation and development because an appropriate service delivery approach has been agreed upon, all Livestock production and marketing services are channelled through one organisation; there The role of the Namibian government in supporting is co-operation between all participating institutions; and community-based livestock development initiatives is very community support-providing agencies have ensured they significant. The support comes mainly as subsidies on avoid duplication. production input such as water, auction facilities, veterinary services, and borehole maintenance and repair. On the downside, a gap appeared to exist between the The government, through farmers’ unions, facilitates community institutions and the communities themselves. the adoption of improved farming techniques by local While the committee members were well motivated, communities. In particular farmers are encouraged to form many community members were not actively involved associations through which they can lobby and receive in resource management. Most efforts were directed at support. After organising themselves, farmers are provided deriving monetary benefits from natural resources, with with good quality rams and bulls to improve their herds. few initiatives aimed at actively rehabilitating degraded For one to benefit from the scheme he/she has to make areas a contribution towards its development. This could be a Stakeholder support for community initiatives contribution in kind, or take the form of a contribution of The commitment of stakeholders to supporting community- live animals. level initiatives in communal rangeland management The FIRM approach and natural resources conservation in Namibia has been The Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN) demonstrated through FIRM. The approach promotes uses the FIRM approach as a way of enhancing the active participation by all stakeholders in planning of capacity of communities to be in the ‘driver’s seat’ of their projects. It strongly advocates for ‘putting communities own development. Communities are trained to develop at the centre of their development process’. Through this their own potential to initiate and implement among other approach, stakeholders including community members are things, alternative approaches to combat desertification, brought together to plan their activities. creating awareness within their communities about issues The Namibian government has adopted an integrated of desertification as well as alternative