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The Generational and Social Class Bases of Pro-Democratic Culture in Turkey: a Quantitative Analysis with WVS Data

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The Generational and Social Class Bases of Pro-Democratic Culture in Turkey: a Quantitative Analysis with WVS Data The Generational and Social Class Bases of Pro-Democratic Culture in Turkey: A Quantitative Analysis with WVS Data Murat İnan A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Department of Politics 16.06.2016 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Working as a PhD student at the University of Sheffield, was an interesting and challenging experience for me. This is a brief but sincere acknowledgement to all those who supported me in this part of my life. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family; my mother, Naciye İnan and my father, Osman İnan. Without their support since I was born, I would not be where I am today. I take special pleasure in acknowledging my first supervisor Dr Maria Grasso, who contributed immensely to my academic development. Although my PhD project was her first ‘First Supervision’, she was visionary, supportive and understanding. Her enthusiasm and energy for research have been particularly motivational for me. Without her support over the last few years, it would have hardly been possible for me to finalize my doctoral work. I will always be grateful for having the opportunity to work with her. I would also like to acknowledge Dr Alistair McMillan for accepting my Ph.D. proposal and for being my First Supervisor in the first year of my studies and since then my Second Supervisor. I also would like to thank him for reading my final draft thesis and making several important suggestions for this work. I am also very grateful to Mrs Sarah Cooke, who has always been there for me to help and provide guidance. ii My PhD project would not have materialized without the financial support provided by the Ministry of National Education of Turkey. The Study Abroad Program has provided a bright future for thousands of young people in Turkey since it started in 1923. I am grateful to those who initiated this program and to those who developed it over the years. I also would like to take the opportunity to thank the current personnel of the Education Counsellor of the Turkish Embassy in London who worked hard to solve my problems when I was abroad. Moreover, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Professor Dr Yılmaz Esmer and his team for the development of the World Values Study dataset for Turkey, allowing researchers like me to pursue their interests. I also would like to thank to him for accepting to be the external examiner in my viva. I also thank to Dr Todd Hartman for agreeing to be my internal examiner. Additionally, I want to thank to two brave men, Bora Üstünbaş and M. Fatih Çimen, who showed an unprecedented example of good fellowship. Their friendship and trust will always be remembered gratefully. I also would like to thank to Dr Ali Onur Özçelik for his friendship and contribution to my knowledge with wise discussions. Finally, I am indebted to the participants at the following events for providing useful comments on my work: the White Rose Annual Colloquium at University of York, the Marie Curie Active Citizenship and Young People in Turkey Workshop at Bilgi iii University, and the International Journal of Arts and Sciences (IJAS) Conference at Harvard University. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... ii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. xii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2. THREE PHASES OF THE 20th CENTURY TURKISH POLITICAL HISTORY ............................................................................................................................ 10 2.1. The Foundation Period .............................................................................................. 13 2.1.1. The Ottoman Empire in the First World War ..................................................... 13 2.1.2. The Independence War and the foundation of modern Turkish Republic ......... 16 2.1.3. The single-party period ....................................................................................... 17 2.1.4. The beginning of the multi-party era .................................................................. 20 2.2. The Interim Period .................................................................................................... 28 2.3. The Post-1980 Period ................................................................................................ 45 CHAPTER 3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................ 78 3.1. Democracy and Political Culture .............................................................................. 79 3.2. Modernization Theory ............................................................................................... 83 3.2.1. The Industrial Revolution ................................................................................... 83 v 3.2.2. The French Revolution ....................................................................................... 86 3.2.3. What is modernization? ...................................................................................... 91 3.3. The Generation Phenomenon and Mannheim’s Theory of Generations ................. 101 3.3.1. The concept of generation ................................................................................ 101 2.3.1.1. Generation as a principle of kinship descent ............................................. 106 2.3.1.2. Generation as a non-genealogical phenomenon ........................................ 111 2.3.1.2.1. Generation as a life stage (Age effect) ................................................ 113 2.3.1.2.2. Generation as a historical period (Period effect) ................................. 115 2.3.1.2.3. Generation as a cohort (Cohort effect) ................................................ 117 2.3.3. The impressionable years hypothesis versus later life experiences hypothesis ................................................................................................................................ 121 2.3.3.1. The impressionable years hypothesis ................................................. 122 2.3.3.2. Later life experiences hypothesis ....................................................... 125 3.4. Mannheim’s Theory of Generations ....................................................................... 129 3.5. Lipset’s Working Class Authoritarianism Thesis ................................................... 134 CHAPTER 4. DATA AND METHODS ........................................................................... 146 4.1. Data ...................................................................................................................... 146 4.2. Variables .............................................................................................................. 148 4.2.1. Dependent Variables ..................................................................................... 148 vi 4.2.2. Independent Variables .................................................................................. 150 4.2.2.1. Generation .............................................................................................. 151 4.2.2.2. Social Class ............................................................................................ 154 4.2.3. Controls ......................................................................................................... 155 4.3. Method ................................................................................................................. 156 CHAPTER 5. A PARTICIPATORY GENERATION? THE GENERATIONAL AND CLASS BASES OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN TURKEY ................................ 159 5.1. Theory ..................................................................................................................... 161 5.2. Data and Method ..................................................................................................... 166 5.2.1. Data ................................................................................................................... 167 5.2.2. Variables ........................................................................................................... 167 5.2.2.1. Dependent Variable ................................................................................... 167 5.2.2.2. Independent Variables ............................................................................... 168 5.2.3. Method .............................................................................................................. 168 5.3. Findings ................................................................................................................... 168 5.4. Conclusion and Discussion ..................................................................................... 183 CHAPTER 6. A DEMOCRACY-PRONE GENERATION? THE GENERATIONAL AND CLASS BASES OF DEMOCRACY PREFERENCE IN TURKEY ................................ 188 6.1. Theory ....................................................................................................................
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