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Early Modern Philosophy of Technology: Bacon and Descartes

CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Doctor forof fulfilment degree requirements the the of partial In Submitted to Central European Central University to Submitted Supervisor: Professor Hanoch Professor Ben-YamiSupervisor: Philosophy ofPhilosophy Technology: Bacon and DescartesBacon and Department ofDepartment Philosophy Early Modern Early Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Robert Robert Arnăutu in Philosophyin 2013 By CEU eTD Collection June 2013 Robert Arnăutu reference. form inofbibliographic been has the made acknowledgement appropriate where except person, other any by published and/or written previously material no contains dissertation this that declare I Also, education. higher of institutions other any in degrees other any for accepted materials no contains dissertation this that declare hereby I noticeCopyright i

CEU eTD Collection between and technology. naturebetween and technology, of character scientific and similaritythe scope the , and arts mechanical of centrality the utility, philosophy: their of ideas core the of some clarify to and to rend justice to fails analysis epistemological an since perspective, technological the from works their approach I influence powerful their emphasize to order in Moreover, view. pre-modern the against it analyse to necessary was it shift Descartes’Bacon’s and of magnitude the understand to accordingly, production; material toward approach contemporary the of background familiar the became philosophy. technology natural regarding of core ideas These the become mechanics and arts mechanical while knowledge, proper of status the to raised is artefacts new of invention machines, or artefacts, about thinking philosopher; natural the of endeavour proper a the becomes function; and constitution their technological in and identical things are natural artefacts prostheses; by improved be can body the even and inventions, technological through transformed completely be can nature value; genuine a is technology toward considered be to comes utility Descartes’ Bacon’smaterial and in works: approach reversed completely This artefacts. of production the and knowledge proper between gap irreducible is an there men; for free and nobility the for is unsuited objects useful producing and inventing of activity the artefacts; technological and things natural between kind in difference a is there moreover, it; to improvements small bring only can but nature surpass cannot thinkers, Greek Ancient to according Technology, needs. material satisfy ignoble to aims that endeavour lower a it considering it, disvalue to tended world Ancient the history, of dawn the since of activity constant a been has artefacts of production the Although production. material useful regarding conceptions pre-modern the challenged who Descartes, and Bacon to indebted is technology of understanding contemporary The Abstract ii

CEU eTD Collection Last but not least I want to thank my wife, Csilla, and my sons, Matei and David, for David, and Matei sons, my and dissertation. write the timeto me andsupporting allowing the me Csilla, wife, my thank to want I least not but Last Department ofPhilosophy, classes. wonderful fortheir the at professors Ben-Yami, Hanoch and Weberman David Farkas, Katalin to grateful am I great patience. and his philosophical guidance his for for and Ben-Yami, comments, helpful and Hanoch criticism constructive Professor his for support, supervisor, moral and my intellectual thank to like would I all of First Acknowledgements iii

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CEU eTD Collection BACON’S II CHAPTER AUTONOMIZATION OF TECHNOLOGY I CHAPTER Table of Contents 4. C 3. T 2. N 1. E 3. C 2. T 1. P I L T A A C NTRODUCTION IST ABLE OPYRIGHT CKNOWLEDGEMENTS BSTRACT 1. Theterm ‘technology’ precursorsand its 3.3. Fruitful Technology 3.2. Enlightening Technology Instruments3.1. Scientific 2.5. Technological Method 2.4. ThePlace Technology of in Bacon’s System Nature2.3. TheContinuity between andTechnology 2.2. TheDiachronic Nature’s of Image Contingency 2.1. TheSynchronous of Image Nature’s Contingency 1.3. Bacon’s Criticism andMagic of Mechanics 1.2. Mechanical Arts asaModel Philosophical for Research 1.1. Printing Press, andCompass 3.5. Artificial Instruments Scientific Revelation: 3.4. Natural andMetallurgy2.3. Mining 2.2. 2.1. Mechanics Status1.6. TheSocial Technology of 1.5. Classification τέχνη of andτέχνη1.4. Knowledge 1.3. Automata andMotion 1.2. Nature andτέχνη 1.1. ’s Approach Technology to 4. Thesis outline 2. ThePlace Technology of Modern in Studies Early LATO YPES HE XAMPLES ONCLUSION ONCLUSION ATURE

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OF A

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OF AND C BREVIATIONS ’ S

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A AND ECHNOLOGY ONTINGENCY ...... RISTOTLE ...... M ...... ETAPHORS ......

AND ...... T ECHNOLOGICAL ...... P ...... iv OSSIBILITIES ...... 103 106 98 93 87 81 77 74 70 66 63 60 54 52 48 45 33 27 24 22 18 16 11 92 70 60 59 57 29 10 11 VI IV III 8 6 2 II 1 I ......

CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSIONS BACON’S AND DESCARTES’ LEGACIES IV CHAPTER DESCARTES’ PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY IIICHAPTER 3. C 2. T 1. B 4. C 3. T 2. T 1. E 3.4. Mechanical Technology3.4. Mechanical 3.3. A Technological : New Design 3.2. Technology Vision of 3.1. Utility Value asaGenuine the MaterialWorld2.2. Changein 2.1. Space-Matter 1.3. ThePlace Mechanicswithin Philosophy of 1.2. MechanicsasMethod Man1.1. TheMechanical 2.5. Technology andEthics 2.4. Technology andScience Technology:2.3. Embedded Utility 2.2. 2.1. From Machines to Mechanisms 1.2. TheDifferences 1.1. Bacon’s Influence ECHNOLOGY HE HE XAMPLES ONCLUSION ACON ONCLUSION T D ECHNOLOGICAL ETERMINISTIC ’ S

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AND ...... D M ESCARTES ...... ETAPHORS E ...... P VOLUTION ...... ARADIGM ...... ’ P ...... ROJECT ......

OF ...... N ...... ATURE ...... v 154 148 142 138 130 126 120 109 169 166 162 159 157 118 116 112 148 148 147 126 109 108 176 172 171 157 118 CEU eTD Collection Works SV RA PO JB CSM/CSMK AT ofList Abreviations J., Stoothoff, R., Murdoch, D. and (for the third volume) Kenny A. A. Kenny volume) third the (for and D. Murdoch, R., Stoothoff, J., New edition,Paris: revised Vrin-CNRS. 1964–1974.11 volumes. Descartes de Oeuvres – Descartes René London: 1857-1874.14volumes. Longman, Bacon Francis of Works The PublishingHackett Company, 1989. – Descartes René by Ariew. 2000. – Descartes René and Geometry, Translated Publishing. J. Hackett 2001. andbyPaul edited Oldscamp. , Method, on Discourse – Descartes René retrievedat pdf document – Descartes René 1984-1991.3volumes.University Press. The Philosophical WritingsThe Philosophical of Descartes Conversation with Burman with Conversation The Passions of the Soul the of Passions The Philosophical and Correspondence and Essays Philosophical http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/descburm.pdf . Edited by J. Spedding, R. L. Ellis, and D. D. Heath. D. D. and Ellis, L. R. Spedding, J. by Edited . vi . . Edited by Charles Adam and Paul Tannery. Paul and Adam Charles by Edited . Translated and edited by Stephen Voss, Stephen by edited and Translated . . Translated by Jonathan Bennet, 2010, Bennet, Jonathan by Translated . . TranslatedCottingham, by and edited . Translated and edited and Translated . . .

CEU eTD Collection assumptions, and, in the fourth chapter, theassumptions, fourth and, in oftheir legacy. the content Ancient questions that transformations Renaissance the and change to manage they which paradigm Ancient the chapter first the in presented I century, twentieth the until unshaken concerning ideas their because but legacy a with shift paradigm chapter, a represent but others among instance an just not third are technology and the in done have I what is It aspects. these on precisely focus to chose I and technology of conceptions their to justice rend to Descartes’fails Bacon’s and works toward approach epistemological an Nevertheless, production. material toward approach scientific the on and arts, mechanical and mechanics of importance the on artefacts, creating of need the on knowledge, of character useful the on lay machines: of consideration philosophical insufficient an from come philosophy in errors all almost that Burman, with conversation his in appear that position, Descartes’ of formulation successful the quote to think, I sufficient, is it their of developments the in plays machines technology conceptualizing in produced Descartes and Bacon that shift paradigm the analyse I thesis, present the In missing. still is Descartes’, and Bacon’s i.e. understanding, modern its for stage the set that philosophical systems major the of technology on of focusing history analysis and an philosophy Nevertheless, the technology. to dedicated been has research of amount great A study. philosophical of object an became technology century twentieth the on half second the In Introduction Reading Bacon’s and Descartes’ works, one cannot fail to observe the emphasis they emphasis the observe to fail cannot one works, Descartes’ and Bacon’s Reading the been has this and should, we as philosophy. error in all source ofnearly much ( as machines of terms in think don’t We . As an example of the central place that the thinking about thinking the that place central the of example an As . 1 Conversation with Burman Conversation , JB

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mechanicae n hr bo, book, her In , which better renders the idea of lower lower of idea the renders better which , until the Renaissance and follows the conceptual evolutions of these terms. these of evolutions conceptual the follows and Renaissance the until , Carl Mitcham, the historian and philosopher of technology, argues against technology,argues of philosopher and historian the Mitcham, Carl , (1990), Elspeth Whitney exposes the principal characteristics of of characteristics principal the exposes Whitney Elspeth (1990), banausias techne aaie rsoe: te mcaia rs fo niut hog the through antiquity from arts mechanical the restored: Paradise and itsprecursors and , but this broad term also refer to rhetoric or poetry. In , when fact, poetry.In or rhetoric to refer also term broad this but , . . Banauson techne can be render in English as ‘vulgar’ and this term for term this and ‘vulgar’ as English in render be can techne ih te Egih tcnlg . Asuy o the of study A ... technology English the with 2 n and techne banausias , is not an appropriate of translation appropriate an not is , and the medieval and modern and medieval the and 1 But even the term the even But techne and

CEU eTD Collection proves the perceived ignoble character of productive arts. The views of Plato and AristotlePlato of are views arts. The productive of character ignoble perceived the proves as viewed primarily is technology Therefore production. utility. only aim at those that The of contempt Aristotle extends to material utility toward mere and pleasure bring to aim that arts productive the between division further a is there making of domain the in form. even And lowest the as making with making, and doing knowing, into the In experience. mere above of beginning classifies Aristotle the (980a-981b), In (289b). [5] ‘nourishment’” ‘vehicle’, [7] [4] ‘vessel’, ‘plaything’, [3] [6] ‘tool’, ‘defense’, [2] this after and beginning the at things of class “ classes: seven into production material of classification a offers In classifications. respective their is technology of evolution conceptual the for Aristotle an Plato of legacies the of One endeavour. ignoble Antiquity, an throughout arts. productive a common Ancient be specified. can that production regardinguseful material the conception as defined rarely are technology, call is we nowadays there what with dealing in unity of lack this Notwithstanding which navigation and are examples medicine, prominent most The 51) 1990, (Whitney, heading.” one called under now technology activities or arts the all subsumed arts the of classification ancient single “no and moral on made are distinctions and practices. objects aoftechnological as description and not epistemological grounds terminological these because ‘technology’, As a consequence of using external ground in considering various types of technology, of types various considering in ground external using of consequence a As practised are but capacities moral its orpleasures. (Whitney, physical needs satisfy 1990,30) or intellectual its either in involve soul not do the arts particular these that idea the from but alone character physicality technological their their nor from neither derived is arts banausic of inferiority The htvr tr s epoe o aeil pouto, tcnlg s considered, is technology production, material for employed is term Whatever Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean techne as the lowest form of human activity, just a little a just activity, human of form lowest the as 3 (1139b), (1139b), banausias Aristotle divides human activity human divides Aristotle we put the [1] first-born’ [1] the put we , a pejorative term that term pejorative a , Statesman 289b Plato 289b merely to

CEU eTD Collection 1990, 70) Johnthe Scot’s in occurs onMarcianus Capella’s commentary 3 anddangerous immoral. areeven human various salvationbut statestheseirrelevant to genius that for only arts arenot invented, ( the ground.” upon nothing bodyandphilosophy tools gazing a dowith which to amind has andinvolves else bent anything buildings, this manphilosopher who weavingto tools andfirst Senecaanswers invented wise that and and technology as Platocontempt towards did and Aristotle: reports assertingwas “Seneca Posidoniusit that a as 2 only The production. material useful towards contempt the maintains usage terminological illiberales term The ignoble. considered good. genuinely as but needs human ignoble the for useful “merely” as only not technology views Bacon, Francis in later appear will which idea, This 1150). 2009, (Mitcham, technology of evaluation positive true first the represent to said be can which Fall, the of losses the remedy these that is Victor St. theatrics. of Hugh of and idea important medicine Another preparation, food and hunting and armament agriculture, fabric-making, commerce, arts: building, liberal seven the with analogy in classes seven into of that term, single a under crafts, i.e. production, material treatise his in who, Victor St. of Middle Age: the until interpretation standard the remain and technology to approaches elaborated most the “The earliest known use of the term use earliest of “The the known the worthwhileopinionsSenecaand It is mention Saint to of here Augustine, expressed the same who A major change in the conception of technology comes in the Middle Age with Hugh with Age Middle the in comes technology of conception the in change major A the 1990,50-51) (Whitney as arts. orilliberal oftencrafts who banausic defined by him, on emphasis an and divine the influenced thinkers and Plato with associated primarily to was knowledge of value moral closest been those to already arts had lowest the craft from ordered toward hierarchically as knowledge attitudes of view A Aristotle. and basic Plato of time time, the and in formulated of detailed course increasingly became the over and elaborate arts the of classification Although ept uh o t itrs pstv vlain ehooy cnius t be to continues technology evaluation, positive Victor’s St. of Hugh Despite , Whitney 1990, Whitney artes vulgares artes 2 26) While Augustine, 22.24of Book in , artes sordidae artes artes mechanicae artes artes mechanicae Didascalicon saLtnrneigo re Greek of rendering a as , in the plural and referring to a category or group a of to category referring or arts the plural in and 4 is used interchangeably with terms like like terms with interchangeably used is (from the late 1130s), unifies the useful the unifies 1130s), late the (from Marriage ofMarriage andMercury Philology City God of artes mechanicae artes artes mechanicae artes , after praising the human , after banausias , 3 and divides it divides and are a way to way a are ” (Whitney, . This . artes

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CEU eTD Collection statistical weight ofstatistical about 0.006%. weight ‘technology’ while ‘philosophy’ weigh nineties a in of statistical 0.01% nearly had the a had (for comparison) 6 ‘mechanicalconcept arts’ ofterm. the new it meaning the extended was appropriatelacked because nolonger 5 approach. practical isa shiftthere toward a isinas ourpower, common the much as “procure, would that devices of creation scientific-based a to things material useful of production ignoble of practice the from Descartes and Bacon of works the through changed is meaning its that thesis my in show century, I twentieth the of beginning the until thirteenth 2. The of Place Technology Modern Studies in Early progress. to represent alsosymbolically systems”isused (Kline,methods, 2003,210)and and used widely extremely nowadays is ‘technology’ term The products. their and arts mechanical of collection the than more is it that and named to be reference to has that reality specific certain a is there that their was realized be to came and What things. mechanical specificity their of because machinery or arts, practical arts, industrial arts, mechanic like terms discourse public from eliminated It used. widely be In Google NGram, a software that analyses the recurrence of terms in all books archived by Google, the term books termsall byGoogle, in the a term NGram, of softwarethe In recurrence archived analyses that Google affirms Leo(2010) Marx the introduction that the term ‘technology’ of void filled a which semantic for the Only during the last century did the term the did century last the during Only 2010,562) (Marx, 1930s. the until currency popular trulygain not did it circles; and intellectual academic The majority of studies on the shows that in natural in that shows period Modern Early the on studies of majority The the from production material useful all for used is arts” “mechanical term the While The explicit shift to the defence of the active or practical life placed new requirements new placed life practical or active the of defence the to shift explicit The the and life practical or active contemplative the between was instance, first the in choice, The life, where philosophers had traditionally fallen in the latter category. latter the in fallen traditionally had philosophers where life, good of all mengood ofall 6 ” (AT” VI 61,RA 74). 5 acquired its extended meaning and come to come and meaning extended its acquired 6 “to represent things, actions, processes, actions, things, represent “to

CEU eTD Collection 04, o h te ad nte a ht m hss am o fli s ta between that is fulfil to aims thesis my that gap Another hand. other the on 2004), Wolfgang, 2006; Dorn, & McClellan (Sawday,2007; period Modern Early the of in technology importance the show toward that studies the approaches and philosophical hand, one these the on between machines, and gap mechanisms the fill to aims thesis My 2009). bo human the the of for understanding approach this of consequences the and mechanisms to approach its is philosophy approaches (Gaukroger, 2006,166). (Bacon, Works, epistemologicaluntrue.” by rejected usually is interpretation an Such 242) III, and vain in is it instance new any not but discover it if that conclude safely may true, you contrariwise be instances new discovereth which Axiom the that conclude always may “you truth: important, than more if not even becomes important, it as thethat point and Descartesto Bacon of works the in importance tremendous a gains utility that show to able was I approach technological a on myself positioning of consequence a humanity. As of well-being material works ofnew forthe the truths,creation but order to find in natural-philosophical of manipulation and creation the only the not presupposes that of philosophy practical extremity of spectrum the at themselves situate Descartes and Bacon that epistemological argue I thesis my an In offers (2006) etc. impartiality, justification, as such values cognitive on focusing Gaukroger interpretation, Consequently, experiments. through mainly world, the with between involvement material a as philosophers dichotomy modern early by understood classical the concern is practical because actions, moral doing not an means practical where practical, and contemplative for does stand shift Descartes, This Beeckman, life. Bacon, active/practical Galileo, as philosophers, modern Early oehr wt rciaiy ad uiiy aohr iprat faue o al Modern Early of feature important another utility, and practicality with Together aims of the active or practical life. (Gaukroger, life. activeorpractical aims ofthe 2006,199) the to up live to able were they that show to had now philosophers philosophy, for on ydy Ds Cee 2001) Chene, (Des 7

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CEU eTD Collection mechanical art, vulgarity,mechanical art, taste, quackery, bad charlatanism. 7 τάς bycalling it βαναυσίας ofτέχνη domain greater the from things, useful of production material the technology, out single tradition subsequent all and Plato city.Moreover, the in artisan the of status low the for argue to used it’s becoming study to ( soul the inappropriate.” compels it if but it’s appropriate, being, study to soul the compels geometry “If incorruptible: being of science a is such as geometry while being, into come that become, that things the of geometry a is it because science real the of opposite the even is artisan the of geometry practical The science. of principles the and proper the possess not does and possesscorrupt: isimpure man, the artisan, practical ofknowledgethe the that that type the in that, stresses Plato and craftsmanship in involved is knowledge Although involved. is knowledge real no which in on guesses, only lucky and based experience as routine, technology of view popular (probably) the criticizes Plato embedded. Handicrafts. Other meanings specified by dictionaries: the habits of a mere artisan, the practice of a theof themere habits practice a artisan, Handicrafts. mere meanings bydictionaries: specified Other ‘adding’, and the like, whereas the entire subject is pursued for the sake of knowledge. of sake the for pursued is subject entire the whereas like, the and ‘adding’, men for it, help can’t they is though it, of science accounts ridiculous this give that dispute will They geometry practitioners... its of accounts the in it of about said is what of opposite the experience entirely little a even with one No eti cuain n ciiis rmrl u o xlsvl hs requiring those exclusively not but primarily labor, rathermental, physical, than (Whitney, and base. inferior as 1990,27-28) activities, and occupations labelled certain which attitudes social strongly and was philosophical with crafts associated for was banausic and term pejorative the Plato after neutral and the before not Both is ... crafts βαναυσίας for uses he word the body, and mind human the In craftsman the and science real the of form ignoble an is artisan the of geometry The ( Republic , and all all and , Republic 527a, my emphasis) 527a, their accounts refer to doing things doing to refer accounts their (495e) when Socrates casually remarks that manual crafts debase the debase crafts manual that remarks casually Socrates when (495e) 7 : 12 Republic 526e) This distinction will be further be will 526e) This distinction . They talk of ‘squaring’, ‘applying’, ‘squaring’, of talk They . they speak like practical like speak they Republic qua τέχνη being, of the of being, Plato shows Plato but τάς but

CEU eTD Collection carries some weight with respect to withcarries antiquity.” somerespect weight (Whitney, 1990,34) Middle and to Bacon;thiscomplexity although into detailuntil Francis the judgementfails take account Ages, it 8 ( something” for seat a being always other, or supporting some of sake the for all is “it which bronze-working, and pottery carpentry, produced” have craftsmen what ( preserving of sake the “for made things the comprises ( being” into coming the causing of purpose “the for made things the ‘Tools’for. are good are they what on artefacts, practical the 55e, and artisan.knowledge ofthe 258e at stated as is, things making for ingredient important other further.The pursue to order in materials raw and tools from proceeds necessarily technology that view the to amounts contradiction this Nevertheless, most class. the technological is fundamental materials raw the obtaining that considering classes, of nor order city, the changes a he be to come never would these ( statesmanship.” Without large. or small whether city the in tool any produce that expertise of sorts the all causes contributory being as down put must “we possible: be would civilization no Consequently, possible. be would class technological ( production” of causes “contributory called is Tool-making technology. of basis the is tools of production the because class special a as tool-making distinguished Plato classes, these Of technology.terminology, contemporary in or, ‘craftsmanship’ called be can that all comprise ( ‘nourishment’” [7] ‘plaything’, [6] ‘defense’, [5] [1] the ‘vehicle’, put [4] ‘vessel’, [3] ‘tool’, [2] we this after and beginning if the at things of ‘first-born’ class appropriate most be would “it made: things the of use intended the on Statesman Statesman “Pierre-Maxime Schuhl has claimed that Plato's classifications of technological arts were not superseded classifications not Schuhl in claimed arts “Pierre-Maxime Plato's that of were technological has In the the In Plato consequently classifies technology in seven domains based on the teleology of teleology the on based domains seven in technology classifies consequently Plato 8e, lk mhr n an; te ‘eil’ cas cmrss pout of products comprises class ‘vehicle’ the barns; and amphora like 287e), other no tools, Without classes. other all in used are tools because 281e) Statesman Statesman , Plato discovers by analysis seven great technological classes technological great seven analysis by discovers Plato , Statesman 287d) However, in the end of his analysis of technology, at 289b, technology, at of analysis his of end the in However, 287d) 287e), all instruments used by craftsmen; the ‘vessel’ the craftsmen; by used classinstruments all 287e), Statesman 13 Statesman 288a); the ‘defense’ class comprises class ‘defense’ the 288a); 8b hs ee classes seven These 289b) 8 based

CEU eTD Collection feature of the Platonic text. the Platonic feature of the efficientfour finalan which cause, not explicit is causes, and cause the the cause, formal the cause, material this of made. the technology:the purpose the to thing But, would amount element of Aristotelian of the analysis 10 artisans. of aboutexecuted thedecorations bylower byartistsbut common about art the works made 9 Renaissance until lasts that theme recurrent a is This artisan. of status ontological and social to created studynature. theinstruments, classofthings scientific of that Renaissance, during added be will class technological new a 50-51), 1990, life. to human which are ofproduction, necessary thesomehow mode whatever health. ( cook” the and doctor the gymnasium, the in trainer the hunter, the farmer, the of arts “the ( together” put not are that things of classes from things composite of classes of up working the possible “make that arts the all and skinner”, the of art “the plants”, of covering outer the off stripping of art “the tree-felling”, of “art mined”, is that everything and silver and “gold ( amusement” for done are all but purpose, serious a of sake the for is them of one “not pleasures”, us give to solely executed been have which music, of and painting, of use the by completed are that imitations those and painting, things” other of thousands ( of tens and stone, of out or earth, of out made encirclements those all walls, and armor, most clothing, “all defending”, of purpose the “for made things Statesman Statesman Statesman Here Plato introduces among crafts what usually pertains to fine arts. But his whatarts. shows pertains this introduces usually that But Here fine not Plato to explanation is among crafts Based on this classification, one can add, beside tools, raw materials and knowledge, a knowledge, fourth materials canbeside raw classification, important Based and tools, onthis one add, 10 An important part of Plato’s approach to technology is the stress he puts on the lower the on puts he stress the is technology to Plato’sapproach of part important An in measurement accurate more for need the to response in and .navigation, surveying, (Glick, 2004,333) 1540s, the at , in (in made emerged first least) who functions distinct with craftsmen instruments scientific specialized of line been a had there of production the for craft Ages specialized a of emergence the later,clocks, and, astrolabes Middle the in Although (Whitney, variations many time over receives technology, that of Toclassification this ehooy cmrss al hmn md rdcs ad te ascae practices, associated the and products made human all comprises Technology 289a), i.e. all technologies of obtaining and preparing food, and good and medicines food, preparing and obtaining of technologies all i.e. 289a), finally,and materials; raw of obtaining ‘nurture’ the the i.e. 288e), comprises class decoration, with do to things of class fifth “a is class ‘playthings’ the 288b); Statesman 14 288c); 9 the ‘first-born’ class consists of consists ‘first-born’ class the

CEU eTD Collection made out ofdifferentcivilcapabilities:made their diminishes that and that basematerials the in mythical Plato’s ( lines.” right the on back him got they’ve until dishonour and disgrace of marks with him punish must City-Wardens the virtue, of cultivation the to of instead craft some to attention his turns bred and born citizen a “If artisans: become would that citizens the for ( crafts.” or arts the in lies vocation whose workers the of ranks the enter should servants his of any nor land our of citizen no First, this. be should policy our general, in craftsmen for “As endeavour: such of ignobleness the for argues and users’ prescriptions. the follow should they and technology of users the to inferior are artisans the words, other In ( use.” actual in badly or well performs products his of which maker a tells he and ... of it experience hasmost thing of each user “a domain: own their in experts real the not being. with not and becoming with dealsAnother are they is that argumentartisans the against it because form lower a of is craftsmanship in involved knowledge The Ideas. incorruptible the and ‘being’ is life of purpose highest the while ‘becoming’ with only deal artisans that fact the is contempt this for reason Platonic one mentioned, already we As beyond. even and who made you mixed some gold in those who are adequately equipped to rule, to equipped adequately are bronze farmers in andother the craftsmen who those in gold and whoauxiliaries silver in most are put those valuable.He are because they some mixed you made who god the story, ‘but our telling in them to say brothers’ we’ll are city the in you of ‘All the Finally,in Laws , Plato explicitly regards craftsmanship as a disgrace for a citizen a for disgrace a as craftsmanship regards explicitly Plato , Republic for banning citizenship to artisans is that they are they that is artisans to citizenship banning for 15 ’. ( Republic Laws 846d) He specifies punishments specifies He 846d) 415a, my emphasis) Republic Laws iron and 601d) 847a)

CEU eTD Collection completion ofnature’scompletion purposes. a innovation, an is house the of form the fact, In invention. pure from nor imitation pure from neither comes house a of form the that shows and house a of example the takes He nature? of imitation an it is or invention human a it Is from. comes form this where explain to tries human purpose. some man’s for in soul pre-exists that form a matter in imprint who men of work the by made are that things the i.e. them, produced that craftsmen the in causes) final the and efficient the by formal, caused (the causes is their thing have that the things the i.e. are thing, things Technological the else. something to external being its and itself thing the in being (final worship religious cause the between that is 45-47) Aristotle draws distinction 2005, An important (Ross, cause). for serves it and cause), (efficient tools of help the with actions artist’s by made is it cause), (formal form particular its having cause), (material bronze of efficientismade cause,statue the out formal example,a For bronze final and the cause. cause, the cause, material the art: by or naturally either exist, that thing every for causes four are his in establishes Aristotle technology. of treatment comprehensive more a has he but Plato repeat simply not does Aristotle Nevertheless, mathematics. on emphasis latter’s the for except Plato, as technology of conception same the basically presents Aristotle 1.2. Nature and τέχνη hn s fr te sk f te ohr n eeal r n sm ae completes cases some in art generally and other; ( nature. the of sake [ the for is then, by one, The only nature. by not as way same made the in were be to nature come would they by art, by made also but things nature if and art; by now is it as way same the in made been have would it nature, by made thing a been had e.g., house, a if Thus Aristotle soul. his in pre-exists that form certain a matter on imprints craftsman The epiteleitai Physics ] htntr antbigt iih n nohr mttsimitates others in and finish, a to bring cannot nature what , 199a) 16 Physics that there that [ mimeitai ]

CEU eTD Collection Pistelli, B13) Iamblichus, of Protrepticus nutritionDialogues, preservation, atand 49.3-51.6 birth the both matter (I in later” all; ...similarly, his fullbutneeds for bythemselves, many attaintheir arts some nature man animalstoo some able othersdoes aid,difficulty things completebut with to it byitselfwithout seems nature doat or cannot 11 imitation If imitation. with thing same the less or more is nature complete Moreover, to them. produced have would nature as exactly things produce to is technology of aim the or nature is T forms. new inventing without things of evolution natural the completing or things natural imitating of matter a is technology Therefore, nature. craftsman imitate faithfully should the naturally, exists thing the If development. of path natural the following by souls: thathave rational spiders, etc.) donot (birds, animals of work the through things other spider-webs and nests, creates nature because cannotnature finish. what complete to way natural a is technology human Consequently, operations). complex too requires houses (building complexity of because partly illness), by damaged is (health accident of because partly purposes its itself by accomplish cannot nature that is problem only A passageis in similar found the matter which determines the production in the making and producing of any work any of producing and making the in production the determines which matter the cases some in that is reason The house. a e.g. not, are others while health, e.g. art, by as well as spontaneously produced are things some why raised, be might question The The development. natural a of stage final a is it end; natural a is house the of form The Thus, in cases in which the product of technology does not exist naturally, it is made is it naturally, exist not does technology of product the which in cases in Thus, by is it whether wonder people ( like. why is That the and ants, spiders, - work, creatures these that deliberation. faculty other some by or intelligence or after art by neither nor things make they man: than other animals the in obvious most is This technology, human to particular not is purposes, natural completing of feature, This existsucha( person. without others can while them, making of art the has who one some from apart exist cannot things some Therefore ... way particular some in not but themselves by motion in set be can things many for this; of incapable is matter other while required, moveway particular can the some in kind itself former the of and nature, this of not is cases some in and by motion itself in set be to as such is present, is product the of part a which in and art, of Physics , 199a) Fragments 11 : “art exists to aid nature and to fill up what nature leaves undone. leaves For and nature fill nature to exists “art upwhat : aid 17 Metaphysics , 1034a) echnology’send

CEU eTD Collection amount to identity between natural products and technological products. It is true that a house a that true is It products. technological and products natural between identity to amount not do nature of completion the and imitation The motion. of principles the and automata of consideration the is from Antiquity distinguishes that theme important very A 1.3. Automata and Motion processes. sequencefollow ofnatural the should operations technological of Similarly,order B14) the Pistelli, 54.10-56.12 Protrepticus Iamblichus, Dialogues, (Fragments, something.” of sake the for being into their come all products that characteristic the derived have arts the that nature from is it nature, art imitates then, “If, nature. of character purposive the of imitation an is technology of nature.” character from purposive discovered The B47) were Pistelli, 54.10-56.12 tools Protrepticus Iamblichus, best Dialogues, the (Fragments, crafts ordinary the “in objects: natural of copies are they if operation an for suited best are technology in used Tools proceeding. in potentially nature. thingsdonot that exist to isimpossible create because it or perfection natural impair would that because either nature, of potentialities existing the completenot do nature. with and new totally arethat Aristotle inventions technological rejects conflictin tobe to come might one technology,otherwise nature; the modify imitating by except try not should One invention. of desirability the and possibility the rejects passage the of element normative The it. understood scholastics the how indeed is this and so, be should technology that prescribes also it but imitation, an is technology that describes It normative. from earlier quoted passage The nature. of intent the consider always should technician The be. should naturally they way same the in things do to is nature complete to nature, in are they way same the in things do to means Technology needs to imitate nature not only in its final products but also in its ways of ways its in also but products final its in Technologyonly not nature imitate to needs Physics 18 should be read both as descriptive and as and descriptive as both read be should

CEU eTD Collection riiil atnmu oeet rqie xlnto. I h ae o a ro o f an of or arrow an movement continuously: cause the mover not automaton, does the of case the In explanation. requires movement Thus, autonomous moved. thing artificial the with contact permanent in general, in be, to have that exist must mover some external, is it If external. or internal either is Movement thing. the to external is ( change.” to impulse innate no have – art of products are they as far so in i.e. – designations these receiving qua sort, that of else anything and coat a and bed “a themselves: by change ofchange. ititsprinciples own product retains and technological the in present wholly is of) made is thing the (what cause material the Only things. of nature real the change not does it and substance imprinted the to accidental only is matter. on them imprints that technician the in lie of technology causes Thisformal imprinting not self-reproducible: are monsters, artefacts like accident and, the of character the has technology order, natural the of view of point the From technology. for limit absolute an is motion, of principle internal of that self-reproduction, of natural that objects, of property certain a However, concerned. is house a of function actual the as far bynature. made wouldhave athat been house byart to holdsasmade issimilar The similarity Physics in accordance with the rules of the art is merely an accidental attribute, whereas the whereas attribute, accidental an merely is art the of rules the with accordance in arrangement the that shows which wood; but up, come would that bed a be not would it shoot, a up sending of power the acquired wood rotting the and bed a planted you If requires an external mover, someone or something to apply an outside force of some of force outside an apply to something or someone mover, external an requires always motion such that proclaimed He as motion. natural) motion against (as such violent or all forced envisioned Aristotle explanation. requires arrow, an of flight the as such us, around world the in observed motion non-spontaneous air, and fire, water, earth, of composed bodies of motion down or up occurring naturally the to addition In cannot they thus and products technological to external are change of principles The and final efficient, The not. is nature while products its to external is Technology process. the through continuously persists further, ( which, other, the is substance Physics , 192b) Technological products cannot move by themselves. The cause of movement of cause The themselves. by move cannot Technological products 192b) , , 193a) 19

CEU eTD Collection them bythethem artisan. in imprinted was automata of motion potential the i.e. automata, the in contained potentially is motion The environment. the by mechanically caused motion animal the with similar is this and form substantial their is motion local only affects that chain causal This chain. causal a through mover a by motion of in set kind are They one locomotion. transform of kind can another into design, locomotion of basis the on they, that fact the by self-movement with animals compares in automata Aristotle movements, animal Discussing quasi-autonomously. mover. ofanythe external help without time of period long too a for autonomously move to tend they for unexplained, still thing: the movermoved and the any forsomecontactbetween timewithout act Aristotle explains that a movement can sometimes be so violent that it can continue to continue can it that violent so be sometimes can movement a that explains Aristotle Dorn,(McClellan & 2006,75) pushing.) the does somehow medium the said himself (Aristotle cases? those in mover the is Where mover. its with contact lost has it after flight in javelin the exist: or counterexamples arrow the paradoxical But pen. the guides hand wind the and the sail, cart, the the blows pulls horse the easily confirmed: be apparently can principle movers the Aristotelian and instances identified of majority vast the In object. the with contact constant in be must mover Moreover,the question. in motion the cause to sort uoai upt h xenl fre mvs te prs i eti es nt by (not sense certain a in parts the these moves in then, force As, actuality. external in the moved puppets is next automatic the immediately motion, in them of putsthe first when externalforce sort inand any ofpotentiality ofmotion them, have a rest at while puppets such of parts the For puppets. automatic the with as same the be should case the fact, in that, C; move B that Aand then, B, possible, move is should It move to capacity their explains and automata of movement the considers Aristotle remain automata of movements the arrow, an of flight the explains argument this If is it as long so course its it. imparted( motion to controlled bythe continues the which than moved, violent thing more the itself of from locomotion away natural motion a causes mover moved; has the it when that thing throwing the up follow not does mover the when occurs off Pushing Movement of Animals of Movement n and Generation of Animals of Generation 20 Physics , 243a) . Automata present a kind of kind a present Automata .

CEU eTD Collection 2003: 358) 2003: motion is determines theautomaton motion.” constitution that it is of given the –it an resultant (Berryman, simply projectile continues operating the and –which motion an a unlike sequence continues it, agent without of Aristotle uses transformedmotion is into as of the unwinding cords analogues, twisted the limbs. the The oneinto of transform a self-movers kind theto input share with capacity motiondifferent of kind. the puppets In environment, nothing them. but or pushing pulling The but he dothis, precisely describes donot they automata 12 isconsumed. movement artificial imprinted the when stop will automata while themselves by move to continue can animals Moreover, agent. external an by set motion local the is comparison the of limit The evolve. motion. received the transform can they design their on based that is automata to peculiar is What such. as change of process the explain cannot and fundamental not is one this change, every attempt such any against barrier a as stands category of difference the another; to change of kind one reduce “ one: just to be reduced cannot generation-destruction) the and place of change quantity, in alongside change quality, in (change changes four motion The generation-destruction. of type one just is motion local Aristotle, For motion. local only affect can chain causal automaton’s An motion. of surplus a adding without receive they motion the transform only can They change. of principles internal an also and science, modern from disappeared that concept a change, quality of change “However, them: between distinction categorical clear the “Animals – unlike stones or artifacts – can instigate local motion when their arechangesin “Animalslocal stones there –unlike orinstigate motion artifacts–can Aristotle accepts a limited a accepts Aristotle of Animals previously) one touched having by but , the at part any touching Automata cannot initiate movement and they cannot change into something else or else something into change cannot they and movement initiate cannot Automata .” (Ross, 1995, 51) Although a change of place, locomotion, is involved in involved is locomotion, place, of change a Although 51) 1995, (Ross, .” .” ( .” , 734b) Movement of Animals of Movement 12 similitude between animals and automata but maintains but automata and animals between similitude hne i ult, cag n qatt, and quantity, in change quality, in change , 701b, my emphasis) Automata lack qualitative lack Automata emphasis) my 701b, , 21 in the puppets the in Aristotle ... never tries to tries never ... Aristotle .. [...] (Generation there is no is there

CEU eTD Collection ( 981b) ofwisdomproductive.” (Metaphysics, than nature more the ofthe ( be to knowledge of experience kinds theoretical the and (χειροτέχνου), of mechanic the than (αρχιτέκτων) men the than wiser (τεχνίτης) artist the whatever, perception any of possessors the than wiser be to thought is experience of man “the top: the at (σοφία) wisdom and bottom the at (τέχνη) arts with knowledge of hierarchy a gives knowledge, of Aristotle origins the on citizen. discussion his a Atof for recommended end the of paragraphs first the in Thus, are. particulars how of description a not causes, and universals of knowledge ( discovered” were life of necessities the at or pleasure giving at aim not the do which established, sciences already were inventions such all “when 99): 1995, (Ross, end” practical ulterior some having by interest its in “limited is it because knowledge to inferior is classes, ( experience” through art, of hand, other the on and, thing. same the over memories multiple on hand, ofscience, onthe origin, one Experience isthe based universal certain a of creation the represents that experience the is step next The soul. the in perception of trace the as memory to rise gives perception of faculty The differences. distinguish to animal every of possibility knowledge. of kind ignoble an philosophical to animals, being as technology of and status low Platonic the reaffirms man Aristotle text this In contemplation. to common is which perception, from knowledge the of beginning the In 1.4. Knowledgeτέχνη and έ Metaphysics ιτμ, “t πιστήμη, eie at (έν, te dmi f mkn r mtra rdcin n science and production) material or making of domain the (τέχνη, art Beside , 981b). Utility is not a noble purpose for Aristotle. The real knowledge is the is knowledge real The Aristotle. for purpose noble a not is Utility 981b). , e dsoiin b ite o hc e dmntae ( demonstrate” we which of virtue by disposition he Metaphysics Metaphysics Metaphysics , Aristotle rejects τέχνη as a lower activity, which obviously is not is obviously activity,which lower a as τέχνη rejects Aristotle , τέχνη , 981a). , Platonic technologicalArt, all comprises that τέχνη, , if the concern is becoming: “science and art come to men to come art and “science becoming: is concern the if , o rsol, kolde bgn ih preto, the perception, with begins knowledge Aristotle, For (980a-981b), Aristotle presents a historical evolution of evolution historical a presents Aristotle (980a-981b), 22 έ πιστήμη , if the concern is being as such, as concern, if isbeing the έ πίω) h master-worker the μπείρων), ioaha Ethics Nicomachean ,

CEU eTD Collection way there are bad branches of knowledge, for instance the mechanical” ( for the bad knowledge, mechanical” branches instance way of are there ...In the ignoblesame and and of generally for of beetles creatures as nature, that a worms a thing example bad such is kindand is and Forthere judgement applies pleasure, nature this but alsoknowledge. to to peculiar of not this arebad. But sort of to heldgood...because ...not objection some pleasures was knowledge: be “pleasure as –theof branchofor authenticity follower still being thedisputed–considers a his bookis bad mechanics 14 opinion 1139b) mistaken.” Ethics, (Nichomachean may be simple are five number, in wisdom, i.e.philosophic belief art, practical wisdom, for knowledge, and comprehension; to reducible 13 most are they geometrical with deals it and motions because real from abstracts Mechanics relations. arts mathematical knowledgeable most the τέχνη, of forms other all of out be, to seem music and mechanics account, this On emphasis). my 76a, mechanical said, been has as except, – genus another to apply not does demonstration “But knowledge: of kind specific a possess that arts only the be to seem music and mechanics fact, geometry.In of subset practical the is knowledge mechanical that Fig. 1. The ofKnowledge. division After Ross, 1995,137. art,praxis; and with dealing wisdom, practical necessary; the with dealing knowledge, proper importance, of immutable. theWe and necessary the of studying domain common the order in have, therefore that given three to reduced be can knowledge of faculties the God. or bodies heavenly as objects loftiest the at directed reason intuitive and science of union the is that (σοφία) wisdom theoretical the finally and truths; universal the principles, first the grasps that faculty the (νους), reason intuitive an decisions; good taking doing of domain 1139b)), Science + Intuitive reason + Intuitive reason+ + Science Theoretical in veryThe possess knowledge not real made the clear is does τέχνη that fact which the that statespossesses theof “Letbebyvirtuesoul of affirmation assumed byway it truth or denial Technology posses a certain degree of knowledge, however ignoble. Aristotle affirms Aristotle ignoble. however knowledge, of degree certain a Technologyposses Aristotle admits other three ways of knowing: a practical wisdom (φρόνησις, the (φρόνησις, wisdom practical a knowing: of ways three other admits Aristotle or optical demonstrations, and and demonstrations, optical or Of the necessary the Of 14 dealing with the making of artificial things. ofartificial making with dealing the or acting or wisdom ) dealing with living a good life, political or military actions, and actions, military or political life, good a living with dealing ) Knowledge

arithmetical to harmonical to arithmetical Practical wisdom Practical 23 Of contingent the geometrical demonstrations apply to apply demonstrations geometrical Magna MoraliaMagna έ πιστήμη, νους and σοφία have σοφία and νους πιστήμη, Magna Moralia ” ( ” τέχνη , 1205a) Posterior Analytics Posterior 13 Nevertheless, , where Aristotle ,

CEU eTD Collection abilities that that specific art develops in men, and the contingency of that art. Thus, if an art an if Thus, art. that of contingency the and men, in develops art specific that that abilities βαναυσίας. such, the as calledτάς technology so terminology –and Platonic in class playthings the – art of that domains, great two in τέχνη classifies distinction utility.” at ( aim not did knowledge of branches their former,because its the to of inventors the than others wiser as regarded always life, were latter the of of inventors the recreation, necessities the to directed were some and invented, were arts more “as status: lower a has τέχνη associated the life, of necessities the satisfying at aim artisans of knowledge. Thus,products thefor real if not qualify do that particulars with only deal of them all although artisans, and artisans master than development human of level higher a to belong technology. that Artists of status lower to corresponds products technological of utility higher products: technological of utility the on based τέχνη, of forms higher and lower are There 1.5. Classification of endeavours. technical gainnothing from to has Science features. its of some imitates only art while immutable is Science unchanged. totally remains geometry but mechanics in applied be can principles geometric direction: qua objects with deal not does Mechanics science. a of characteristics the has it thus and figures objects but qua instantiating geometrical entities, lines and figures: entities, lines but geometrical qua instantiating objects Although mechanics is linked to geometry, the exchange between them is only in one in only is them between exchange geometry,the to linked is mechanics Although And former. the to proper attributes are latter the but numbers; and lines qua but voice, qua or qua -ray its objects considers for neither and optics; of harmonics given be may account same The form. simplest the is movement uniform again this of and simplest; it if precise most is it movement, it if precise most is science A Aristotle gives three criteria for classifying arts: the materiality involved in that the in art, materiality involved forclassifyingthe arts: criteria gives three Aristotle mechanics too proceedsmechanics same in the way τέχνη abstracts from movement from abstracts deals with the primary movement primary the with deals 24 . ( Metaphysics , but if it takes account of account takes it if but , , 1078a, my emphasis) , 1078a, Metaphysics , for this is the is this for , , 981b) This 981b) ,

CEU eTD Collection them mechanics”them (1338b) 15 it: who people practice the elevates because it is onthe borderline agriculture expected, as technology to belong carpentry and mining, architecture, sculpture, if modernbecause mind, isnotatforthe but so, it least in straightforward fact seemsquite τέχνη ( itself.” act the than other be cannot end the doing in whereas themselves. making, of act the in from distinct end ends an at aims “Making are actions practical that fact the hand other the on and personality, human of development the purpose, of nobility the hand one the on is there praxis of case ( doing.” from different is making But done. actions and made things both includes variation of admit that things of class “The beings. contingent with wisdom.P practical if one isattaineddevelops life only kind intoofslave: some technician the for otherstransforming to them, use made are products its and work physical of lot a requires it because Aristotle by condemned lower status. a has art that ones, practical and theoretical of expense the at abilities physical more requires ignoble. art that ismore things, with material important involvement requires an Also, if an art “parents who devote their children to gymnastics while they neglect their necessary education, in reality make education, their gymnasticsnecessary reality to they in neglect their “parentschildren who devote while lhuh i ehnc oe goercl picpe r novd hs at is art this involved, are principles geometrical more mechanics in Although excellenceneed of greatest the is there which in servile most the maltreated, most is body the which in meanest the least are the they is there which in arts truly most are occupations Those An art is nobler if it is closer to practical life, the exercise of citizenship. The practical The citizenship. of exercise the life, practical to closer is it if nobler is art An ( artisan. orother not the so shoemaker nature, by exists slave the whereas and slavery; separate and special a has mechanic of sort meaner The slave. a becomes he as proportion in excellence attains ... artisan The 15 . ( Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Politics use of the body the of use , 1258b,my emphasis) , and the most illiberal in which there is the least the is there which in illiberal most the and , 25 Politics , 1140b) The separation between praxis and praxis between separation The 1140b) , , 1260b) ractical wisdom deals,technology, like ractical Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean element of chance of element , 1140b) In the In 1140b) , ;

CEU eTD Collection between science and technology. science between links important the show to Renaissance the of task the be will It trespassed. be cannot and distinct and clear are borders The domains. these of mixing the prohibits he that, beside and endeavours technical to superior are practice and science that shows Aristotle citizenship. of slavery, to closest is opposite which the mechanics, by occupied is position last The materials. traits. liberal character develops because it arts illiberal of first the is Thus,agriculture life. practical to closeness their of basis the on arts not do they Secondly, illiberal abilities. the superior Aristotleclassifies human develop and utility because involve arts noble are music, like arts, Liberal arts. illiberal and liberal into Here Aristotle redesigns the Platonic classification of of classification Platonic the redesigns Aristotle Here hard; work and life ( the fortifications. outside property whose lies citizens open-air only the are an husbandmen for lead foe, the against to adventurous them able makes it them furthermore renders it also but it arts, this illiberal do as to the unserviceable, addition bodies men’s In make not earth. does it the for bravery; from to greatly it conduces derive men so and mother, sustenance their their derive from all nature the by do for as natural; will, is their agriculture Further, against arts. or warlike arts, mercenary the and trading retail do as their with consent, either men, from away anything take not first does ranks it Agriculture for justice; like. its the of because and mining earth, the of products the extract which nature of course the in Now fe giutr oe ht Pao cle frtbr’ cas bann h raw the obtaining class, ‘first-born’ called Plato what comes agriculture After military and political of praxis the (Long, 2001,16) to arts. technical appropriate the involving occupations lower-status discipline from separate quite leadership, a was It good leaders. military and of political development for him the good be to males prepare elite training virtue, inculcated agriculture that to believed They action. would that conducive landholder be the of in to traits practice it character actual considered the they in techniques but and agriculture, technologies used certainly ancients The the art of agriculture is prior is agriculture of art the 26 techne Economics , and next come those arts those come next and , . Firstly, he divides τέχνη divides Firstly,he . , 1343a-b)

CEU eTD Collection of slave. In conclusion, it is dishonourable for citizens to involve in suchactivities: toin forcitizens involve isdishonourable it of slave. Inconclusion, to be citizens:do not deserve Even arts. pursued if immoderately: illiberal become gymnasticsmusic can and illiberal especially arts, with citizens of involvement the limits and artisans to with life practical citizenship denies he which in passages many and wrote Aristotle excellence. of degrees different slavery between classified is technology mentioned, already As 1.6. The Social Status of Technology Nor is there any difficulty in meeting the objection of those who say that the study of study the that say who those of objection the meeting in difficulty any there is Nor rule of a master, which is concerned with menial offices – the master need not know not need master the – offices menial with concerned is which master, the a of indeed, rule is, There ... slave and master between distinction a be to cease will there them, practice habitually they if use; occasional own their for except inferiors of crafts the learn to not ought citizen good the and statesman the and man good the Certainly kind different a just is that, for paid is and others for works he because mechanic, The hold could an man no for that office ( forten from retired business years. had not who may, law a mechanic was a there Thebes but At rich. citizen; are them a of majority be actual ever can labourer no therefore and is high, office for qualification the oligarchies In labourer. or mechanic a of life the living honours which is who excellence practise can man for no merit; and excellence to according given are in any, are there if aristocracies, of so-called in example, wants for as, others, the to minister who in not but be citizens, will labourer the and mechanic the governments some under that slaves so community.... the either of servants the are who labourers are and mechanics or individuals, people necessary The services. necessary from freed are who those to only but such, as man free every to nor citizen, every to apply not will citizen a of excellence the of definition our then admitted, are they if but citizenship; to them admit not will state of form now.best The so are them of majority the therefore and foreigners, or slaves were class artisan the nations, some among ahas shareofoffice, and included?...Inancienttimes, to be oristhe mechanic who citizen true a only he Is citizen: the about question more one remains still There Artisans shameful. is craftsman a become to that see can one quotes above the From body. the degrade to or years, riper of business the ( impede to and teaching not of ought methods music certain that possible of learning the that then evident quite is It effect. degrading a have really do is music learning It ... mechanical. is music Politics , 1340b-1341a) 27 Politics , 1277b-1278a)

CEU eTD Collection Marcellus or ignoble that ofvulgar' thelife needs [Plutarch, every art to as an ministers work engineer and of 16 the diverse tomechanisms. describe elements, he proceeds on of and (Hero of problem the mathematics.” on introduction of short a study after But the 1) 1851, Alexandria, to themselves devote hereafter shall who those of that work, his of aim the on comment Hero’s is authors T scientific. nor philosophical Archimedes, withreception. dealing when itsdiscussed Renaissance the that agrees however, literature, Aristotle.of contemporaryAll work original an considered was it Renaissance the during and the with Aristoteliancorpus consistent is book This Renaissance. the influenced tremendously that book a nature, and technology between relation the analyses critically introduction, the them. evaluate best who opinions users’ to subject are products His doing. is he what of standards However Aristotle uses the Platonic argument that the technician does not even know the know even not does technician the that argument Platonic the uses Aristotle their ( isincluded. mechanic of –underhands these the labour the by live signifies, name their as who, handicraftsmen, as example, for such, slaves, of classes various by executed are and other character in much vary the which duties, them: menial do to of actually power execution the mean I the other the in by and degrading; others be would employ may but these, perform to how Other important Ancient writers on technology are Hero of Alexandria, Vitruviusand Alexandria, of Hero are technology on writers Ancient important Other pseudo-Aristotle’s is technology on work Ancient important An the than rudder a of better judge carpenter, cook. than( the will ofa feast better the judge guest will and pilot the as just builder, the than judge better user, the a only; be builder or,the master,actually the will words, house the other of in to limited not is those house the of by knowledge the example, even for art; the recognized possess not do are who products whose arts those namely themselves, artists the by best, solely, or of judged not are products whose arts some are Moreover,there (trans. Perrin) 17.4.]” (Long, 17.4.]” 2001,115). Perrin) (trans. Archimedes to inventions, about withhis a “refuses wholot write regarding 'the deals mechanisms 16 who design and describe complex mechanisms; but their intentions are neither are intentions their but mechanisms; complex describe and design who he closest we get to a view on the role of technology in those in technology of role the on view a to get we closest he Mechanics 28 was not written by Aristotle. The work will be will work The Aristotle. by written not was Politics bringing “much advantage ... to ... advantage “much bringing , 1277b) Mechanics Politics , 1282a) Life of , which, in which, ,

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CEU eTD Collection 1607, by Vittorio and Zorca; Bar-le-Duc; from Bessonus; 1578,byJacobus Geronimo Cardano; Ulrich Bessnitzer; Trattati architettura di ingegneria militari 1430, byMariano Taccola; 1405, by of conquer the HolyLand. Franceto This during of the Renaissance: kind bookbecame familiar Texaurus Regis Francie Aquisitionis Terre ultra Sancte de Mare 23 Europe. across know-how technological disseminate help and mechanisms ancient mechanisms, military and mining as geometry,century includingDescartes’. seventeenth influenced which Latin in Pappus of books the published Commandinus 1588, In Latin. and Greek both in Archimedes of works extant the of edition standard the Basel in published Herwagen Johann century.1544, twelfth In the in Cremona of Gerard by Latin into was Hero of book marvellous important Another being artefacts. them of most pressure, water or steam air, with work many that contains mechanisms book His 1595. and 1592 of Urbino da Giorgi Alessandro by are editions title the under 1589 Battista inAleotti Giovanni by time first the for published and translated was It interest. great his of translation the through was Hero of renaissance technologies. and designs architectural as well as engines, siege catapults, and hoists, cranes, pulleys, as such humanists for model inestimable machines an various of descriptions contained book The technicians. and architects Renaissance represented and technology Roman of art Vitruvius’popularized improvements. scarce with work of reformulation Renaissance In 1335Guidoof Vigevano, and engineer, physician the whatfirst thought such is writes be book, to from 1466,byRoberto Valturio; the Georgio Valla ofHero fragments theof first published Alexandria the inreal 1501.But The Renaissance artisans begin to write their own books on various mechanisms, such mechanisms, various on books own their write to begin artisans Renaissance The Conrad Le diverse et artificiose machine et artificiose Le diverse Kyeser; Kyeser; De pirotechnia la Tre discorsi Bellicorum instrumentorum liberBellicorum Gli Artifitiosi et Curiosi Moti Spiritali di Herrone di Spiritali Moti Curiosi et Artifitiosi Gli T rattato di Architettura Les RaisonsForces des Mouvantes from 1567, by Giuseppe Ceredi; 1567,byGiuseppe from Ceredi; from 1484, by Francesco di from 1484,byFrancesco Giorgio Martini; Instruments mathematiques mechaniques Instruments from 1540,by from Vannoccio Biringuccio; De architectura De Büchsenmeisterbuch waterworks and mechanical marvels. mechanical and waterworks from 1588,by Agostino Ramelli; from 1462,by Antonio Averlino Filarete; known as 36 by Leone Battista Alberti in 1452. His book His 1452. in Alberti Battista Leone by On the Measurement of the Circle the of Measurement the On from 1430,byGiovanni Fontana; from , a “crusade book” meanthelp KingPhilipIV to , abook” “crusade from 1615,bySalomon Caus. from de from 1475,byJohannes from Formschneider; Theatrum Instrumentorum et Machinarum Pneumatics De architectura De from 1584,byJean de from Errard De Subtilitate Novo Teatro DiMachine Zeughausinventar , which was received with received was which , contained the state of state the contained 23 from 1554,by from . The best-known The . They improve on improve They Liber tertius Bellifortis

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CEU eTD Collection mechanisms. Mechanics P Padua. in mathematics of professors the by taken is nature and mechanics between relation the on perspective different ‘cheated’.A be can latter the that so nature of laws the overcome that mechanisms to apply rules different that and imitation, to reduced not is that domain nature. cheat so can toeven it be powerful thought that is Mechanics nature. surpasses even and competes that realm a altogether, realm different a create to thought is mechanics and Renaissance, late the in further even goes autonomy The valueagainst positive ofutility and the inventiveness both human Aristotle’s claim. creates artisan The nature. of potentiality any in pre-exist not do artefacts human of forms The different. totally is story the Cusa of Nicholas of case the In nests. create birds that way same the in shelters own our create to instinct an like nature human the in is it because or houses created have would perfect, were it if nature, because either imitation of kind a are houses Aristotle for Nevertheless, houses. example for object, natural any resemble not do that technology Physics oesr f mteais uh a aie, ue ehnc n pseudo-Aristotle’s and mechanics used Galileo, as such mathematics, of rofessors There is a paradigmatic difference isa paradigmatic There between Aristotle Nicholas ofCusa. and Aristotle in h the on lectured mathematics of professors 1610, to 1548 from Padua of University the At autonomous totally a is mechanics that grant should technology on view a Such (Sawday,nature’. 2007,54) of laws the with rivalry in rather or for nature ‘against working of means a as understood devices whose as Ubaldo, Guido machines of words of the in mechanics, Thus nothing’. for something getting for think Nature, cheating for devices to ‘ingenious were Machines nature. animated tended of resistance the overcoming similarly, people, Early-modern 19) as cet h da ta hr r oe atfcs rain f human of creations artefacts, some are there that idea the accepts also (199a) n ter tahns amn t dsoeig te ntrl lw y manipulating by laws natural the discovering at aiming teachings their in Mechanics ex nihilo ex . The last in this line was , who taught at Padua from Padua at taught who Galilei, Galileo was line this in last The . forms and shapes that serve human needs. Nicholas of Cusa defends Cusa of Nicholas needs. human serve that shapes and forms ehncrm liber Mechanicorum 40 a ulse n 17, wr o be to were 1577, in published was

CEU eTD Collection mechanics operates on fully natural principles.”(Schiefsky, natural onfully operates mechanics 2007,95) that meaning in nature, isfound everywhere ofmechanics the general art “In perfectly natural. work. isat mechanics itself in nature that fact the from comes nature imitate to mechanics of possibility the that idea the discusses behaves. includingnature, everything, way observing isthe artefacts by or in find one what therefore law; same the and one obey nature and artefacts Experiments, 113) 2006, Ramus, Petrus on commenting Ramos, Perez (Antonio natural.” the of mark identifying an as acted presumably which motion own of principle inner that Nature’s productions) as (even had birds and clocks mechanical that like grounds artifacts the man-made “certain on century sixteenth the Aristotelian during the once than in more valid rejected is argument, philosophy, This arts. mechanical of artefacts in works and that another experiments and nature in works that laws of set a is there Scholastics, the For empirically. arguments.solved and bedisputations not could of metaphysical Thepoint matter a and technology for impediment greatest the was This mechanical. extent great a to is nature Galileo Galilei shows in his writings that mechanical laws apply in nature and that and nature in apply laws mechanical that writings his in shows Galilei Galileo most his of one during work scientist’s great the in periods.productive (Copenhaver, 1992,67) visible is treatise ancient the on commentary His 1610. to 1592 The response of Molleti is that the nature obeys mechanical laws and that mechanics is mechanics and laws that mechanical obeys nature the The ofMolletiisthat response nature from learned has that it argue that to itself. principles is applying strategy by Moletti’s nature nature. conquers mechanics conquer to mechanics) (especially arts some of ability the with and cannot, nature that effects about bring to art of ability the with nature imitates art that notion the reconcile to now: how by one familiar is a deals ( nature” of works the reperiatur mechanica ars naturae operibus in found is mechanics of art the “whether question the to dedicated are pages several and topics, particular around organized are lectures The Padua, at mathematics of professor as predecessor Galileo’s Moletti, Giuseppe (Schiefsky, 2007,95) 41 Mechanics ) (fol. 22). The problem with which which with 22). The problem (fol. ) has been lost, but the imprint of this of imprint the but lost, been has Moletti An in An

CEU eTD Collection ways so that mechanics cannot ‘cheat’ nature. From the mechanical point of view, there is no is view, there of point mechanical the From ‘cheat’ nature. cannot mechanics that so ways both work limitations these Also, mechanisms. to apply that those to similar construction obeys. also which laws mechanics ignore the not can does, it whatever nature, that and limits similar have domains two the that maintains of ideology new completely a inaugurates it knowledge. endThis of represents the passage Aristotelian ofknowledge. classification that is philosophy of subject proper a is mechanics that acknowledgement this of importance The 1) [1638], 1914 (Galileo, artisans.” many by constructed being are machines and instruments of types all department this in for mechanics; involve which work the of part that especially investigation, of field large a mind studious the to suggests arsenal Venetiansfamous you your which in activity display constant Sciences New Two the of beginning the In research. to philosophy for field important an is technology that and Galileo Galilei promotes the idea that mechanics can bring us knowledge about nature about knowledge us bring can mechanics that idea the promotes Galilei Galileo The natural world, even the human organism, must obey some mechanical laws of laws mechanical some obey must organism, human the even world, natural The man bymiracle anunless ordinary tallerthan times produce large aas cannot horse nature and that ten ora giant horses twenty as ordinary size; ordinary of tree a in as distributed were they if branches own its sustain to able be not would high [braccia] cubits hundred two oak an that know both you certain am I ... preserved. proportion the and same the is material here the that is course, it of understood, pass; can nature nor art neither which beyond limit necessary a set is there natural, or artificial whether structure, and Finally,machine every for that, say may we he but mechanics of laws the with nature of laws the identify not does Galileo Clearly, the work. addressing lines. past(Mahoney, those first reading would continue was 2004,284-285) famous he whom to Galileo’s audience philosophical the in that is statement philosophy of feel to Galileo for revolutionary mechanics of standing intellectual the subject raised have to had something the most be should the mechanics perhaps of practice everyday the That avai h hrce h rsns Gllos pstos as “The says: positions, Galileo’s presents who character the Salviati, 42 (Galileo, 1914[1638],4) (Galileo, Two New Sciences New Two

CEU eTD Collection science and ends up denying the basis of any plan for the mathematization of the natural the of mathematization the for plan any of basis the denying as up mathematics ends on and science attack bitter a “contains treatise His sense. Aristotelian in causes the of none is term middle The syllogism. by demonstrate not does it because discipline scientific disciplinarum mathematicarum certitudine de scientia as regarded be should mathematics pure that denied philosophers century, sixteenth the In principles. first the from deductions syllogistic through demonstrate” we whereby quality “the is science defines Aristotle or έπιστήμη of meaning Scholastic and Aristotelian the forstudying nature.Aristotelian framework, in used, be cannot mathematics But devices. mechanical because to mathematics apply theorems mixed mathematical of form a considered always was Mechanics mathematics. Galileo as Scientists andconstruction workingofmechanisms. the observing by known be can nature and artificial, and natural between separation a more Another important aspect of the relation between mechanics and nature is the status of status the is nature and mechanics between relation the of aspect important Another of fusion improper the involving mistake category together a (Long, 2001,2) conceptual entities. separate was combination bringing this argument that the with by experimentalists the countered Aristotelians categories and Seventeenth-century instruments) and machines Aristotelian of (manipulation traditional challenged Moreover, mathematics is not a science; it does not represent scientific knowledge in knowledge scientific represent not does it science; a not is mathematics Moreover, (Biener, source ofchange. their them havethat within 2008,26) moreover, change, that and ofobjects thethey kind are the kind that are ofobjects they that objects: physical about important most is nor what ignored mathematics phenomena: independent reason “neither this for is natural explaining for inadequate inherently are is It mathematics that that Aristotlebelieved (1026a14–16) reference” that material of the independent for objects not are part [but] most “immovable, with are that objects deal with deals sciences mathematics immovable,” natural the and immovable” and independent “both are that objects with deals metaphysics Whereas , that is, scientific knowledge in the Aristotelian sense. Piccolomini in in Piccolomini the Aristotelian in sense. knowledge scientific is, that , Nichomachean Ethics Nichomachean 43 57 rus ta ahmtc s nt a not is mathematics that argues 1547, , 1139b4. 1139b4. scientia episteme Scientia . The classical place where place classical The . (έπιστήμη) is defined as defined is (έπιστήμη) (theoretical knowledge) (theoretical Commentarium techne

CEU eTD Collection progetto di matematizzazione delle scienze della natura. delle scienze della progetto matematizzazione di 24 187) 1992, (Copenhaver, philosophy.” natural in efficacy subject’s that of denial hasty Aristotle’s teaching. Aristotelian mainstream by Plato’s pleased were more by mathematicians thanuniversity “Some mathematics of praise the to alternative an represents that tradition Platonic the to due is conceived broadly technology in and philosophy natural in both mathematics of use extensive The experiments. in alchemical in methods mathematics quantitative use and of magic natural use the for argue alchemists and Magi The designed. mathematically as universe the of thinks and mechanics of study the with motion natural of study the equates Galileo period the of end the at that such ways various in domains these mixed scholars and humanists Renaissance the during practice in although are domains technology different methodologically and physics Mathematics, technology. to or nature of study the particularly to not linked is universities in mathematics Moreover, technology. with do to nothing almost has philosophy natural framework, Aristotelian-Scholastic the the In nature. become of will science later what for name Renaissance the is philosophy Natural technology. and mathematics philosophy, natural between link a established and mathematics in interest and argued an as autonomous forothercentury discipline disciplines. utility general forits sixteenth the of end the at curriculum Jesuit the to mathematics introduced Clavius Cristopher 216) 2010, (Ferraro, sciences.” “ contiene un duro attacco alla matematica come scienza e finisce con il negare alla radice ogni eventuale eventuale ogni negare con e alla il finisce radice come alla matematica scienza unduro attacco contiene The university mathematicians and the writers on natural magic shared a special a shared magic natural on writers the and mathematicians university The 24 Mathematics itself was not usually taught in a university. a in taught usually not was itself Mathematics 44 ”

CEU eTD Collection be separated out.” ( be separated the minimum magnitude.…itstill certain it nobody can not clearfrom below that of is will a quantity flesh fall will quantity though out the decrease, less. …even continually or of separated direction of the the either greater hold in suchof form.can obvious northingindefinite is size “it flesh, any be the a neither bone, can that 28 of Chester, and 27 (Moran,2004:medicines.” 32) been a time making already alchemyfor long with associated terms, had alchemical and describedgenerally in 26 in was modernearly alchemy.” period engaged (Moran,2004,34) things.' ofthethis paper.all transmutation everyone is the that natural By becomes almost in definition . substance. cloth When .[or]when aglass or woodcharcoal metalbecomes stone .when thing so is form initial nolonger form loses its orand atits transformed it displays all that and shape 25 their and minerals of properties the laboratory. in transformations explain Marsilio can which theory working a being result the with book this in combined is -sulphur of theory Arabic The century. eighth the from polymath Arab an Hayyān, ibn Jābir Gerber, magisterii perfectionis developed. was mercury), and (sulphur components basic two of composed as metals, of theory coherent a which in alchemy, on texts Arabic the and etc.; panels, pigments, glass, make to how and metalwork on recipes provide that monasteries, Age Middle of literature recipe the sources: soul. the perfect that and illnesses body heal that metals, noble into metals ordinary transform that substances create to i.e. souls, and bodies metals, ‘heal’ that ‘medicines’ create to is alchemy of aim The ‘art’. this of part experimental the of alchemy, with deal lot Renaissance during philosophers natural A chemistry. of precursor the endeavour, experimental and mystical a is Alchemy crafts. to sourcetechnology.This forthe main approach Baconian is the tradition Renaissance on works theoretical various and sciences occult of parts experimental the are technology to pertaining arguments and developments of source another mechanics, Beside 2.2. Alchemy Minima naturalia The texts Latin important most are “A of separation including of metals,sublimations, procedures, and laboratory werevariety distillations, the called a “In work 27 The most important synthesis and the most influential alchemical text is is text alchemical influential most the and synthesis important most The De diversis artibusDe Physics theory is on theory based Aristotle's minimum there prime claimthat matter a that is of amount De NaturaDe Rerum , 187b-188a) written probably by Paul of Taranto around 1280 and attributed to attributed and 1280 around Taranto of Paul by probably written written around 1100-1120 written by Theophilus Presbyter. Liber compositione alchimiae de ( On the natureOn things of Ficino and other humanists such as Cornelius Cornelius as Agrippa, such humanists other and Ficino 45 minima naturalia minima ) he [Paracelsus] notes, 'transmutation is when a he notes,is 'transmutation [Paracelsus] a ) when 26 , translated from, translated Arab 1144 in byRobert Alchemy is developed out of two of out developed is Alchemy 25 and this section deals only with only deals section this and theory of Aristotle,of theory Summa 28 the

CEU eTD Collection ht cnrbt o a pioohcl cneto f tcnlg: te ue o experiments instruments.the ofscientific use of use the technology: and of naturally exist not do that substances new of creation the again, over and over reproduced conception philosophical a to contribute that work their of aspects important three are There laboratories. their in experiments chemical ( to cover use authorsnames begin recipestheir alchemy late the of secrecy the into preserving for as well proto-science as bull papal the honourable of Because movement. abracadabraic an from alchemy transformed that Church the alchemical against bull a issued ( XXII counterfeiting John economy, gold-based a destabilize a as alchemy promote to discipline.university thought even and experiments chemical own their and books Arab on based form scientific most its in alchemy favoured Bruno Giordano and Paracelsus eas t icue prtoa, wrso rcse ih cnetos t craft to connections logical the with with (Long, scholasticism. 2001,146) ofuniversity orientation incompatible were processes which metallurgy, and workshop dyeing as such operational, traditions included it because part the in curricula university of into incorporated not end century.was thirteenth discipline The the by in set had that backlash a with attack increasing universities, under came medieval it the and of curricula the within acceptance find to failed Alchemy Behind these very colourful metaphors the practitioners of alchemy were making real making were alchemy of practitioners the metaphors colourful very these Behind The few. a but name to life,” of 2001,18) (Newman metals. & Grafton, other truesame was ofthe “water and fluid,” “the spirit,” “the water,” heavy “the lightning,” “the cloud,” “the slave,” fugitive “the runaway,” “the fleeting,” of “the set as names variant such with compete and to had designation planetary complex quicksilver’s Ages, Middle a in element the of glossaries one alchemical rich the In used. alchemists names” “cover or Decknamen only this Yet was mercury. code quicksilver and substitution saturn, simple lead jupiter, tin mars, iron venus, copper luna, silver sol, became gold that so metals, the for names planetary the substituting of practice Greek) ultimately (and Arabic the acquired alchemists Latin the that true is It would that practice a gold, create can alchemists the that claim the because Also, Spondent pariter Spondent , 1317). In fact, it was this rejection from the university and university the from rejection this was it fact, In 1317). , 46 Decknamen ) forsubstances:

CEU eTD Collection plants grow on the surface, influenced by the planets which ruled them.” which(Melero, 2009,52). ruled growplants bythe influenced planets onthe surface, knew: silver,metals (thegold, he eight mercury, brass, copper, tin) lead, Earthas inside and just grow iron, alchemists and the suggests from a medieval the early metallogenesisboth inherited Arabs, concluding that 29 and “alchemy that claims Bacon practical Roger nature. of elements basic the of about knowledge theoretical but through obtained alchemist the that powers supernatural some of consequence a not is artefacts of quality The elements. natural basic the combines oftechnology: power one, natural thisthe showing the even than better experiments the gold germination: a inandsuch obtained alchemybooks described reproduced Principe Lawrence soil. proper the in implanted itself) gold soil. the in grow sameplants, as inway that, the elements thinkers, natural Modernnon-mechanical Early and Renaissance for are, metals The germinate. and vegetate could gold which in soil right “Don Juan Manuel (1282–1348) in the Manuel “Don in (1282–1348) Juan After a fairly lengthy process involving various materials and numerous distillations, I distillations, numerous and materials various involving process lengthy fairly a After the obtain to try they fact In gold. create to is purposes main alchemists’ the of One This trust in the powers of technology comes from the belief that alchemy artfully alchemy that belief the from comes technology of powers the in trust This of philosophy articulated clearly the a (Newman,1989,424) the doing until Renaissance. other writings developed in find so to difficult appreciation of Ages level In a to raised is art Middle human them. which technology,in surpass the even of or alchemists products natural reproduce successfully were could processes, natural imitating by learned it tradition, if even art, human arguethat to willing Scholastic the of mainstream the in those unlike writers, Alchemical be to thought is alchemists by obtained ‘medicines’ various the as well as gold The most that new think 2000,69-70) (Principe, first toa as tree. it onlookers wouldrefer I completely but a fractal dendritic on a this took call might lump today some metallic [that] appearance the heating, of days ‘Toads several that After bog’ keep’. low ‘moorish the recalling accurately perhaps again excrescences, warty with covered and liquid and pasty more became it Then literature. mercurialist in leavening and fermentation to references numerous the unwarrantably) not (perhaps and recalling egg’ dough, ‘glass leavened like a rising in bubbled, and sealed swelled soon was mixture this that The heated. used mixture a I prepare … to gold’. gold of with seed along the material of ‘moistening the for required mercurialists that water’ ‘mineral necessary the supposedly ‘animated’was Mercury, an which obtained 29 Therefore, gold should be obtained out of gold seeds (which are probably the probably are (which seeds gold of out obtained be should gold Therefore, Libro del caballero et el escudero 47 ( Book of the Knight and the SquireBook the Knight of andthe )

CEU eTD Collection metals come to be used by practitioners in mine-working. As a consequence a rich literature rich a consequence a As mine-working. in practitioners by used be to come metals refining for processes alchemical These metals. of testing and purification with deal that those Decknamen and ofmining metallurgy significant part Church, a became literature. the and Schools the by dismissed alchemist, the of knowledge practical and theoretical The 2.3. Mining Metallurgy and ofmatter: thefor discovering qualities methods analytical provide they time same the at but gold real and fake between experiments chemical and physical through discerning of methods to refer them of Most them. purifying (Newman, 1989,432) knowledge.” natural and medical all of wellspring the it make to wants “he and elements” four the of out made elements the of science the is The alchemical books also contain a lot of recipes for analysing metals and for and metals analysing for recipes of lot a contain also books alchemical The h iig ad mtlug ieaue de o s n oe te alchemical the more any use not does literature metallurgy and mining The the of development modern exact early the most before and andmining metallurgy the genre. (Newman,2000,35) long of alchemy testing, two with that associated purification, here were show the I Indeed, with balance, precision the and blowpipe the chemist, early of the tools analytical important materials. own unconcerned their of were measurement of alchemists works the that by an of evinced birth as metallurgy, the Vannocciowitnessed and follow not does Georg it Biringuccio, others, Ercker, Agricola, Lazarus and century mining sixteenth about the literature that autonomous true certainly is it Although 2000,45) alchemist. (Newman, theof toas success measure so imitations, artificial its from gold natural a discern to is goal the these, of is all the In taste. gold of normal use than specie gold; in artificial lighter onfusion; orboiling and to sublime;glowing losscolorability fired; fake); when ofits or of heavier sign is a that (gold is weight which touchstone; ‘salts’, in dissolution include They . Out of all alchemical processes and aims, the metallurgy literature kept only kept literature metallurgy the aims, and processes alchemical all of Out . per se per , while natural philosophy and medicine concern things concern medicine and philosophy natural while , 48

CEU eTD Collection master without writing cannot remember in his mind', all the necessary details are provided.” (Long, details areprovided.” 2001,119). inthe all necessary master cannot writing mind', remember his without to belonging [gunnery]since aresomany, it the subjects goodgunner know, which should every a and which writing: the help complexremember of 'And aretoo to without thereupon details of manufacture gunpowder 30 also It processes. metallurgical various and needed are that machines various the mines, work to how and open to how find, to how of descriptions contains book The work. to going not are them of lot a that observe will one mechanisms, mining of book’sdrawings the examines one If mining. about knowledge practical a have not did he physician, a as mines visit did he if Even miners. actual for not and scholars other for written work scholarly real a being book the , Latin and Greek from quotes as well as distinctions scholastic and logic used Agricola years. many a for mining on of text authoritative level the remains the book His to subject. learned mining of art the elevated he that doing by and mining, for vocabulary mining, ‘Bauer’, was meaning name His Italy. in degree doctoral his obtained He philology. in was interested and Hippocrates and Galen of translator a as initially worked Agricola (1494-1555). also but describe, only not appear, bring argumentssystematize and technology: in favour ofthis that treatises scholarly that so technology, in interested mining be to come also humanists the literature, mining practical the of flourishing followed. be to have that recipes complex the detail in describes that appears T he author of author of he o eiig mtl, cntutn sa uncs ad cuils r sprtn (for separating or crucibles, and furnaces assay constructing metals, refining fascinate for so would as ‘recipes’ chemical of titles) collections these appear.From to their devices begun had booklets) (by (assaying known water-powered treatises, small 1580s, thewhose the particularly in Augsburg, Montaigne and of Germany, from centre emanating mining and mid-1520s, the in Beginning The most influential humanist in the domain of technology is Georgius Agricola Georgius is technology of domain the in humanist influential most The known Georgius as Agricola, in at1556.(Sawday, Basle published the 2007,87) and 1540, in Venice at published first on works the important century: most mid-sixteenth two the the in turn, technology in grew, lead, or iron from silver example) De re metallica metallica re De farmer Feuerwerkbuch , and he Latinized it into ‘Agricola’. He writes the first scholarly book on book scholarly first the writes He ‘Agricola’. into it Latinized he and , published in 1556, whose main importance is the creation of a Latin a of creation the is importance main whose 1556, in published , a treatise from 1420 “claims to have written the book because the technical the technical written treatise 1420“claims the have bookbecause to , a from 49 De Re Metallica Re De Pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio, Vannoccio of of Georg Bauer, better Bauer, Georg of 30 Probierbüchlein Because of the of Because

CEU eTD Collection necessary for physicians, painters, architects and merchants, and argues that mining is an is mining that argues are and metals merchants, and that architects shows painters, physicians, Agricola for book necessary first the of end the In underground. metals place to God of purpose the and fields mining of devastation the mining, of danger the regarding arguments considers He I) Book (Agricola, with.” away done are life of course the preserving carefully more and health sustaining and protecting of methods all man, of service the from metals remove we “If that states He undesirable. morally are silver and gold and themselves” in worthless are products and mineral other and metals, mining “gems, that affirm that critics of the against profitability the for argues Agricola architecture, alchemy. arithmetic, practical and surveying, law astronomy, drawing, medicine, philosophy, know to has He counterarguments.and bringshisown rejects Agricola which such, as technology against arguments general including mining, of art arguments the the against examining of consists twelve of out book first His agriculture. of Columbella’s author Roman of the model on the of mining defence art defends the He mining. in involved is knowledge much how and knowledge of acquisition for mining of importance his begins Agricola Georgius artisans. actual the by written books the to similar is it respect this in and drawings, many contains The miner has to know many learned subjects in order to be able to pursue his goals. his pursue to able be to order in subjects learned many know to has miner The is there First, ignorant. be things. subterranean BookI) Re De Metallica, (Agricola, not of nature should and cause origin, miner the discern a may he which that Philosophy, of are there sciences Furthermore, and ... arts smelting. many for them of preparing the systems of various of and the knowledge substances are assaying there complete Lastly, a works. underground have all also making of must method He marbles, compounds. stones, gems, and juices, metals, earths, of rocks, species varied and many thoroughly the be with must must he familiar he Then rocks. moreover, the in alone; seams and leave stringers should veins, the he understand what or profitably, most prospected be can plain, or valley what hill, or mountain what all of first know may he that work, his in skill greatest the have must miner a For otherwise. far be to appears it one, by one so not requiring business of points special kind its upon carefully reflect I when myself, a for labour. as as But skill much altogether and the toil, that sordid and of fortuitous one are is industries occupation metal the that opinion the hold persons Many er ealc metallica re De 50 with a rationale that explains the explains that rationale a with

CEU eTD Collection working together in a technological context. What Agricola did is to invent the technical endeavour. technological handbook fora systematic the invent to is did Agricola What context. technological a in together working activity. collective interdependent fine-tuned a is it but perform can man single a that craft a more any not Technology is devices. various and craftsmen various involves that endeavour systematic a is metallurgy, and mining case source ofknowledge. a also but things doing for art an just not is technology that argues he him, before alchemists the As occupation. technological a with of honourability the associated and utility of knowledge value the technology, the regarding arguments Aristotelian rejects Agricola sees, one As I) Book (Agricola, nobody.” to objectionable “is it that and occupation honourable An important idea that is developed along Agricola’s book is that technology, in this in technology, that is book Agricola’s along developed is that idea important An gioas ok sos a nw apoc o wr ht rqie kle specialists skilled requires that work to approach new a shows book Agricola’s regulatedbymachinery. whichbecome has pace (Sawday, 2007,92) a to working people, different by time same the at performed be must that tasks the of some showing diachronically, as well as synchronically work words, other in images, are others while old The scenes. these in shown are are also majority, women the in are some men while and young, shaven, clean some bearded, are some different, are clothes their workers: considerablethe of individuality the suggest to devices took artistic deploy to care illustrators Agricola’s since tasks different performing individual same the of representations not are these that know Wealso next. lessthe than or important more were none though as description, careful are its allotted is sieving task Each on. (using of so methods builders and rakers, different pushers, wheelbarrow machine), crushing ore (five the of machine case the in sievers illustrated shovellers, landscape: tools), Agricola’s simple different people Specialists of variety a occupations. suggest illustrations Agricola’s in figures human of numbers sheer The 51

CEU eTD Collection interested in natural magic, the ways of using plants, stones and other natural object as modes as object natural other and stones plants, using of ways the magic, natural in interested arts. knowledge ofmechanical some have should men virtuous all that recommends 1557) Euclid”, to according fortresses Euclide secondo fortezze delle piante which a school in (c.envisaged 1400–c.known 1469),who Filarete as from comes proposal such One arts. mechanical and liberal Aristotelian of curricula, normal the alongside schools, into introduction the advocated they addition, In world. material the changing at aimed magic utilitarian of use the promoted humanists The a is magic Natural industry. human traditions. and hermetic creationbasedonNeo-Platonism Renaissance through effects marvellous and useful obtaining as magic. natural was technology to referred now is what to domain closest the Renaissance, the during But metallurgy. and mining alchemy, mechanics, as such philosophy natural of domains practical these of purposes and arguments various together bringing by created is technology of philosophy The 3.4. NaturalMagic ‘Natural magic’ pointed to the operative power inherent in technology, and offered a offered and technology, in inherent power operative the to pointed magic’ ‘Natural aslo Fcn, te dsoee f Pao ad te hrei rdto, ws highly was tradition, hermetic the and Plato of discoverer the Ficino, Marsilio his in Lanteri Giacomo way, same the In clay. ... noble’The also necessaryand crafts are other 2001,132) (Long, ofembroidery, airon master smith, a tailor, of and a master a glassmaker a pharmacist, turner, a an wood, for one and marble in carving of master a silversmith, a painting, of ‘ for elements and forces natural the using and discovering at aims magic Natural seventeenth the practical of ‘the philosophy’. (Henninger-Voss,part of natural as turn ‘magic’ 2004,11) name the the adopted By often technology . of discussions century, Aristotelian of that outside framework some manual arts should be taught here’ by craftsmen; these would include ‘a master ‘a include would these here’craftsmen; taught by be should arts manual some (“Two dialogues ... on the way to design the plans of plans the design to way the on ... dialogues (“Two 52 Due dialoghi ... del modo di disegnare le disegnare di modo del ... dialoghi Due Antonio Averlino, Antonio

CEU eTD Collection were inseparable from one another” (Sawday, from onewere inseparable another” 186). 2007: 31 (1579–1644). van Baptiste Helmont Cardano Dee(1527–1608),and Jean (1501–1576),John (1493–1541),Girolamo are Paracelsus scientists as also viewed experimental tradition are that magic natural the in authors important Other children. beautiful engendering and wrinkles, eliminating baldness, off staving meat, cooking and conserving, cutting, crossbreeding, and grafting through animals and plants exotic producing metals, transmuting as things diverse in things. natural the virtues occult and fortalismans, incantations, images music and of power the harmony, universal numerology, marvels, mechanical mathematics, , time. that at available knowledge practical every and alchemy mathematics, mechanics, employ also but Magus bebythe used can that objects similitudenatural with the between deal not magic natural only on books The knowledge. the apply to able be should Magus the useful, be should knowledge the but sake own its for knowledge pursues that nature of observer detached a not is Magus Ficino’s laws. natural the knowing of utility the on focuses it that is magic natural about made be to point Another effects. desired the obtain to order in creation, of moment the at Creator the by hidden nature, in “levers” pre-existing uses that technology occult of form a as seen be can magic natural This objects. natural between exist that sympathies the using by nature over command of mode this sustaining in metaphysics Aristotelian and oracles Chaldean sources, Neo-Platonist uses He powers. angelical or demoniacal of use the without nature on acting of “For the occult writer, “For the occult Cornelius Henry Agrippa, drawing well and of lore, magic onthis mystical mechanism imatsa Dla Pras Porta’s Della Giambattista (Agrippa, admire. 2004,233) may much men wise and prudent, most the which things wonderful many do wit, and art, in men other excel he if wonder, any without may these, from resulting arts mechanical also knowing joints, and articles, proportions, measures, weights, of are that sciences such astronomy,and geometry,optics, music, arithmetic, these, both of consisting sciences middle the knowing and mathematics, and philosophy, natural in expert magician, A 31 onlu gip’ Agrippa’s Cornelius ai Naturalis Magia 53 e Ocla Philosophia Occulta De 18) ecie poeue o such for procedures describes (1588) 13) discusses (1533)

CEU eTD Collection creating new domains ofinquiry. domains creating new of principle ‘the telescope of Galileo’suse called Price Solla de Derek experiments. through obtained he knowledge the and of importance the of to aware well is how he and instruments, on scientific construct and settings experimental of descriptions detailed gives Galileo instruments, the principles. didactic aids. areTherefore, only experiments from theoretically deduced be to have claims his experiments, the performs he although that, states he work his in places many In knowledge. of source primary a methodologically, least at not, are they important are devices mechanical and experiments Although laws. physical demonstrating of that than purpose other no have that devices mechanical designs Galileo Sciences New Two the In instruments. scientific of construction of the as well as experiments use extensive the is works Galileo’s of feature important An instruments. scientific of of characteristic important another mathematics, that field, technological new a of invention the is technology to pertaining books Renaissance of praise extensive the with Along 3.5. Artificial Revelation: ScientificInstruments ept hs elrtos ta eite te ue o xeiet n scientific and experiments of use the belittle that declarations these Despite to but … 45° the by is obtained elevation information mere the the 1914,276) (Galileo, experiment. byrepeated testimony ofothers oreven when outweighs far obtained happens is this why farthest, understand goes shot the which in one the is that range, maximum the mortars, and of use the in that fact the of aware already was I gunners, by given accounts From … (135) alone. reasoning by fact a such establish to difficult be to not ought it a that me to seems it conclusive, than very rapidly more move not doubtless is which experiment, does above the upon Without depending … (62) one body lighter heavier a that argument, conclusive short a and of means by clearly, prove to possible is it experiment, further without Even a lot of experiments that support his theoretical claims are used, and used, are claims theoretical his support that experiments of lot a riiil revelation artificial 54 ht teedul xadd te world, the expanded tremendously that ’ Dialogue Concerning Dialogue

CEU eTD Collection Galileo had been sick and unable to produce a comparable body of observations.” comparable bodyof been unable producea Galileo to had sick and claim emerged contextwhich while in thehad firstpublish Jesuits of to a been the in observations comets objects opticalartifacts.Galileo’s not but been comets may Jesuits have physical observed bythe Roman real observations enemies:telescopic Jesuit against“ its 32 with phenomena. natural be identical cannot settings experimental telescopes: ofearly themtheerrors to distinguish inevitable of hisobservationsfrom and reality the demonstrate to concerned more is Galileo, as time same the at observations similar artefacts. are not the readers that observations their assure Biagioli (2006, 156, note 37) claims that even Galileo uses even claimsthat the Biagioli argument (2006, Galileo 156,note 37) nature artefactual of of the A concern regarding the instruments that Galileo and his contemporaries have is to is have contemporaries his and Galileo that instruments the regarding concern A 1984, Price, Solla 108) (de together. put Fathers Church the all and Aristotle’s or Plato’s than mightier brain poor his made that universe the of knowledge revelatory a himself for manufactured had he had that realized Galileo itself. experience Moon the of nature the the with That overemphasized. compared when triviality be relative to faded discovery,but important cannot an was mountains discovery this of magnitude The h s f isrmns t netgt aue hd iprat methodological important without people had reasonable all because nature valid was investigate experience common Aristotelians to instruments For experience. common Aristotelian of notion the challenged it because implications of use The because also problems philosophical raises instruments scientific of use The (Bagioli, artifacts. optical not were spots 2006, 200) the painstaking that the prove described to and followed telescope, he possible the procedures to of responding use his with to Galileo objections than philosophical concerned more … artifacts. much those seemed from distinct Scheiner clearly were sunspots that demonstrate to then looked, and telescope the by produced artifacts optical the how of out map pictures to make but to sunspots, not system the used He … . the sunspots in of flaws of not but were paper of sheets or walls on studying was Scheiner images The makes who Scheiner, Christoph astronomer Jesuit the Galileo, of contemporary A a through seen be could objects spurious numerous telescope’s 2006,102) given attime.(Biagioli, any eyepiece as artifactual, were Galileo’s that believe claims legitimately could few a only for telescope a through images, double vision, of looked who people periphery), the toward field especially images blurred and fringes, color (narrow telescopes early of features the of Because In the dispute on comets of 1619–23, Galileo argued theoncomets dispute of 1619–23,Galileo In the that 55 32

CEU eTD Collection also serve as scientific instruments, i.e. tools for obtain theoretical knowledge. The techniques The knowledge. theoretical obtain for tools i.e. instruments, scientific as serve also producingmethods them: ofusingand erroneous. results werehighly the all experimental instruments, available the given And indecisive. were data available the as Sun the around revolving planets being as sunspots the interpreted Scheiner example, For interpretation. further require obtained data the Also, data. relevant the extract to skills perceptual and instruments the operate to skills practical special require they and experience everyday in appear naturally not do they that The instruments are not only tools employed for obtaining various substances but they but substances various obtaining for employed tools only not are instruments The All data obtained through experiments are to a certain extent ‘fabricated’ in the sense the ‘fabricated’ in extent certain a to are experiments through obtained data All (Long, to2004,340) it. use possess particular skills and had to itself device from derived truth contrast, the to access have to had individuals Such individuals. particular to available only was that In device a true. of manipulation the was on depended claim instrumentation and experimentation, particular a that agreed question differing qualities of glass; he also describes various contrivances for furnaces, of furnaces, for contrivances various describes illustrations. 2000,59) (Principe, which he provides also he making glass; for of frits and qualities ashes of differing types the and vessels earthenware for clay of types in differences the details then He forth. so and sublimation, precipitation, circulation, for the Instruments to according Werke’, differing the recites shapes lengths and ofvessels ‘to ordeyne a man purpose.Norton,like accustomed to beits accommodated apparatus of that poetically,third less or, Instruments’ The with Work. accordeth ‘Werke Great the that the is concords for these necessary ‘concords’ to chapters verse his of one fifteenth-century the in example, For the as well as instruments of descriptions full contain also alchemy of books The smooth how matter no channel vellum-lined a Dorn, results. (McClellan& 2006,239-240) the predicted exactlyproduce could not over and down ball rattling bronze and uniform It or rolling interval. not-perfectly-spherical a time that a out determine pointed be to to weight needs hardly its water measured collected and he container method: a timing from running his describes he later the down paragraphs roll to Two allowed channel. ball bronze rounded a and feet, four a to the two of with raised end is One beam thick, parchment. his with inches lined and three describes smoothed, edge, long, first one in feet chiselled He channel 24 experiment. beam wooden plane a inclined equipment: celebrated experimental his to turns Galileo 56 Ordinall of Alchimy of Ordinall , Thomas Norton devoted Norton Thomas ,

CEU eTD Collection aiu easac teps t rae a sinii n hlspia prah toward approach 33 philosophical and scientific a create to attempts and Renaissance one dominant various the was it Nonetheless works. their wrote Descartes and Bacon when mechanics: gross and brutish, unsubtle, crass, as philosophy Descartes’ characterises He principles. mechanical ignoble used it that was Fromondus, theology, and most the of one argumentspowerful Descartes’against Thus, of philosophyprofessor Scholastic by a voiced project, disregarded. extent certain a to was century twelfth the in Victor of status the raise to mechanicae attempts Renaissance some despite century, seventeenth with Aristotle’s contempt and Plato’s arts. mechanical and mechanics of conception new radically a introduce would Descartes and Bacon which against framework the presented chapter This 3. Conclusion investigation(Newman,2000,35) ofnature. forthe into experimental evolved tools already as merely alchemists medieval had techniques these Ages, Middle late by the By metals. precious attaining for means empirical employed not were analysis and testing mineral of

rudem et pinguiusculamrudem et τάς βαναυσίας remained the dominant attitude among the learned until the beginning of beginning the until learned the among attitude dominant the remained βαναυσίας τάς This Scholastic attitude towards technology was not the only one available in the time the in available one only the not was technology towards attitude Scholastic This to (Fromondus ... motion local or place, by only much 1637, Plempius, 13September AT emphasis) I 408,my too explain to hopes He too seems ... shapes various of parts of out bodies such by produced is which physics, ’ into often too brutish falls he knowing, without that believe I . The singular positive theological evaluation of technology made by Hugh of St. of Hugh by made technology of evaluation theological positive singular The . n and rs gross (AT I 402), ignoble ignoble (AT I 402) ... Such noble actions do not seem possible to be to possible seem not do actions noble Such ... 402) I (AT ignobili et bruta and and brutish causes causes brutish 57 (AT 403). I (AT I 403) ... The composition of those of composition The ... (AT403) I crass crass 33 because of its extensive use of use extensive its of because and and mechanical mechanical (AT... 406) I artes

CEU eTD Collection useful application of mathematical and experimental science. experimental and ofmathematical useful application a as conception modern its with art ignoble an as technology of conception Aristotelian the replace to managed that framework a role, major a occupies technology which in framework, new a create They philosophies. their of aim the as technology through nature of mastery human the set and arts mechanical the and mechanics on emphasis great a place chapters, two next the in analyse will I that works the in Descartes, and Bacon changes. radically situation his publishes Descartes when 1649, and arts, mechanical Learning of Advancement his publishes Bacon when century,1605, between seventeenth the of half first the during context, this In technology. toward approach positive philosophically the for environment domains.technological various to restricted shown, as and, marginal only were important, very technology,although n ti hpe rsne h easac eeomns ta rae favourable a created that developments Renaissance the presented I chapter this In , the first work in which he gives a central place to mechanics and mechanics to place central a gives he which in work first the , 58 h Psin o te Soul the of Passions The the , The

CEU eTD Collection De Augmentis Scientiarum NO), Scientiarum (1620, hereafter Description the Intellectual of Globe’ (‘Thoughts andConclusions onthe Interpretation Nature’ of Learning andHuman Divine 34 Finally, system. Bacon’s in development technological of methods the and status the clarify to used is basis metaphysical This technology. and nature between continuity the and nature of contingency the on ideas Bacon’s exploring by begins to part second and The state. its promises criticise its show to both intended were which technology, contemporary his on technology. ofmodern characteristics to the emphasize shiftparadigm and Cartesian and Baconian the document to use later shall I which technology, of conception Bacon’s of survey a provide shall I chapter technology. this scientific In a creating of goal his for instrumental only is science Baconian overemphasised The analysis. attentive more a of need in and system his of aims principal the are medicine and arts mechanical in progress and technology about ideas his but science, experimental of creator the and science of reformer a as analysed and considered generally is Bacon invention. technological through world the of change material about bring would it that so philosophy reform to wished I, James of reign (1561-1626). Bacon Francis of philosophy the is science experimental applied as technology of idea modern the promote that Bacon’s Philosophy of Technology Chapter II The are: works concerning important technology of most Bacon The first comprehensive philosophical approach to mechanical arts and the first works first the and arts mechanical to approach philosophical comprehensive first The The chapter is divided into three parts. The first part presents Bacon’s considerations Bacon’s presents part first The parts. three into divided is chapter The (1623), New New (1623), Atlantis and (1627) (1605, hereafter (1605, hereafter Advancement), Historia Naturalis History’ (‘Natural , 1612), 34 , the Lord Chancellor of England during the during England of Chancellor Lord the Bacon, Francis Instauratio MagnaInstauratio ('Great Instauration' 59 , 1607), , 1607), Sylva Sylvarum, orNatural History Sylvarum, Sylva Cogitata et Visa Interpetatione Naturae de The Advancement andProficience of Descriptio Intellectualis (‘A Globi , 1622), Abcedarium NaturaeAbcedarium , 1620), NovumOrganum, 1620), (1627). (1622),

CEU eTD Collection the gunpowder and the compass: the and gunpowder work. ofitphilosophical hisentire throughout criticism an extensive andmagic he formulates and arts mechanical of status the with discontent deeply is he hand, other the philosophy.On natural of reform his for model the as took craftsmen that approach practical he the considers Moreover, of take. should characteristics development technological main that the directions the endeavour, and technology technological the in place man’s technology, and nature between relation the i.e. technology, of conception his clarifies that actual technologies of examples of series a presents he and development technological of the possibilities regarding optimistic very is Bacon hand, one the On twofold. is technology available of use his the to with Bacon’sapproach lifetime. his in available start were that instances technological particular should technology of conception Bacon’s into inquiry An magic. and mechanics i.e. philosophy, natural of part operative the designate to ‘technology’ term the use will I magic. and mechanics comprises philosophy, which operative and metaphysics, and physics comprises philosophy,which theoretical into philosophy natural classifies Bacon Press,1.1. Printing Gunpowder and Compass andMetaphors1. Examples andtechnology. technology fruitful enlightening instruments, scientific namely technology, of instances three Bacon’s discusses part third the are to be seen nowhere more conspicuously than in those three which were unknown were which three those in than conspicuously more nowhere seen these be and to are discoveries; of consequences and virtue and force the observe to well is It Bacon’s most celebrated instances of technological discoveries are the printing press, printing the are discoveries technological of instances celebrated most Bacon’s 60

CEU eTD Collection such a process. The printing press is a piece of technology that depends less on material on byman’s planless designed of a beingan instantiation properties, mostly wits. depends that technology of piece a is press printing The process. a such perfects nor process natural some imitates neither press printing The character. autonomous things andstatethroughoutface of the world. “ use its can way this Only in on. so and travels, for food storage navigation, building, ship comprises which configuration, technological entire an in inserted is it if only endeavour. technological greater a in useful steps is The mariner’s particular needle represents man’s and things inventiveness. of nature very the of knowledge the both implies technology Therefore, compass destination. desired the reach and position own their establish can they which through direction spatial certain a to points needle magnetic the that know they nature: its of knowledge certain have navigators the because only used be can that substance natural a of “commerce the Works(NO, piecethings” a of is technology, nature compass the 7). The IV and man of mind the between every of condition necessary the and basis the form highest the in expresses It object. artificial an not is it speaking, properly because, compass the is example enlightening most the also but curious most The technology. for essential considers afr, te tid i aiain hne hv olwd inmrbe changes; innumerable followed and power greater exerted have have to affairs in human (NO,influence discoveries. these mechanical than Works seems IV 114) whence star no sect, navigation; no empire, in no in that second insomuch the literature, third in first the the world; warfare, the throughout things of state and inglorious; face and obscure is recent, though whole the changed have three origin, these For magnet. the gunpowder,and namely, the printing, which of and ancients, the to the like, may seem to depend on certain properties of things themselves and nature, and themselves things of properties certain on depend to seem may like, the paper,or of sugar, of magnet, the of silk, gunpowder,of of discovery the however For These three instances of marvellous work show many of the characteristics that Bacon that characteristics the of many show work marvellous of instances three These h rnig pes ehbt nte motn hrceitc o ehooy its technology, of characteristic important another exhibits press printing The but results immediate produce to required always not is technology addition, In ” 61 change the whole the change

CEU eTD Collection 35 a produce can change minimal transformation.complete a that such different combining of possibilities technology things, different of the of nature knowledge mere the Besides works. marvellous most the about bring to involved, forces and motions, axioms, forms, different of knowledge through way, intelligent an in used are properties natural the instances, of sort this In Works 212) (NO, IV act.” to time has other the before effect take and start the get velocity superior its by shall one motions two of that contriving the mean I mass; larger far a regulates and overcomes matter of mass small a possibilitiesoftechnology. out ofinnumerable should be fulfilled, that needs actual the into research the technologies, developing of direction the into research the precisely is instauration Bacon’s of part important An aspects. its all in life man’s enrich to way a but man natural of burdens the of elimination the for means a just not is technology The needs. cultural i.e. needs, human specific serves it that fact the from comes also press press. printing did notthe ancients invent the arts, that mechanical for deplorable also but curious, very is it Therefore, about. it bring to intelligence For Bacon, magic is purely natural and represents only the application of a more insightful of a is represents knowledge the natural more the ForBacon, application only of magic purely and Works IV 91) obvious. and plain not is which printing of art the in nothing rate any at is there Along with this independence from the ‘nature of things’, the autonomy ofthe autonomy printing ofthings’, the ‘nature from the Along with this independence human on only rests it obvious and clear so being press printing a of workings The The last example, the gunpowder, points to what Bacon calls natural magic, “wherein magic, natural calls Bacon what to points gunpowder, the example, last The ( questions. Works judicious IV 232-233 ask to as knowledge of part form a to much For as for. is always wished wishes be judicious I to things subject, of Chart particular or Chart, each Human the in to place Interpretation a assign of itself work the in Besides … life. of uses the for most make as such must Wethings of store whole it. the from gather bless therefore not do but nature, human exalt Knowledge mere and Power Mere 35 ) qua 62 ai eurs as h nweg f the of knowledge the also requires magic (NO, NO,

CEU eTD Collection See Achterhuis (2001). 36 natural world. its it capacities. through matterand transforms as beegathers that philosopher natural a the of that the is for metaphors powerful needed his of method One technology. proper and the knowledge of to advancement point to arts mechanical from and realm natural the from taken metaphors used Bacon examples, Alongside discoveries. technological future to experiments with usethisresults. ofthingsknowledge andforpractical nature to discover the combination in wits their used had men if before long created been have would they needle, mariner’s the especially are, they as simple As inquiry. systematic through not and chance through obtained being invention, or one discovery initial their considers if inglorious” and “obscure are inventions three these his All of technology. state contemporary poor the is examples these using in Bacon by made point important Another 1.2. Mechanical Arts aModel as for ResearchPhilosophical philosophy,natural and magic. arts both comprising mechanical these plural, the in technologies of Bacon’s case, in speak, to appropriate sufficient and necessary of set more is it reason this a For nature. common a without arts, different of bundle a by but conditions, described be can which thing, monolithic a not is This twentieth century. at the end pluralitybyphilosophers of technologyrediscovered of is technology of the field, but transforms and digests it by a power of its own. Not unlike this is the true is the thisunlike Not own. of its a power by it the digests transforms and but field, the use: and collect of and garden the the of flowers the from But material only its gathers it course; substance. middle a takes bee own they their of ant; out cobwebs the make who like spiders, of resemble are men reasoners or experiment experiment of of men men The either been dogmas. have sciences handled have who Those These three examples along with their characteristics point to the fact that technology that fact the to point characteristics their with along examples three These These examples represent models or standards against which we should measure should we which against standards or models represent examples These 63 36 of the operative parts of parts operative the of

CEU eTD Collection corroborate each other. each corroborate to have authors different of ideas different second, and experience, of tribunal the meet must idea any first, met: are conditions two if only possible is philosophy and science in advance an Bacon, For progress. to possible is it how shows and methodologies respective their in arts experiments. systematic using without and continuity without anew starts one each and thought of system own his creates master great each where philosophy, natural doing of methods ancient the rejects He philosophy. natural applications. fortechnological essential ofthings, whichnature are the into insights new obtain one can thus Only discovered. empirical the to capacities natural its apply to has It own. its technology,on not certainly and knowledge, create cannot reason human Similarly, knowledge. for step first essential the is it but enough not is facts empirical of gathering The knowledge. of production the for reason human between and experiments link a of necessity of the highlights production it the but with proper, technology more with deals than knowledge metaphor This method. new a of proposal a as and these two faculties, the experimental and the rational, (such as has never yet been yet never has as (such rational, hoped. may be much made) the and experimental the faculties, two the in these up it lays mechanical but and it; between league purer finds and closer history a it from Therefore digested. and as altered natural understanding whole, memory from the gathers in up it it lay which and matter experiments the take it does nor powers mind, onthe orchiefly ofthe foritsolely ofphilosophy; relies neither business n rwn, a aig i hm a bet f lf; a is ue hn convenient, then rude, first at life; of breath a them advancing. times all adorned, and at afterwards in having as growing, and we experience, of thriving continually are popular) are they as long (as these light for happen, contrary the see the and nature on founded are which arts, mechanical the In Again, Bacon uses this metaphor in two directions: as a criticism against philosophers against criticism a as directions: two in metaphor this uses Bacon Again, In addition, Bacon argues for mechanical arts as the model for advancement into advancement for model the as arts mechanical for argues Bacon addition, In (NO, Works IV 92-93) He contrasts natural philosophy with mechanical with philosophy natural contrasts He 64 (NO, Works IV 74-75)

CEU eTD Collection outputs, in the works that instantiate the knowledge. the outputs, works ininstantiate the that its in lies knowledge of value the manner, this In ones. new some creating or artefacts those perfecting in knowledge that use to and artefacts and experiments from knowledge extract to proposes Bacon contrast, By others. refute and theory one confirm that instances for search topossibilities. alternative reluctant ideas,the being same polish and develop only that thought of schools the to opposed as cooperation, and dialogue endeavour.collective a in technology,it specific developing their on focused are craftsmen the founder.contrast, In school’sthe of “cobweb” the in trapped remain but works these improve not do commentators and schools subsequent the but knowledge, of advancement the for important considered usually are works initial These school. a of initiator the of work the at directed not is criticism Bacon’s domain. empirical the is study of object the former the in author, particular some and of work the is study of object the latter arts the in while that Bacon’s is in time philosophy natural mechanical between difference The 128) VI Works (Advancement, one.” some of wit the about spent been have industries and wits “many philosophy natural and arts liberal 2006, 37) (Rossi, progress. of capable is kind, ancient the unlike which, learning of type a birth to bring to possible then is it culture, for model a as arts Takingmechanical value. the progressiveness, collaboration, universal a attributed – Bacon which to categories became perfectibility, – invention and knowledge technical of categories typical Several In the mechanical arts “many wits and industries have contributed in one”, in the in one”, in contributed have industries and wits “many arts mechanical the In The Aristotelian type of the investigation of nature lies in contemplation and in the in and contemplation in lies nature of investigation the of type Aristotelian The of community, scientific a of creation the requires philosophy natural for model This 65

CEU eTD Collection emphasis) already not things invented; of forth setting and ordering nice the for systems merely are possess now most the into inquire not invention:technology, of of art development the the for ingredient important did they but technology and learning of advancement the for onmagnets. experiments These isbasedonmeticulous becauseGilbert, it are important works is work often-cited Another alchemy. practical and law drawing, arts: associated the also metallurgy but exhaustively, and minerals mining only not concerning arts account into taking it. theoretically, technology systematizing analysed they that fact the is admiration his for reason The insufficient. as work their considers but technology with dealt that thinkers past the of least proceed should arts the is the there which in arts truly that most are occupations “Those chance: by view not and methodically Aristotelian the to similar is criticism This 48) NO, IV, (Bacon sciences.” to than rather experiment and chance to due are “the known already chance: works by only driven being knowledge, use not does that endeavour blind a being for time his of technology the criticizes heavily philosophy,Bacon his for model a Although 1.3. Bacon’s ofMechanicsMagic and Criticism element of chance.” ofchance.” element Works IV Aristotle366) by very writer, handled modern been (Advancement, subjects particular a in writers other many has by and Agricola, minerals, in diligently Georgius which by that spirituals, is in Hero treat by now promiscuously, I which of mechanic The The most admired work is is work admired most The some admires He mechanics. on works theoretical past entirely reject not does Bacon methods of invention of methods philosophy, medicine, astronomy, surveying, arithmetic, architecture, arithmetic, astronomy,surveying, philosophy, medicine, ( Politics , 1258b) De re metallica re De or directions for new works.” ( works.” new for directions or 66 by Georgius Agricola who systemized the systemized who Agricola Georgius by De Magnete De NO, Works IV 48 IV Works NO, “ the sciences we sciences the by William by , my ,

CEU eTD Collection not make enough experiments. Consequently, they did not find the real nature of things of nature to invention: proceed examined and cannot real the find not did they Consequently, experiments. enough make not do they fact, in and, unsystematic are experiments their that is arts, mechanical in experiments science: mature isa nonerespectable, ofthem because disappointed and he ishighly inventions, i.e. advancement, technological for responsible be should and nature study that domains main the lists He invent. to able is none because reform of need in are all that finds and technologies the of most examines He isolated. and rare are which ones, fortuitous just not and inventions methodological and systematic are aims His development. technological Consequently, . and sagacity only bychance, but advances systematic experiment insight. rational and method and science uses them none of because deplorable more is that a state in even without are technologies data empirical of collections or data empirical without construction logical either are men by possessed sciences The missing. been handed down from one to another, or they have been purposely sought for. But for. sought purposely been have they or another, to one from down handed been so and chance by come either have men to known are which works of inventions All There is none who has dwelt upon experience and the facts of nature as long as is as long as nature of facts the and experience upon dwelt has who none is There the mechanic, the by in engaged things (as is all by (NO, success. slightand scanty are) endeavour now with Works works but IV 47) magician; to the and view alchemist, the a physician, the with mathematician, nature of study The than rather sagacity and ingenuity philosophy.of (Advancement, Works IV 366) matter a is which inventions; former together putting or transferring or extending by detected or axioms, and causes of light the by out worked either been have experiment intentional by found been have which those The method of invention requires as a first step a well-founded science that is still is that science well-founded a step first a as requires invention of method The His main criticism to those who are closer to a scientific technology, a scientific those whocloser to His to are criticism main use those who i.e. of way the as ingenuity and sagacity chance, accepting in reluctant is Bacon 67

CEU eTD Collection 37 necessary the of most research experiments. their from eliminate they Consequently, result. single a of production the at entirely aims endeavour their fact, In results. practical immediate for desire their is technology fruitful and science sound produce to failure their for reason another and science his to of contributions arts technology, to tobe praised. bethan blamed ismore there respective mechanical in their advancements regarding the Nevertheless, to contemporaries. comes it when examples preferred Chemists conclusions. unreliable and far-reaching too draws magnetism, in or chemistry in as experiment, and method good with starts it whether Bacon, until done conclusions. research Theunfounded to quickly too jump experimentalists those all phenomena. associated ofall account taking domain, specific historyexperimental ofa and natural entire the writing by philosophy: in proceed to way the of Bacon’sunderstanding before down to closest is Agricola of laid work the respect, be this In philosophy. sound a should construct to beginning matter the of facts All instances. adjacent the and scrutiny Or alchemists, as the Ordifference alchemists, as was established fully of century. not until seventeenth the end xeine n lot tre ehnc; yt tee aan hv n ter very their in of system have regular any again without inquiry, these wandering (NO,operations. Works IV 17) of yet kind mechanics; a pursued turned experiments almost of waves and the to themselves experience, committed have who indeed are there Some necessary. aoiul n te suy ad osrain o h odtn, poedd a ne to once most at himself proceeded employed loadstone, the had of he after (NO, with subject. hisfavourite system in accordance Works an entire construct and IV 59) study also, the Gilbert in and laboriously ... a up built have philosophy furnace the of fantastic experiments few a of out again chemists of race The h xeiet niind b ao hud ehut te etr oan under domain entire the exhaust should Bacon by envisioned experiments The Alongside with this intemperance and hastiness to reach philosophical conclusions, philosophical reach to hastiness and intemperance this with Alongside that argues he but insights, rational with experiment combine that those praises Bacon 68 37 and William Gilbert are the are Gilbert William and

CEU eTD Collection bases, meticulous advancement and great hopes. and great meticulousadvancement bases, 74) IV Works solid with (NO, technology and science of imposture-like.” edifice entire the reform and to proposes he Consequently, trilling those and show, to discoveries few ofthings” (NO, surface and variety Works IV it, but [has] they as magic, call 79), and “natural the along glide merely and profoundness, lack altogether ... itself medicine arts, mechanical of number a music, optics, “astronomy, because practice actual the dismisses he endeavour, senses. the of weakness the surpass to and nature constraint to instruments of use the as such work, In 74) IV Works (NO, experimental regarding suggestions further present will Bacon them.” inquiry of method his exposing aids than experiments the confuses rather devised have they which theory the “for are, they as facts of record the disturb will theory because stage experimental first the in generalisation theoretical any from refraining the is knowledge of production the for ingredient necessary other The method. sound a with together experiments of use extensive and attentive more a is philosophy natural of reform the in needed is what that conclusion the draws Bacon philosophy experimental in works important most the of analysis this From result. practical expected the nor conclusions philosophical sound neither so as to become more general. ... They nevertheless almost always turn aside with aside turn always almost nevertheless (NO, eagernessto practice. and unseasonable Worksoverhasty They IV 71) ... general. more become to as as experiment, so one enlarged, be some must inquiry the ... out gold; with chemists working the and magnet, the in with Gilbert labour their spend they and still earnestly and laboriously, seriously more experiments to themselves apply they if even And The results of their approach are partial experimental data from which they can obtain can they which from data experimental partial are approach their of results The In summary, while Bacon is convinced that technology can become a very successful very a become can technology that convinced is Bacon summary,while In 69

CEU eTD Collection ordinary and manifest processes that take place in nature: that in place processes manifest take ordinary and the and things common of configurations manifest and ordinary the than else nothing is that things of structure internal the into enquire to has physics causes, and matter Besides causes. enquire to have not efficient and matter of does science the becomes Physics causes. final and formal the into anymore it because physics, classical by understand we what science, new a becomes Physics 344) IV Works (Advancement, Form.” the and Cause Final the of “ metaphysics: to belong causes final and formal the while physics to belong causes efficient and material the that so metaphysics and physics between redistributed are they but physics, of domain the to pertain now causes four all Not modifications. little with (material, formal) and final, causes efficient, four of theory Aristotelian the accepts Bacon matter. of configurations possible of one just is nature that is nature regarding image descriptive Baconian first The 2.1. The Synchronous ofNature’s Image Contingency Bacon’sanalysing ofnature. isto hisconception explain philosophy oftechnology in step first a Consequently, are. rules these what discover to first has one so, doing In 24) ( action.” in nature command “to rules, its following by nature conquer to is Bacon to according technology of aim The experiments. systemizing and doing before theory any of formulation the from refraining unconditional an promotes he although objects, natural of status the to pertaining ideas the by influenced deeply is technology of Bacon’s conception 2. Nature’s ContingencyandTechnological Possibilities and the Latent Configuration (all of which have reference to the common and ordinary and common the to reference have which of (all Configuration Latent the and Process, Latent the of and Matter, of and Cause, Efficient the of investigation the Let Whereof Physic inquires of the Efficient Cause and the Material; Metaphysic Material; the and Cause Efficient the of inquires Physic Whereof 70 Bacon IV,NO, Bacon

CEU eTD Collection optbe xet ta n elrs a neto, te ohr a cneune only.” consequence beginning process, the ofthe oftheconditions, pointinitial from chain the ofview causal only a other the the into inquiring efficient, and intention, material are causes Physical an 364) IV Works (Advancement, declares one that except perfectly compatible, being metaphysical] and [physical causes “both different: although compatible fully are they such as and continuum a form metaphysics and Physics laws.” fundamental and “eternal the studies latter the while course”, ordinary and “common their in nature of the ofmetaphysics. domain constitute that laws and immutable eternal i.e. axioms, and forms the discovering for prerequisite the is configuration latent and IV 119) “ 123-124) IV Works (NO, sense.” the escapes part most the for which continuous, perfectly process a [is] Process “Latent components. body’s a between latent relations while static the part, comprises configuration most the for unobservable remains that bodies inside motion constant eternal and and necessary continuous a is process not latent The nature. ordinary being of ones contingent the these but structures bodies, of structure internal the to point bodies of characteristics two last The configuration. latent and process latent cause, efficient matter, course of nature, not to her eternal and fundamental laws) constitute Physics. (NO, Physics. constitute laws) fundamental Works IV 126) and eternal her to not nature, of course ( engendered. is which form the the to material manifest the and efficient of manifest the from motion, and generation of case every in the discovery, means] or [That Knowledge. Human nature, of aim nature-engendering and work the or is ... difference, emanation of specific source true or form, the discover To Concrete bodies present four main characteristics that are to be studied by physics: by studied be to are that characteristics main four present bodies Concrete The difference between physics and metaphysics is that the former studies the bodies the studies former the that is metaphysics and physics between difference The process latent cause, efficient matter, of discovery the physics, in nature of study The NO, NO, Works IV 119 Latent configuration Latent ) [concerns] bodies at rest and not in motion.” (NO, Works (NO, motion.” in not and rest at bodies [concerns] 71 latent process latent carried on carried

CEU eTD Collection Physics can study the particular processes and configurations that constitute gold but the but gold constitute that configurations and processes particular the study can Physics qualities. fundamental natures, simple from up built are processes and configuration Theses processes. latent undergoes and configurations a latent internal is has Gold that gold. substance is particular nature conceiving of way this of example recurrent A necessary. and eternal not are forms, metaphysical to contrary that, configurations and processes latent those are bodies natural of ‘forms’ The forms. fundamental of combinations contingent are which bodies, natural of forms so-called the and form; metaphysical the i.e. necessary, and eternal, are constituted. bodies, natural particular i.e. ‘words’, particular the which of out ‘letters’ the are forms The and simple are forms The bodies. configurations. and processes particular essences, particular up build that natures fundamental those of configurations latent and processes latent the in consist bodies particular of essences The nature. of laws fundamental the but bodies particular of essences not are forms The is. there that all of structure necessary ultimate the present they as metaphysics to pertain forms as physics. The methods same the with processes same the following although object, or process any of purpose the into and configuration final the into inquire causes Metaphysical chain. causal this of end the for searching without define of. (Advancement, of.(Advancement, define Works III355) now we which Metaphysic of part that is these of forms true the . . . enquire to consist; an many, are not alphabet do creatures bymatter) ofall ofwhich the (upheld essences like and which qualities, and natures other all and cold, of heat, of tenuity, of density, the enquire and levity, of gravity of colours, to of vegetation, motion, voluntary of of sense, Forms of but pursuit: vain a is air, of water, of nay gold, of oak, an of lion, a of Form the enquire to manner same the In them. of compounded are and words, consist which all of forms the manifesteth and induceth known, being and comprehensible, easily is letters simple make which voices or sounds those of form the enquire to hand, other the on But infinite. are letters of make transposition were and composition which by which sounds it words, those than of forms more the gross no in seek enquired; to purpose be to or to possible not either transplanting are and they compounding as perplexed, by so now are are multiplied) they (as …. Substances of Forms The Bacon in fact admits two types of forms: the properly called form, which is simple, is which form, called properly the forms: of types two admits fact in Bacon 72

CEU eTD Collection customary or habitual modes of action, leaving other pathways unused.” (Weeks, 2007, 118) (Weeks,2007, unused.” pathways other leaving action, of modes habitual or customary in themselves arrange manifestations its that so operations its limits nature that only maintains it, puts Weeks as are, They forms. eternal not are bodies natural of configurations and processes latent essences, the that is technology of foundation bodies: Naturae abecedarium an thus proposes Bacon qualities. essential of bundles contingent are which bodies, natural to pertain not do laws, eternal being forms, These forms. eternal have not do bodies natural particular that implies form of concept Aristotelian the of reinterpretation This indefinite. are combinations possible their but number in limited are forms The forms. such of combinations particular of forms. ofmetaphysical configurations knowledge the and is processes Physics metaphysics. these of domain govern the in that are laws configurations eternal and simple fundamental, of knowledge other natures which meet in meet gold. (NO, natures which Worksother IV 122) certain the a for on so with and means; liquid particular by a dissolved and separated into is it turns fluidity; of it degree fire; and of volatile, action not the by is substance it its extension; of none of loses degree certain a to ductile or malleable certain weight; a to up heavy colour; in yellow is It meet. properties following the ... gold In niiul ocpuly odrd it lse, my b niie h ubr o its of number the infinite; be may 2006,103) isnot (Perez-Ramos, components minimal classes, into of collection ordered a as conceptually Nature, priori. individuals a posited be to appears but information, empirical any on depend not does however, set, privileged Such experience. sense of themanifold to rise give modes, various in themselves recombining and combining by which, an phrase, own Bacon’s in Naturae of, abecedarium idea the conveys presupposition metaphysical This The main point I wish to stress and which is extremely important for the ontological the for important extremely is which and stress to wish I point main The particular are processes, and configurations particular their with bodies, natural All that links the fundamental laws of the universe to the manifest natural manifest the to universe the of laws fundamental the links that ta s a it o cnn f udmna hscl properties physical fundamental of canon or list a is, that , 73 habits of nature. “Bacon nature. of

CEU eTD Collection Great Instauration” (Weeks, 2008) that Bacon’s conception of the contingency of nature is a is nature of contingency the of conception Bacon’s that (Weeks,2008) Instauration” Great Bacon’s Francis in Mechanics of Role „The (Weeks,in the Art-NatureDistinction” and 2007) the Bacon, for is, “ in Weeks shows matter.Sophie primordial of Cupid atom, the of representation myths. ancient other with along Cupid, of myth the interprets in appears image This 2.2. The Diachronic ofNature’s Image Contingency matter. unfolding ofprimordial aas particular a image, another yet is However, there in mainly Bacon, of works theoretical in appears It bodies. natural of types actual the exceed forms of configurations possible that fact the call possibilities. manyone technological ofthe only thus is Nature possible. are combinations other but forms, and matter of combinations certain of consists Nature technology. of powers the for and knowledge obtaining of way the for consequences important has technology. conception in This and praeter-nature in exist forms of configurations different WorksSuch view.” (Preparative, into 253) IV comes things, of theatre or universe another bodies, of face new a man of ministry and help The the “by nature: possible. are configurations in existing presently those than different configurations different in combine could forms fundamental other many and just are configurations bodies natural particular of essences The encounter. we bodies natural actual the nature”, of course ordinary and “common the and forms, laws”, fundamental and “eternal between division strong a draws Bacon forms. eternal basic of bundles particular are bodies Natural Nevertheless, this is just one description of the contingency of nature, which I shall I which nature, of contingency the of description one just is this Nevertheless, synchronous image. It establishes the contingency of nature as the consequence of the of consequence the as nature of contingency the establishes It image. De Sapientia Veterum Sapientia De diachronic Novum Novum and and 74 De principiis atque originibus atque principiis De one, which presents the evolution of nature of evolution the presents which one, and in in and De Augmentis Scientiarum Augmentis De Francis Bacon and Bacon Francis , where Bacon where , .

CEU eTD Collection together, and ... by repetition and produces all the variety of nature.” (De nature.” of variety the all produces multiplication and repetition by ... and together, come them makes ... that matter of particles primary the upon God by impressed desire nature, of impulse of law summary the “For world. the of complexity entire the produces it and external, not atom, the to internal is motion This motion. is characteristic main its and active, is it inert, not is atom Baconian The agency. its is atom the of characteristic important most some to heads perish. Thecannot it direction. created, being chaos. Not with Also, coeval is eternal, atom the always it because archer an with compared is atom the characteristics; of lack and simplicity its suggests nakedness the blind; is atom the as chaotic are they directions, pre-established no have movements its potentialities; of sum a always remains it matures, never atom the metaphors, these explains Bacon As 729) VI Works sapientia, (De archer.” an is he naked; is he blind; is he infant; an always is he four: number in are him to assigned are which attributes “The in atoms. of which, characteristics actual the characteristics express interpretation, Bacon’s main four has Cupid 729) VI Works sapientia, (De matter.” of out things all fashions and constitutes that force unique and original the indeed is which atom; the of motion natural plainly,the more speak to or matter; primal of instinct or appetite “the is Love, or Cupid, things.” all “begot Cupid which of matter, out chaotic chaos, primordial the with begins Bacon’scosmology evolution. natural of and nature of theory atomic an presents then He 729) VI Works sapientia, (De nature.” of infancy and cradle “the with deals myth otherwise. followed. naturehave that could ofthe possible evolutionisjustpaths natural one Actual developed have could that matter primary of unfolding contingent a as nature presents that description heuristic a more is It confirmation. empirical no has universe, the of evolution the concerning argument, diachronic the technology, and praeter-nature nature, to apply laws same the that showing by Bacon, to according experimentally, proved be can ( matter primary of account his of consequence In the essay “Cupid; or the atom” from from atom” the or “Cupid; essay the In 75 materia prima materia De sapientia veterum sapientia De ). While the synchronous image synchronous the While ). , Bacon affirms that this that affirms Bacon ,

CEU eTD Collection stage of the continuum that comprises nature, praeter-nature comprises continuum that stage ofthe and technology. one represents it because research of field important an as praeter-nature considers Bacon contrast, By philosophy. natural in overlooked is usually that nature of accident an just is the In nature. of course ordinary praeter-nature essences, and forms eternal have and bodies natural where framework, Aristotelian common the from of deviations realm all the and is monsters Praeter-nature technology. and praeter-nature nature, between relations by human technology. created be can configurations alternative and new Such possible. is configurations, alternative with universe a namely universe, alternative an Therefore, atoms. of unfolding habitual”, and “lazy blind, by produced are bodies natural present of essences The contingent. is nature that free.” (Weeks, labelled “nature which Bacon habitual nature, lazyproduced and a 2007,101) power absolute matter’s of limitations Successive things. all of source plenipotentiary the and unchanging, eternal, matter: appetitive and enriched an is cosmogony Baconian of heart the at lying principle fundamental The used. normally is “nature” term the which for system stable know. we that nature the ofatomschaotic, unfolding creates and free i.e. “natural”, The things. all of origin the is motion This 730) WorksVI sapientia, theatre of things, comes into ofthings,view. comes theatre (Preparative, Works VIIIor 357) universe another bodies, of face new a man of ministry and help the by But made. been have never would things such man without authority: his under works and man and perverseness the from orders takes nature artificial things ministry. in human …For and by art by moulded state and constrained is proper she or her impediments; of violence of the own and matter out her of insubordination forced in herself is develops she and or free course; is she ordinary Either … states three in exists Nature Bacon’s cosmogonical account moves from a state of unbridled chaos to the relatively the to chaos unbridled of state a from moves account Bacon’s cosmogonical The next step in the analysis of Bacon’s philosophy of technology is to clarify the clarify to is technology of philosophy Bacon’s of analysis the in step next The is nature atomic this of evolution the of description Bacon’s of conclusion main The 76

CEU eTD Collection hc om r sprnue’ oe atr Wa s ls el kon i Bacon’s is known well less is “What matter. over ‘superinduced’ are forms which in process a evolutionary, as seen be can process technological the forms while which matter in configure process technological a as argues, Weeks as seen, thus be can unfolding natural The not. is technology while purposeless is man, to relation in nature, that fact the for except features, their in indistinct so are They equal. ontologically Bacon, for are, nature and an as only technology and prior ontologically nature consider to technology: to impediments greatest the of one essential is This the objects. natural of of some characteristics miss objects artificial that that, of corollary the and nature perfect and imitate only can arts that conception received traditional the rejects He artificial. and through matter constraints.natural same the of out developed praeter-nature and nature both because natural, bodies i.e. common, most the been have could bodies praeter-natural the through different, been created difference have would a conditions If generalisations. one, unfounded and nature artificial common of contemplation an is praeter-nature and nature between natural difference the by Nevertheless, arts. bound human by nature bound nature is is technology while praeter-nature constraints, free”, “nature speaking properly is Nature 2.3. The Continuity Nature between and Technology vulgar notion, since all violent motion is also in fact natural; the external efficient external the natural; fact in (NO,also it before. workingotherwise than was nature setting Workssimply distinction IV 66-68) is motion a violent negligence all since greatest notion, vulgar the with introduce a from entirely drawn itself is which they distinction a violent, and natural motion between ... another. the into in one nature of of aberrations transplanting the and and species different of collision the from hindrances or work, her of fulfilment from proceeds variety remaining the that and educe, to intends nature which forms primary opinion certain nature the in are into there passes that readily of he whence species minerals; of different plants, with of animals, meets of things, he freely, working nature contemplates man When On the same grounds, Bacon strongly protests against a real division between natural between division real a against protests strongly Bacon grounds, same the On 77 ancilla naturae ancilla . Technology .

CEU eTD Collection xenl ntrl cntans (te cliin o ifrn pce” ad “h ilne of violence “the and species” different of collision (“the constraints natural ways: external unusual in move and to matter”) of insubordination and (“perverseness force internal excessive by constrained praeter-nature are latent technology and and atoms the praeter-nature of motions processes, internal i.e. potentialities, own its by proceeds nature of way their as well as technology, are configurations similar. and latent latent processes and their identical, functioning are and praeter-nature nature, to apply that laws the causes, efficient of chains different by about brought and origin different of While History.” “Natural the in consideration joint their by proved is unimportant quite are them between as aims.human needs its takes it because technology purposeful by ‘superinduced’ that be will world stable possible best the view of point human the other From praeter-nature. are by shown There as arrive. worlds stable can possible nature which at possibilities the of one just is world current 114)The (Weeks, 2007, habit.” by sustained and at arrived haphazardly world, current the as manifests matter of unfolding the of blindly.termination “One happened that process magical a therefore superindution, a such also is universe the of state current the to led that process of application practical the is Magic matter. Similarly,in the forms ‘superinduces’desired man the the which 105) through metaphysics 2007, (Weeks, nature.” current our to rise gave that processes very the of recapitulation a signify to ‘magic’ term the of appropriation will be best therefore to consider these things as the case arises. (Preparative, WorksIV 253) (Preparative, arises. case the as things these be consider to therefore sometimes best be will may again It separate. kept better artificial be will they sometimes things though species, the with And joined rightly themselves? species the the with of joined be history species several the in monsters the of history the not should why For treated. separately and apart kept be should three these that rule a it make not do I The specific difference that separates the three domains is the efficient cause. While cause. efficient the is domains three the separates that difference specific The differences the that and continuum a constitute domains three these that fact The 78

CEU eTD Collection Bacon the technological products do not lose their internal qualities, the internal movement, internal the qualities, internal their lose not do products technological the Bacon for Aristotle, Unlike 47) Works IV (NO, within.” working nature by done is rest The bodies. natural asunder put or together put to is do can man that all works, outcomes: of effecting “Towards the desired into evolve to nature for conditions favourable the create to only have will technology active, being matter and Nature effects. marvellous produce will interactions natural their by that bodies natural separating and combining than more nothing in consists Magic Even needs. his to according nature new a create to nature, change radically to power effects: the obtain desired in isconstrained ordermotion to natural the which by configuration different a than more nothing is technology and matter, is art the (Aristotle, attribute.” anmerely accidental of rules the with accordance in arrangement “the where technology and nature between separation strict ancient the undermines conception This forms. of manipulation and knowledge proper the of condition the with objects technological into maintained be can objects natural of characteristics all and otherwise” “working nature is technology that means (NO, Worksbefore.”similar,was it than “working otherwise technology in nature IV 68) That are technology and praeter-nature nature, Ontologically, change. ontological an performing without nature of habits old the changes only objects technological and bodies praeter-natural creates that cause efficient The ministry.” human and “art by technology impediments”); nothing. Nor matters it, provided things are put in the way to produce an effect, an produce to way the in put are means orotherwise. done byhuman it be whether things provided it, matters Nor do can nothing. he this, admit not does case the where everything; do can man actives passives, say) with they (as joining by bodies, natural of disuniting put or uniting can the of he admits motion; of that the except in nature only case the wherever that over therefore and them; separate but together, can bodies he and natural power essence, no or has form man in that natural in the efficient; from differ not does artificial The These extremely simple procedures, if properly known and applied, give man the man give applied, and known properly if procedures, simple extremely These separating and uniting of procedures simple in only consists cause efficient The Physics 79 , 193a) ( Advancement, Advancement, Works IV 294 )

CEU eTD Collection Nature and technology are technology differentNature and possibilities. sameofnatural domain ofthe actualisations laws. same the obey that substances same because the forms, of configurations the different offers i.e. technology laws, fundamental the find to and nature understand better to us helps technology of study the from obtained knowledge The 294) WorksIV (Advancement, History” Natural of species a as Arts the of History the down set to induced more the am “I understood: broadly nature of universe, the of configuration particular a is artificial the Bacon process: a technological to issimilar products, itself but nature theconclusions latter’s. than different draws Aristotle’s, to similar examples using by Bacon, him, before Cusanus Like product. artificial an as honey considers Bacon while natural, perfectly are those him for but nests, like technology, resemble that animals of products are there that recognized Aristotle sugar, than artificial less (Descriptio, byman” which ismade Works V even that 507) It istrue no is bee, the of industry the by made is honey, which for animals; other to deputed universe the of law the by is office ministering the again “Sometimes bees: by honey of production the is Bacon for example obvious most The realm. natural the in present already are technologies and enhanced. preserved be could activity this knowledge, real through and, active remain atoms because therefore all be included in Natural History. in included Natural be all therefore (Advancement, Works IV 295) of course the three; must three which these help; to man with nature or art, and nature, of wanderings the nature, included are nature under but everything; a governs of which out sky the in made is water. of jet the a below with here alsois nature made is it therefore cloud; Still dripping also So herself. for work the nature done sands, having the in pure found sometimes and fire the in refined sometimes is Gold ao ute rus nt ol ht tcnlg s ntr o, bt as ht some that also but too, nature is technology that only not argues further Bacon For this reason, the study of nature and of the artificial should be a single domain. For domain. single a be should artificial the of and nature of study the reason, this For and processes technological exemplify animals by produced objects the do only Not 80

CEU eTD Collection data concerning both nature and artificial things, data obtained by meticulous experiments. meticulous by obtained data things, artificial and nature both concerning data empirical all of record comprehensive a in consists part third The introduced. is methodology philosophy natural way shoulddevelop. a plan ofhiswork, presentsthe designed that plan (NO, fails.” operation that ofcauses ignorance Works IV 32) from is it and one; in Power,meet human really and do Knowledge human objects, twin those so “And power: human with knowledge human combining by 253) IV Works (Preparative, things” of theatre or universe another bodies, of face new “a create would that 22) Works IV (NO, Science” Active or Philosophy; New “The is project Bacon’s new of finality of The production things. and discovery invention, for rules with technology of domain proper a establishing by works of creation the towards directed is philosophy endeavour.His human of aim important most the Bacon for constitutes philosophy operative The it. pursuing of method the into and system his in technology to assigns Bacon that place the into inquire next shall we fashion, similar a in technology developing of possibility the as well as atoms, active of chaos initial an from Bacon, to according developed, nature way the described Having 2.4. The of Place Technology in Bacon’s System 6. The New or Philosophy; Active Great Instauration, (The Science." Works IV 22) 5. The Forerunners; or Anticipations ofthePhilosophy. New 4. The ofthe Intellect. Ladder the for History Experimental and Natural ofPhilosophy.foundation a or Universe; the of Phenomena The 3. 2. The New Organon; ofNature. Interpretation the concerning orDirections 1. The Divisionsofthe Sciences. isin work sixParts: The The first two parts discuss the method of the new philosophy, where a new scientific new a where philosophy, new the of method the discuss parts two first The the in stated is purpose This knowledge. of reform Bacon’s of aim the Technologyis 81

CEU eTD Collection the establishment of an active and operative philosophy. However, the substantial part of his of part substantial the However,philosophy. operative and active an of establishment the and technology of development the in lies interest main his that fact the despite knowledge, completed byhisfollowers. to sixthbe leaves part the generation and he goals and fortechnology organizes ofknowledge production and artefacts. the and manages In sets that production production. material and science material on reasoning of kind a a philosophy, a is science, it addition, operative and active an science, applied but science mere not is However,it science. a foremost and Technology first science. is applied of that to art of domain the from it displace that technology of definition new a also offers combination and production) of categories “the is that separate, the and sciences.” ofthe (NO, Worksactive department IV 29) works of pursuit in principally am “I works: marvellous and things new produce would that science new a philosophy, new a institute to is aim his that repeatedly mentions Bacon technology. scientific a i.e. philosophy, operative the will or science part active sixth the complete the Only 31) IV Works (NO, forthcoming.” be principal the until time to time from payable interest like rest; the of only,completion use the temporary pending “for is affirms, Bacon as part, fifth Philosophy.”The “New the theof foundation the be in will part fourth discussed discovery and invention of methods the with together “histories” These my hopes. (The Great Instauration, Instauration, (The hopes. Great Worksmy IV 32) beyond and strength my established.above both thing a is part last this of however completion The and developed length at is provided and of explained course have severe I which and inquiry chaste, legitimate, the by which philosophy that forth sets discloses and ministrant) and subservient is rest the which (to work my of part sixth The This may be the reason why his philosophy was mainly considered a philosophy of philosophy a considered mainly was philosophy his why reason the be may This single a in completed be to great too endeavour this considers Bacon Nevertheless, completely keep what to Aristotle Philosophy” struggled “New his in combines Bacon episteme (certain knowledge of unchanging truths).” (Long, 2004, 341) This 341) 2004, (Long, truths).” unchanging of knowledge (certain techne (material production and reasoning about that about reasoning and production (material 82

CEU eTD Collection knowledge thus obtained should serve to experiments: design works new knowledge and shouldserve thusobtained the and experiments and works from extracted be to is knowledge because realm, operative the into technology, into immersed totally is philosophy natural of system Bacon’s 48) IV applied Works (NO, works.” and new for directions or applicable invention of “methods in an consists that knowledge be should philosophy Natural 205) IV Works (NO, inWorks.” terminates business whole the But senses. the with commences information “For goal. ultimate his attaining in instrument an only is science Bacon, For technology. towards step intermediate an only but necessary a is learning, of advancement the science, Therefore, 259) IVWorks (Preparative, speculations.” not of, pursuit in are we works is it “For technology: helping of role its in only knowledge considers he tradition, philosophical entire the against new proposed. can be theory” “entire oruniversal a down laid are knowledge of fundamentals the after Only completed. is knowledge of reform the until wait to has philosophy new the of formulation proper The knowledge. of reform his of consequence a is it because stated explicitly not is technology of philosophy interpretation of nature), but hold it enough if in the intermediate business I bear I business legitimate intermediate the the in by if enough discovered it philosophy hold but the nature), of for interpretation destined is (which Instauration the of part sixth the complete to live to hope I can Neither attempt. an such for come is time the that seem not does it For propound. to theory universal or entire no have I from works and experiments to extract causes and axioms, and again from those from again (NO, Works IV 104) and nature. of interpreter axioms, legitimate a as and experiments, and works causes new axioms, and causes extract to experiments and works from but empiric), an (as experiments from experiments or works from works extract to Not great the of commencement the towards part my performing (NO, undertaking. Works IV 104) and truth, a purer of seeds the ages future for meantime the in sowing profitably, and soberly myself Bacon sets as the goal of philosophy the realisation of “new works.” Consequently, works.” “new of realisation the philosophy of goal the as sets Bacon 83

CEU eTD Collection Eden where Eden where Adam nature. over the entire commanded of Garden the in existed that domination the creation”, over “dominion man’s partly, least at restore, will Technology sin. Adam’s of consequences the counteracts and life paradisical oratreduced. least canof life be eliminated the is universe This burdens the humankind. technology of help the with Nevertheless, Paradise. for from fall the of consequence vicissitudes of world a by is analysed is philosophy which traditional and live we which in world The Fall. the of argument theological different very with technology. a requires identical becomes universe, finally that philosophy natural the a philosophy, of kind new a recreating methodology, at aims which philosophy, active human needs. universeto according recreation ofthis but the (Sawday, 2007,216) principles. mechanical to according them around world natural the recreate to had first disaster, philosophers Edenic the primal the efforts,from own its by recovers, partially work humankind which by Creation’ a ‘Second the world, of idea this that to forging compared be might In which designs. human to conforming systems and artefacts of world mechanical, alternative, an create to was philosophers natural the of task The Whence there cannot but follow an improvement in man’s estate, and an enlargement an and estate, man’s in improvement an follow but cannot there Whence 2008,46) yourbread’. (Klein, eat sweat thou shalt of thy presence the ‘In Fall: the of consequences negative the compensate can man which of help the by tools as machines of construction the towards thought human aligned He his in see can one as touch utopian a had conceptions these Bacon For As Sawday puts it, the aim of philosophy is not merely the knowledge of the universe the of knowledge the merely not is philosophy of aim the it, puts Sawday As Technology is one of the ways, the other being faith, by which humankind restores a restores humankind which by faith, being other the ways, the of one Technologyis the uses Bacon philosophy, to approach technologically-oriented his sustaining In an to universe, philosophy,the contemplative knowing a at from aims shift which This 84 Nova Atlantis Nova .

CEU eTD Collection the sixteenth century. They and drawingsvarious mechanisms. consisteddescriptions machines in and of 38 Great (The ministrant” and subservient is parts] five first [the rest “the technology: for ladder helping a just is it that work his of parts five first the in developed knowledge of philosophy the that asserts Bacon applications. technological its is knowledge of feature essential the Bacon, for contrast, By knowledge. of by-product inessential an accident, an merely was arts of aim The applications. practical mechanical in results theoretical some of application the while itself, knowledge was knowing its to indifferent totally be theoretical to results, meant was theoretical knowledge some of use makes of technology feature if main Moreover, a not technology. was approach scientific The outcomes. desired the reach to order in applied be to rules of set a art, an speaking properly was technology sense, this In theory. on depended not did technology but knowledge, theoretical some possess to had artisan the objects, artificial to bemake knowledge.able Inorder entirelyto disjointedfrom arts werenot Bacon’s to technology.prior and mechanical that science reform true is between It established time. the in one recurrent a is redemption of way a as gift. of technology divine Thea theme is technology because commandment divine a inof books half type appear a ofpopular theThe to second new very began that of were machines” “theatres arts and sciences. (NO, and sciences. (NO, arts Works IV 247-248) can however by latter losses the faith and religion by these former the repaired; part some of in be life this in Both even creation. over dominion of his state his from from time and same innocency the at fell fall the by man For nature. over power his of rfcs t h hars i h tes te lot awy a n theological on lay always almost they stress losses compensationforthe sufferedsome ofthe(Dolza, Fall. 2008,18) the time at the offer is and mankind to gift God’s are arts mechanical Theatres technology.The for justifications the the to of aspects interesting most prefaces the of One works. and lives their shaped deeply that beliefs religious strong harbored machines of theatres of authors the of majority The Moreover, the pursuit of technology is not only a possibility of redeem but a necessity, a but redeem of possibility a only not is technology Moreover,of pursuit the The most important feature of Bacon’s analysis of technology is the relation that he that relation the is technology of analysis Bacon’s of feature important most The Theatres of Machines of Theatres 85 38 that were common in Bacon’s in common were that

CEU eTD Collection (like lensesand clocks):(like artefacts mass-produced of improvements which to in earlier even instances contributed isolated discoveries scientific were there although century, nineteenth the for wait to had technology and science of practice real the in relationship this of show,instantiation Dorn the Harold and III McClellan E. James as Nevertheless, metallurgy. and alchemy, mining magic, mechanics, natural in visible knowledge practical of pursuit Renaissance the on based is applied, technologically be to purpose only its as has that knowledge the being science and metaphysics and physics into generalized be to facts empirical new of reservoir the being IV 29) Works (NO, called.” so properly arts into grown yet not have which crafts many the of arts, liberal the of part operative the of arts, mechanical the of experiments all length at down set I “Therefore things: new create and processes natural affect can technology how show to able not is nature of knowledge mere as knowledge, of object proper a become themselves things artificial addition, In things. artificial create to used be can it that manner a such in pursued be should science reform: knowledge Bacon’s for reason the is That 32) Works IV Instauration, century it was as much institutional factors, along with intellectual and technical and intellectual with along factors, institutional shaped the ( that partnership. developments, much as was it nineteenth the century in merge to began they when And ways. separate traditional, their go to continued crafts) (the technology and science theoretical century nineteenth not the of did science theoretical century, seventeenth Francis in industry. find applications the immediately by most and eighteenth incentury the ...Infact, in espoused Descartes knowledge Rene of and application Bacon useful the of ideology the Despite The paradigm shift by which science and technology became interrelated, technology interrelated, became technology and science which by shift paradigm The 86 McClellan & Dorn, McClellan 2006, 295)

CEU eTD Collection ao fim, de o e xs. Hs am i o cet h ehd o netn and inventing of method the create to is ofscience. applications technological discovering aim His exist. yet not does affirms, Bacon rest ofSalomon’s produced theby applying knowledge House. of ways find to have them, calls Bacon as Benefactors, the because knowledge of production the from different is purpose Its works. new of invention the with deals that division special a is there Salomon’s House In Bacon’sproject. in place proper a with endeavour autonomous an is which devices, technological of invention the is proceed to way the then technologies fruitful produce to is aim the If 48) WorksIV (NO, works.” new for directions or invention of “methods calls Bacon what is This science. of method experimental the from different own, its of method a requires technology of development The step. intermediate required the is science, knowledge, of production the while technology of development the is Bacon’s aim Nevertheless, the nature. of of knowledge basis producing of the aim the sets had He which method method. experimental scientific the establishing for famous most is Bacon 2.5. Technological Method r f Dsoey o rs it ere xeine ad te Nw Organon. New the and Experience Learned into Arts of (Advancement, Works IV 407) Discovery of Art the of Division wanting. is important) most the is (which these of former the that and Arguments: of discovery and Arts of discovery into Discovery of Art the of Division (New orBenefactors. Dowry-men call we Atlantis, Works emphasis) III165,my These bodies. of parts and virtues the of discovery natural clear and of easy the means and divinations, causes, of demonstration plain for as works for well as knowledge about ask and fellows, their of experiments the into looking themselves, We bend that three have This very important part of philosophy, the invention of new works, is the part that, part the is works, new of invention the philosophy, of part important very This how to draw out of them things of use and practice and use of things them of out draw to how 87 for man’s life, and life, man’s for

CEU eTD Collection tde. I un hs wl rn e nweg hc il drc o nw wrs and works new to direct will which knowledge experiments. new bring will this be turn, to In has that studied. technological nature new The a technology. creates always and technology because knowledge limitless is of development level ultimate an reaching by stop knowledge. new andproduce whileexperiments works and experiments, new creating in helps axioms of complementary. Knowledge are philosophy of parts two The devices. technological of production consistent the allows forms, of axioms, of knowledge the only because knowledge of production the to linked intimately is philosophy of part This devices. technological new designing of problem the i.e. practice”, and use of things [axioms] different different domains, have goals and different methods. with deal they because separately considered be is to are former directions the two while These instrumental. philosophy of goal true the being latter the experiments, and new works of production and invention the comprises that direction technological a and nature, of knowledge complete the axioms, of formulation the comprises that direction scientific descends; first ascending to axioms, then descending to works. (NO, to then works. to descending firstaxioms, ascending Worksdescends; IV 96) and ascends but level, a on lie not does road for.our looked For be may things greater new out turnto the point their again particulars, shallway and rule, in certainmethod a by particulars from those educed been which having of axioms, light new the from But (Advancement, separately. considered be WorksOperative, IV 343) the and two these Speculative that the requisite most parts, it judge I therefore experiments; new of to invention axioms the from descending and axioms, to experiments and from ascendent ascending ladder, or descendent, scale double a has Philosophy Natural fruitful and true All Bacon constantly affirms that there are always two directions that must be followed: a followed: be must that directions two always are there that affirms constantly Bacon For Bacon this constant movement between axioms and experiments does not seem to seem not does experiments and axioms between movement constant this Bacon For of out draw to “how is Philosophy of part Operative the for question main The 88

CEU eTD Collection purposeful endeavour and this characteristic distinguishes technology from nature, which is a is which nature, from technology distinguishes characteristic this and endeavour purposeful a is science of application The acquired. be can usefulness this how and man to useful is what into inquires It Practice.” to “Applications philosophy of part this calls Bacon works. new about bring to natures simple of combinations and inventions through and sciences different philosophy.from activenatural different istobythe be made sciences particular to another. domain from one be transferred must knowledge knowledge of Thisrecombination from different domains. knowledge apply and transfer, compare should philosopher active the works, new about bring To works. marvellous into natures simple of combinations unusual designing and inventing of process complex a but devices technological in materialized is knowledge of piece one ofknowledge. bywhich process blind linear ofknowledgeThe application isnot a application of not and creativity human of matter a is It things. marvellous and new into essences simple are no more nourished by natural philosophy bynatural (NO, nomore nourished are Works IV 79) ... theyestablished, and distributed once been have sciences particular itself these after because medicine arts, mechanical of things; of variety and surface the along glide number merely and profoundness, lack altogether a music, optics, astronomy, this, of the in especially philosophy.want natural For to again back sciences, carried be sciences particular and sciences, the in progress much for particular to and applied on be carried philosophy natural unless of them, part practical look man no let Meanwhile (NO, light. and brought beto deduced may I spoke, Works IV 92) of means by only which of Experience Learned that of help the by known, already those of applying and not which comparing, remaining, transferring, the through also still but discovered, be to inventions yet are that of operations mass great a is There Technological method consists in creating new natures. It is a matter of combining of matter a is It natures. new creating in consists method Technological The function of active philosophy is to bring together the knowledge obtained by obtained knowledge the together bring to is philosophy active of function The and together brought be must sciences different the works, new create to order In 89

CEU eTD Collection steps before passing to the legitimate interpretation ofnature. interpretation legitimate beforesteps to passing the In experiments. mechanical and natural from information possible all of gathering the i.e. Experience, Learned of science, experimental ofnature. the interpreters real by completed be to one the project, Bacon’s in step last the is axioms, of formulation the as wellas experiments, of new complete. The to invention time takes that scientists of endeavour collective a upon and axioms of knowledge comprehensive a upon rests it because possible and inventiveness brings philosophy ofknowledge.purpose intorealm the Active potentialities. same the of unfolding blind judicious wishes is as much a part of knowledge as to ask judicious questions. (NO, questions. judicious ask to as knowledge of part a form much to as For for. is wished wishes be judicious to things of Chart or Chart, Human the to place a to assign Applications of treat to come I more when Ialwaysa particular subject, each in work Besidesin ofInterpretation the itself Practice. be But will life. these of of uses speaking the for for place most make proper as such things gather of therefore store must whole We the it. from bless not do but nature, human exalt Knowledge mere or intimate which mean, I those Instances; Intimating place twenty-fifth the in put will I Instances Prerogative Among cecs n lo o rcie hc r o ruh no at. Tee w call we These arts. into brought not are which practices Mystery-men. of also and liberal sciences; of also and arts; mechanical all of experiments call the collect we that three have These We books. all in are which Depredators. experiments the collect that three have We Organon. New the to relating part, other that (Advancement, Works IV 413) to belongs experiments, to axioms from or axioms, to experiments from transition all For ... Organon New the or Nature, of Interpretation the from sought be to way, is third the was which itself, light the For Works IV 232-233) Before beginning to design new technologies, Bacon proposes the accomplishment of accomplishment the proposes Bacon technologies, new design to beginning Before as much as delayed be must important, most while practice, to application This point out what is useful to man to useful is what out point 90 New , Bacon presents the prerequisite the presents Bacon , . For mere Power and Power mere For .

CEU eTD Collection mechanics and mathematics. Mathematics, although important for measuring and weighting and measuring for important although Mathematics, mathematics. and mechanics minds. prepared quietly” in “enter the will paradigm new the the formsofdemonstration; and notions first the principles, first the concerns it because demonstrated be cannot paradigm is,in what heKuhn’s that proposes of persuasion.Bacon isaware shift. paradigm terms, a The one is theory pedagogical His knowledge. of reform his for arguments logical provide cannot the Bacon for However, nature. ofhumankind. necessarypurpose legitimate and isthe transformation ofnature transform to aim not do they such as and surpassed be cannot nature” “free that think Men nature. in extant possibilities the regarding ignorance the reasons the of by limited One is works of production work. the that fact the to is state deplorable a put such in is technology be can that nature of forces hidden the understand to call Compilers. (New (New Compilers. call Atlantis, Works III164) to we These them. of out tables, axioms and observations of drawing the for and light better the give titles into four former the of experiments the draw that three have We Pioners orMiners. call we These good. think themselves as such experiments, new try We that three have receiving it; for confutations cannot be employed, when the difference is upon first upon is difference (NO, even uponformsofdemonstration. very notions and Works and principles the IV 53) when employed, of be capable cannot and confutations fit for are it; that minds receiving the into quietly enter doctrine my have would ... I human in despair premature or a transmute, bred change, to has means this no by And (Advancement, enterprises. Works but IV 294) nature. bondage, in alter when fundamentally free her set the to having or error, nature, into lapsing to when her correct assistant to begun, has an nature what finish merely to indeed as power art considering human of the into that crept namely, has mind; which error subtle more and another likewise is there But By recording and listing all knowledge gathered through experiments men will come will men experiments through gathered knowledge all listing and recording By As for his technological method, Bacon, unlike Descartes, sets only a marginal Descartes, only unlike sets a Bacon, As method, for forhistechnological role he the affirms he approach, his of rightfulness the of convinced is Bacon Although 91

CEU eTD Collection ofgrtos ad poess f te uies. Fnly tee i rifl tcnlg which technology fruitful is there Finally, universe. the of processes and various configurations of laws fundamental the out find to and works technology how show to meant is technology Enlightening studied. being for but results practical their for not designed devices technological in consists technology Enlightening features. hidden its reveal to nature force and senses the of fallibility the surpass to nature of investigator the help that devices designed technologically are instruments Scientific technology. fruitful and technology enlightening instruments, scientific technology: of kinds main three distinguish can one Bacon’sworks, In 3. Types Technology of contrast, by Those, engines. Descartes’ in centralplace occupy the to technology.approach hydraulic and mechanical of mention little with on, so and chemistry, metallurgy,biology,of medicine, those meteorology are inventions cherished most Salomon’sof technologies things. marvellous of the nature House, As list true the in shown the into inquiring without alterations, and transformations without matter extant combine only endeavour. fortechnological ofmathematics the he rejects centrality for Bacon, and logic as place same the has Mathematics science. to appendix an just is phenomena, natural and dignity of this science is of less importance. (Advancement, importance. isofless ofthis dignity Works science and IV 370) the on place the But it. over dominion exercise to possess they which presume certainty the of strength nevertheless Physic, of handmaids the but be to ought which Logic, and Mathematic how,that not know I pass, to come has it For Physic. over domineer almost science this have needs will who mathematicians, of pride and daintiness the of reason by do, to compelled manner a in am I indeed Which all. them to auxiliaries and much so of are they that appendices as seeing Magic, and Mechanics and Metaphysics and Physics in both importance Mathematics, designate to better it thought have I The same treatment is applied to mechanics, seeing it as a low form of technology that technology of form low a as it seeing mechanics, to applied is treatment same The 92

CEU eTD Collection it is certain for Bacon that they would have arrived at marvellous results: marvellous at would have arrived forBaconthey that it iscertain experiments, and instruments modern use to were authors ancient If did. they than more done not have they that reason this for is it and endeavour, scientific their in instrumentation and experiments lacked ancients The ancients. the of that from philosophy Bacon’s distinguishes by that mediation difference specific one is laws, natural This discovering in instruments of use beginning. technology,the the from mediated technologically be should knowledge of important pursuit The mediation. instrumental overlooking an proposes Bacon reason, this in For nature. of features or error in either result can senses the by immediate nature The of instruments. experience scientific of technologies, assistant of use the by surpassed laws. universal the true hide somehabitsthat only common ofnature about information us gives free” “nature and us deceive obtained can senses be the can but method, that this through knowledge of amount certain a is there Certainly, senses. unaided with free” “nature contemplating by traditionally obtained was knowledge that states Bacon 3.1. ScientificInstruments ofBacon’sthe goal real philosophy. is technology fruitful This 253). Works IV (Parasceve, things” of theatre or universe another bodies, of face new “a about bring that works” “marvellous the devices, useful of consists loehr ivsbe . ra datgs mgt dutes b eie rm the from derived be be to doubtless declared might had advantages he which Great discovery. (NO, Works IV 193) atom, ... the invisible. discerning of altogether discovered now was way a joy,thinking for leaped have perhaps would he one, seen had Democritus if that so objects; for available only is of, speaking am I instrument the microscope, the the since untouched; remains all, of but methods. ofways (74)...For isnot ofwitsor faculties, and Ichallenge comparison indeed and authors, ancient the of honour The Both these inconveniences, the errors of the senses and the opacity of nature, can be can nature, of opacity the and senses the of errors the inconveniences, these Both 93

CEU eTD Collection 40 useto (Long, it.” 2004,341) possess to particularskills accessitselfand theparticular individuals. haddevice have to had to Suchindividuals wasto that available device only offrom and dependedonthea manipulation instrumentation experimentation, true. derived truth In without particularclaimwas contrast, agreed people question a that because reasonable all of thechallenged notion Aristotelian For common experience. Aristotelians valid was experience common 39 ofreality. the features essential apprehend to instruments by aided and prepared properly not are senses the if error in be will knowledge reality, order toknowledge. obtain in nature for constraints of use the and experience sensory of enhancement the both requires Bacon nature, free of experience immediate emerging While from as Aristotle knowledge saw science. to approaches modern and ancient between distinguishes that Bacon and Galileo by equally emphasized experiments, of importance the precisely is It experiments. by theories wouldsustain that hisaffirmations.experiments “For the senses.”(NO, informationwith commences Works VIII 205) it use had investigatemethodologicalimplications “The ofnature to important because instruments 40 an effectan whichsee. we one as such of speaks he when it performed having his of impression the us give to wishes he so would [...] fall differ that isclear in speed.(62) ... it Aristotle yet madeexperiment; not the have could to allowed two if other, that the as true much be as times it ten whether weighing one experiment stones, by tested ever Aristotle that doubt greatly I express purpose of determining the point in question. (NO, thein question. point ofdetermining purpose express Works IV 26) the for devised artificially and skilfully are as of mean, I experiments, subtlety such instruments; the For experiments. by exquisite by assisted when even itself, as sense the of that than greater far instruments is experiments by much so not accomplish to senses; the for helps provide to faithfully and this I endeavour toits correct errors; failures, torectifications supplyits substitutes and diligently sides all on sought have I Contrary to Galileo, Bacon is aware that Aristotle was never trying to demonstrate his demonstrate to trying never was Aristotlethat aware is Bacon Galileo, to Contrary his in Similarly,Galileo For Bacon, all knowledge comes from experience, i.e. from the sensory contact with contact sensory the from i.e. experience, from comes knowledge all Bacon, For u h esr xeine cn b roeu. Teeoe h nie eiie of edifice entire the Therefore, erroneous. be can experience sensory the but Two New Sciences TwoNew (Galileo, 1914[1638],66 94 remarked that Aristotle was not doing the doing not was Aristotle that remarked ) 39

CEU eTD Collection perception as accurate as possible. These instruments should make the visible more visible more visible the make should instruments These possible. as accurate as perception ofhelp.most in need one the thus and information of acquisition the for sense important most the as sight considers sensory enhanced experience.with technologically it replaces and experience sensory human immediate rejects Bacon Therefore, knowledge. human of source only the represent they but fallible are senses The nature. of picture clearer, Solomon’s isto be House, organised domainsexperience. aroundofsensory the in those by pursued as endeavour, scientific proper a that so much so knowledge all of basis the represent senses the through obtained qualities sensible the contrary, the On nature. real the of by-products mere as qualities sensible reject not does he Descartes, unlike However, us and deceives us. But its shortcomings are to be supplied, and its deceptions to be to deceptions (NO, corrected. Works its IV 58) and supplied, be to are shortcomings its But us. deceives and us fails both sense the for faulty; are itself sense the of impressions the place, first the In (NO, (NO, Works IV 58) distinctly. and exactly more them perceive to and off; further them perceive not to visible; are that objects perceive to enabled be may it kinds; three of are sight to aids the Now aid. procure to endeavour chiefly must we which for therefore sense the is This theoffice has chief it the sight ofall that senses ismanifest Now information. in giving (Sawday, and taste). smell conjoined (where Bacon 2007,214) of ‘Perfume-Houses’ harmony); and sound principle of exploration ‘Sound-Houses’ the light); (for organizing the of investigation the ‘Perspective-Houses’ (for senses: first, human the upon based ‘houses’, at various be, into particularized nature of study the to of portion each with House, Salomon’s appears indeed, experience, Sensory Bacon, like Descartes, is sceptical about the information we obtain through the senses. the through obtain we information the about sceptical is Descartes, like Bacon, The instruments should magnify or bring closer the objects of perception or make the make or perception of objects the closer bring or magnify should instruments The he astrolabes—for and telescopes instruments—microscopes, optical mentions Bacon sharper, a obtain to that so senses the supplement technologically to is solution His 95

CEU eTD Collection of temperature which is usually felt but which becomes visible with the useofa thermometer. with visible the but felt which becomes which isusually of temperature example the offers Bacon emphasis) my Works (NO, 194, IV are.” which others of means by sensible the to non-sensible the reduce ... not appeared which have toThey appear objects those whichand “summon experiments are instruments These technologies. of use the by only available are that experiences sensory of and instruments through perception, and hiddenprocesses. objects these manifest experiments, shouldmake enhanced technologically while experimenter, sensory into data. ofnature and hiddenprocesses properties translate the would which visible, invisible the render would that experiments and instruments proposes human enhancing capabilities. natural apparatus, sensory human redesign or recreate instruments scientific sense, that In is. naturally it than nor otherwise. (NO, nor otherwise. Works IV 199) before, not sight; the to manifest made is last at so and it; raises contraction water,the and expansion this is again Nor it. the depresses air of the expansion the butcontracts sight;the to perceptible air of the contraction cold the and air, the expands heat the but touch, the to perceptible themselves not are cold and heat the For above. described have I as such glass calendar a be sense the to manifest made are These sense. the to preceptible be to weak too degree a in cold, or heat be question in nature the let Again, the because or sense; (NO, motion. new the Worksa IV 194) for room has on not is sense there that the act so because object, another or by to occupied bear; and filled cannot previously it been sense the an for as such enough is making object time the for of not impression fitted is not there because is or sense; it the strike to quantity in because sufficient not is it because or or sense; the on impression bodies; intermediate the of account on or interposition distance; its of account on either senses, the escapes object An There are many ways in which natural objects and processes can be overlooked by the by overlooked be can processes and objects natural which in ways many are There He senses. the of enhancement mere the than further step a takes Bacon However, To surpass the fallibility of human sensory apparatus, Bacon envisions new domains new envisions Bacon apparatus, sensory human of fallibility the surpass To ; that is, make manifest things not directly perceptible directly not things manifest make is, that ; 96

CEU eTD Collection instruments to instruments of torture, by which nature is forced to confess the confess truth. isforced bywhichto nature oftorture, to instruments instruments axiom to proceeding scientific and handcuffs”) without and (“bonds torture nature, to experiments compares naked Bacon formulation. the data, particular record to only serves inplace nature. habitual The phenomena. take emergent that workings actual the cover only that vestments or veil a but like are nature of manifestations objects natural of essences real the not vexed when byart. better itself manifests because nature nature constraining of importance the latent places some many in that stresses so Bacon apparent. objects become processes natural of movement free the limit only but objects or natural senses human modify not do instruments These laws. hidden its reveal to nature force body.inside a movements internal the as sensibility human of spectrum the outside altogether are that things art are certainly as the bonds and handcuffs of Proteus, which betray the ultimate the betray which Proteus, of handcuffs and effortsstruggles ofmatter.and (Preparative, Works IV 257) bonds the as certainly are art Finally,appearance. external and of shapes vexations of the variety the under obscured and concealed commonly are which objects, natural from offveil mask takes and It the than art of vexations own gotheir way. they when the (NO, Works under IV 95) readily more themselves reveal nature of secrets the likewise so times; other at than trouble in is he when discovered better are affections and mind his of workings secret the and disposition man’s a its … in (29) freedom. than natural art of vexations the under readily more itself betrays things of nature The Another important domain of scientific instruments is represented by devices that will that devices by represented is instruments scientific of domain important Another senses the for translate would that experiments and instruments of thinks also Bacon The use of scientific instruments must be freed of any possible theoretical bias; it bias; theoretical possible any of freed be must instruments scientific of use The are that nature of habits manifest the eliminate nature constrain that experiments The 97

CEU eTD Collection universal instruments that are used to uncover the workings of natural objects, enlightening objects, natural of workings the are uncover to used instruments are that scientific instruments universal While differently. even sometimes anew, it making by nature study to order in apart nature leaves It objects. created in 172) consists IV technology Works Enlightening (NO, back.” her turn and overrule contrary the on or nature, of imitation an to nearest come either which preferred be to are those artificial things “Among nature. habitual from different altogether are that processes reveal that things artificial in or observed nature, processes reveal that things artificial either creates technology Enlightening configurations. new design and nature History. ofstudyforMechanicalorExperimental object isthe technology proper Enlightening recreate that devices technological on focuses technologyenlightening of use the nature, on focuses instruments scientific use the while that, fact the in consists technology enlightening and instruments scientific between difference The 3.2. Enlightening Technology alternative instantiated. werenever that before possibilities ofnature the study to of wants Bacon purpose nature, sole redesigning by the Thus, with knowledge. extracting created are experiments and devices technological which by requires ‘ experiments of scientific type new this names He further Bacon nature. of course devices. habitual technological through it change also but nature to limits set only not that experiments the to indebted still is knowledge This Philosophy. Active an of realisation the for needed knowledge the of part one only is andexperiments constraining senses through acquired enhanced information Nevertheless, the revealing of desideratum By enhancing the senses and by constraining nature to reveal itself, Bacon fulfils his fulfils Bacon itself, reveal to nature constraining by and senses the enhancing By some of the fundamental processes that take place in the universe. the in place take that processes fundamental the of 98 experimenta lucifera experimenta ’, experiments of light, of ’, experiments

CEU eTD Collection but technology at large. And among various technologies the ‘experiments of Light’ are very Light’ are of ‘experiments the technologies various among And large. at technology but the Consequently, devices. technological his philosophy,sense,modern of foundation in the working experiment merely not is aim, itsas well as and useful represent which Fruit’, of ‘experiments of notion the of use his by shown is it as 135) (2007, nature” in intervention ‘experiment’ term polysemous ( important centrally “The states, Weeks As device. technological every of workings the but nature, studying for instruments of use the just not experiments as considers he However, experiments. from but technology.altered nature, nature not is information of source important most the it reason, this differently. For making on and nature redesigning on rests focus His bodies. natural and matter “alter” History. and Experimental in Mechanical explicit which shouldbe made possess, craftsmen the that knowledge practical also but theoretical of form knowledge.” certain a is There “maker’s calls Perez-Ramos what embody they because arts”, “mechanical some of application the already instruments.knowledge byusingscientific gathered are they and arts different to specific are technologies which is a thing of great importance in very many respects. (NO, many respects. in very isa thingWorks importance ofgreat which motion, IV 257-258) local concerning information accurate give they because and bodies, of natural alterations the to relate which them in occur things many be because to both means neglected, no by are too these although like; the and clocks, mills, of architecture, carpentry, manufacture weaving, as such use; less of are instruments or hands the gunpowder, of sugar, enamel, glass, of motion subtle the in paper,principally fires,consist Those like. which artificial the and manufacture which the preferred dyeing; be chemistry, to cookery, agriculture, are as such things; those of materials and arts bodies natural prepare particular and alter, exhibit, the among practice…. to directly more leads and motion, in things exhibits it because use, of most history Artsof The is One important part of enlightening mechanics is gathering information from extant from information gathering is mechanics enlightening of part important One For Bacon all real knowledge must come not from immediate contemplation of nature of contemplation immediate from not come must knowledge real all Bacon For that those but matter of parts the rearrange just not that technologies prefers Bacon 99 experimentum ) refers in a general sense to sense general a in refers ) per se per but

CEU eTD Collection new ‘experiments of Light’ and the gathering of all possible information from technological from information possible all of gathering the and Light’ of ‘experiments new of creation the but technologies fruitful of free’creation ‘nature the of nor study the neither is redesigning. its ofnatureconstant foundationand knowledge isthe technology forthe enlightening while nature, habitual of kind new a become they development; for dead-end more new, to results experiments:enlightening theoretical these from and results theoretical to experiments from experiments. bymaking instruments and scientific of use the by at arrived be to is forms of knowledge the the addition, by In Forms. only of knowledge possible made are Fruit’ of ‘experiments the or works marvellous The 421) Works IV (Advancement, Fruit.” of experiments than after sought be to more even are Light of experiments that urging) continually am I (as mind in kept be ever must it “And works. new of production the for and learning of advancement the for both serve they as important causes and axioms; and seek for experiments of Light, not for experiments of Fruit. of experiments (NO, Worksfor IV 71) not Light, of experiments for seek and true axioms; discover and to causes endeavour first kind every of experience from likewise we must So and deduce to how other the experience; axioms. (NO, experimentsfrom new Worksderive from IV 127) axioms form and educe to how one the divisions; generic two embrace nature of interpretation the for directions my Now those nature. (NO, Worksfrom of IV 104) interpreter again legitimate a and as experiments, axioms, and works and new axioms and causes causes extract to experiments and works From Given the status of science and technology in his time, the most important endeavour important most the time, his in technology and science of status the Given a represent they because possible as much as delayed be must technologies Fruitful technology, enlightening movementof constant construction a the for proposes, Bacon 100

CEU eTD Collection should take account of all possible redesigns of nature. Bacon shows that, although his aim is aim his although that, shows Bacon nature. of redesigns possible all of account take should technology enlightening that fact also the but endeavour technological of broad scope the only certain hidden ofnature. laws discovering in and experiments natural new inventing on in based helpful be are could practices and these operations because examined be to are astrology, and magic ones. informationexistent from gather the than to more experiments invent to is technology enlightening of aim the Moreover, arts. practical of categories usual the in included not are that experiments new importance greater of being marginal are that altogether endeavour. practices mechanical arts andthe from mainstream to liberal and mechanical extant from gathered be to are experiments enlightening The settings. in the course of most ordinary experience, and do not stand at all in need of art. of need in all at stand not do and (Parasceve, Worksexperience, IV 257) ordinary most of course the in which experiments and up turn indeed sometimes which and called, so crafts properly art an into grown yet not have of number a Experimental from or or arts; the liberal from Man, the or of arts, part by mechanical operative from altered either drawn and is it changed For three. into as divide I Nature History, of and Arts, of History at the bottom (NO, the (NO, bottom at Works IV 172) lies operation natural some them of some in that be may it For ... omitted. entirely be not must word) the of acceptation common the (in magic and superstition of Matters method, (NO, Works IV different 172) entirely an introduced. be also tried; must experience advancing hitherto and on carrying for those process and order, from kind different a of too that and procured, and for sought be to experiments of abundance greater a is only not But An example of enlightening technology that Bacon uses is grafting, which shows not shows which grafting, is uses Bacon that technology enlightening of example An like endeavour, scientific subsequent the by rejected entirely were that practices Even as considers he contrary, the On arts. mechanical to himself limit not does Bacon 101

CEU eTD Collection indubitable science. These are stable working devices whose main characteristic is their is forlife.usefulness characteristic main whose devices working stable are These science. indubitable ofsuccessfulexperiments. production than ofa certain that rather errors and trials of form the take should technology enlightening consequence, a As refuted. experimentally be should errors these that and axioms of formulation the in appear can errors that aware is he because confirmation, of theory a to than falsification of theory Popperian a to closer is approach His discovered. already axioms lesser the in errors the and technology showlimitsof because they the prone to failure are that ofexperiments thesustains realisation useful technology. possible as beforeto much as returning knowledge gather is technology Enlightening necessaryto isit because realm natural domain the broadest ofredesigning aboutprecisely the nature. of picture accurate more a give would probably that even try and invent to necessary is it technology, useful muskroses, which are successfully inoculated with the common roses. (Advancement, roses. common the with inoculated successfully are which muskroses, [ in done elm sometimes is it the now trees; though rare, on very wild likewise is grafted flowers in on Grafting when foliage. tried elm the seldom that been said has is but it trees, though fruit in common is again Grafting sagacity and a kind of hunting by scent, than a science. (Advancement, (Advancement, a science. abyscent, kind than ofhunting Works and sagacity IV 421) a rather is said) already have I (as which Experience, Learned for much so And Fruit. of experiments than after sought be to more even are continually Light of experiments urging) that am I is (as mind one in kept unsuccessful be ever an must it And yet instructive. less agreeable, no oftentimes more be experiment successful a though For Works IV 413) otay o niheig ehooy te xeiet fFut r apiain of applications are Fruit of experiments the technology, enlightening to Contrary He experiments. erroneous of status the in manifest is Bacon’senquiry to commitment 102 prima facie prima sic ] produces a wonderful a produces ] unfruitful experiments unfruitful

CEU eTD Collection ope rcs ht at n te sml aue y sadr rcdrs Eventually, procedures. standard by natures needs. to according human redesign nature simple will technology the on acts that process complex and rational a is technology ‘elixirs’ Bacon of For use ‘essences’. the and by goals those fulfil to promise that alchemy and magic supernatural of kind all rejects Bacon effect. desired the order to natures obtain those simple in procedures asto be known recombine the are as to well involved natures simple the to pertaining axioms the all life, prolonging and gold making like Fruit, of experiments make to able be to order similar.In is them attain to way may the but seem, it improbable however goals, attainable are these that only Not life. of prolongation the and gold of making the are Bacon, by once than more mentioned are that goals, these and(NO, powers.” discoveries Works IV 79) new with endowed be life human that this: than other none is sciences the of goal lawful and true “The burdens. Experimental human eradicate would that technology and the goal: one only Natural have Histories and Light of Experiments comprise that endeavour scientific as known technologies useful of list the work fictional technology. his in fruitful expressed or Fruit” best is ideal His of “experiments works”, “marvellous of creation the is Bacon for philosophy of aim final The 3.3. Fruitful Technology at f te bd, ad cery udrtns te ntr f asmlto n of and assimilation of nature the understands clearly and body, the of parts solid the upon spirits the of depredations the and rarefaction of nature the well knows who man a that probable more far is it yet credible; hardly things are youth, of degree some of restoration it the or free age and old of nature retarding the perfect again So to ... impediments. power all having from as elixir, that of agency the by metals other gold turn to into able be time of moments few a in should elixir an of a grains that few and than gold; produce volatility endeavour sagacious and of much by last at extension, may minerals, of and malleability menstruums and seeds first of the into search diligent yellow, made also has who and of fixedness, of colour natures the the clearly knows of who man a weight, that probable more far is it yet believe; to difficult thing a is gold, into metal other any or quicksilver, silver, of conversion The Bacon considers the everlasting desires of humanity attainable by technology.Two of by attainable humanity of desires everlasting the considers Bacon Magmalia Naturalia Magmalia 103 . His and all and method scientific His . New New Atlantis and

CEU eTD Collection technological inventions were already acquired: werealready inventions technological In species. new of creation to youth (mariner’s time his weremade. before they wouldhave gun-powder) pressbeen printing needle, and of inventions the as unbelievable as are proposes he that technology the of results the that suggests Bacon alchemy. and magic of promises technology wildest the a surpass such of outcomes The needs. human to according nature of transformation the Arts, Mechanical through part ofMetaphysics. the ofPhysics,throughoperative Magic, operative part and acquired be to are results The knowledge. that apply that procedures meticulous and numerous of following the and acquired previously science the requires that process difficult a is It life. of prolongation the for exercises and bathings, diets, proper the derive to and medicines, proper and anointings create to able be would light, of that it can be done by a few drops or scruples of a precious liquor or essence. or liquor precious a of scruples or drops few a by (Advancement, Works IV 367-368) done be can it that than youth; of vigour the renew degree some in or life, prolong suitable like, the and exercises, medicines, proper anointings, bathings, diets, by shall restore, to sometimes itbody, as wereofthe and the flame spirits, office whose to consume and issometimes the of nature the observed likewise has and perfect, less or more whether alimentation, earthquake or in lightning, which as magnolia or marvels of nature, and by man not man by (NO, rejected. beenWorks immediately wouldhave imitable, and IV 90) nature, of marvels or magnolia as an which in lightning, perhaps in or except earthquake seen, been had analogous and immediately a nothing being expanding which fancy; violently to or thing imagination and man’s any suddenly into blast entered have fiery hardly a would exploding of notion the but ; projecting and ramming for machinery such and wheels and weights by engines mechanical catapults and of force the multiplying of ways the would all over men think distance; to strongest begun great have a the doubtless at which down thrown of and means shaken be by could invention, walls and new towers a was there that said and effects, its by thing the described had man a ordnance, of invention the before instance, for If, Technology presupposes “much and sagacious endeavour”, that, through experiments through that, endeavour”, sagacious and “much Technologypresupposes The list of these technological inventions is impressive, ranging from restoration of restoration from ranging impressive, is inventions technological these of list The total the expects Bacon counterparts, operative their and sciences two these From New AtlantisNew 104 , he presents the ideal society in which these which in society ideal the presents he ,

CEU eTD Collection cherished things in Bensalem Island. Bacon presents in his fictional work a technological a work fictional his in presents Bacon Island. Bensalem in things cherished most the are technologies Fruitful philosophy. of materialisation the are they knowledge; true of instantiation the represent technologies these hand, other the On effects. undesired and unforeseen no have they and needs human and nature both of knowledge genuine on based are they and because useful are technologies these truth hand, one the On identical. technologies, become usefulness fruitful these in Also, 159) III Works Atlantis, (New arise.” will by this we do creatures those of kind what commixture and “Neither matter what of beforehand know we but chance, advance. in known are effects their all and chance by at arrived not are technologies These needs. human with accord in things of that universe new science a produces applied an nature, stable created newly a on is technology based fruitful technologies The well-established science. represent they but trials just not Bensalem’s are of technology examples The designs. new totally by sometimes free”, “nature imitating course they do. We make them also by art greater much than their nature; and their and nature; their than much greater art by also them make We do. they course natural their by than speedily more bear and up come to and seasons; their than or later earlier come to flowers and trees gardens, and orchards same the in art) (by make and grafting of effects. many And we produceth which conclusions fruit-trees, as wild-trees of well all as inoculating, … others, divers and flies, frogs, as air; in bodies of generations also lightnings; thunders, water, of not and bodies of rains artificial some rain, snow,hail, as meteors; demonstrate and imitate we … baths and sources natural ofthe fountains,in imitation made wells ongoing…artificial and divers motions. also set to winds, some of enforcing and multiplying for of engines … fruitful. the earth for the curing of making soils, and … composts, of metals variety great artificial … life of new prolongation for of and diseases, also producing the and mines; natural of imitation … bodies. of conservations and refrigerations, indurations, Coagulations, ie bat o id; ad ae sxs n o rpgt. …W hv lo divers also have We … propagate. do and sexes, have not (New arts, which youhave mechanical Atlantis, Works and III156-161) birds; or beasts flies, worms, like serpents, creatures, of perfect be to kinds effect) (in of advanced are some number whereof putrefaction; of and a fishes, make seeds; We … without another. earths into torn of plant mixtures by rise or tree one make to and vulgar; plants the from differing plants, new divers make to likewise divers make to means also We have … use. medicinal their of become they from as order, so figure, we them of and many And colour, nature. smell, taste, differing of and sweeter and greater fruit h ehooy fof technology The e tatsAtlantis New recreates nature in all its aspects, sometimes by sometimes aspects, its all in nature recreates 105

CEU eTD Collection philosophy or active science’, the proper result of the ‘true interpretation of nature’, will nature’, of interpretation ‘true the of result proper the science’, active or philosophy new to ‘the named is stage philosophy, final natural whose that aims Bacon approach production. material modern a of formulation first the is technology of conception Baconian The 4. Conclusion use andthe censures oftechnologies. community evaluates that diffusion control technologies. strict onavailable a shouldexercise oftechnologies with charge in those and secret, kept be to are technologies undesired The Salomon’sHouse. by approved those to technologies fruitful of use the limits he knowledge, attaining of means for While a as technologies. experiments possible available all of of realization the control recommended he a technologies enlightening is there if only possible is presents he and technology. ondevelopment iscentred ofknowledge society Bensalem development. Bensalem’stechnological of the basis is the happiness because utopia wl gv te te raet ee I ae ..Te n o orFudto i the is Foundation our of End The effecting Empire,to the Human things ofall possible. (New ... Atlantis, Works III156) have. I jewel of bounds the of enlarging the and greatest things; of motions secret and Causes, of knowledge the thee give will I concealing of those which we think fit to keep secret: though some of those we do we those of some though somesecret: not. to(New theand state, sometimes reveal Atlantis, Works keep III165) to fit think have we which we those of which concealing the for secrecy, experiences of oath an and all take and not: inventions which and published, be the shall discovered of which consultations, have We Bacon is aware though that technology can have undesired effects and that the utopia the that and effects undesired have can technology that though aware is Bacon By this, Bacon implies that the community of scientists and technologists is a closed a is technologists and scientists of community the that implies Bacon this, By 106

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CEU eTD Collection prima philosophia 41 between relationships the analyse then I value. genuine a as technology, of characteristic utility,establishes Descartes which in way the show I first Descartes. main by described as the oftechnology.his understanding oftechnologyThe presentsthe characteristics main part third constructs he which against background the constitutes which world, material the of ontology Cartesian the analyses part second The content. its in and methodology its in both Cartesian science with coextensive almost is Mechanics writings. Descartes’ in occupy to comes practice, as and science as both mechanics, that place central the describes part parts. The first technology. of understanding modern the of core the constitutes body, human redesign even natural and every object reproduce can technology that and pursuing, worth and important is utility of material conception that science, mathematical applied an Cartesian is technology that fact The the as technology,such technology. of means the and scope the aims, the writings his in establishes Descartes and science of of principles part applied true the the becomes Technology with physics. accordance in designed devices useful creating the of advocates He necessity life. human to useful be to has it results; practical have must promotes endeavour. of scientific place the central for the mathematics established and who mechanics philosopher the is (1596-1650) Descartes René Descartes’ ofPhilosophy Technology Chapter III The Descartes works lifetime: during of published his major In this chapter I analyse the Cartesian conception of technology. It is divided into three into divided is technology. It of conception Cartesian the analyse I chapter this In (1641), Principia

philosophiae (1644), (1644), 108 Les passions l’âme de Discours de méthode la 41 h cec ht Descartes that science The (1649). (1637), Meditationes de Meditationes de

CEU eTD Collection instances of technology that Descartes considers are hydraulic devices, as those constructed in constructed as those devices, hydraulic are considers Descartes that technology of instances mind.without a man a be will he/it behaviour; animal exhibit to able be will he/it but language, and reason this course, Of i.e. soul, rational his by man on conferred properties technology. the lack will man mechanical completely for standard high very a up sets Descartes man, mechanical completely a of craftsmanship, human by creation, the possible ontologically as presenting By exists. that creature visible complex most the is man being, of chain great medieval the In 1.1. The Man Mechanical andMetaphors1. Examples technology, consequences. and their of feature central the as design of imposition the and technology, and science metaphysics, Descartes reduces all mechanical arts, all technology, to mechanics. The paradigmatic The mechanics. technology,to all arts, mechanical all reduces Descartes the all in act it make to machine AT a VI 56-57) in ( act. us organs makes reason our as way different same the in life of enough contingencies be to there for their [ impossible of purposes practical disposition all for the is through [I]t … only organs. but such knowledge, through us, not of acting, any were they than that discover better would one means perhaps this by tasks; or other in fail well inevitably would machines very tasks many perform although might that, is means they second The … others. to thoughts our declare to order in do we as together them put or signs, other or words use never could they that is first The men. true reason, that for all, at not were they that recognizing of means certain very such any [ feasible practically were is there if this as far whereas, as actions our imitated animals; and bodies our to these resemblance a bore that as machines nature same the of entirely not were they that recognizing of way no have would we reason, lacked that animal other some of or monkey a of shape organs the the and having machines such were there [I]f que moralement il seroit possible seroit il moralement que 109 il est moralement impossible moralement est il ], we would always have two have always would we ], Discourse , RA 72; , ]

CEU eTD Collection translations render the moral impossibility as “for all practical purposes impossible” and the and impossible” purposes practical all “for as impossibility moral the render translations (“ possible” morally is “what by established are limits those and animals and men of reproduction technological the of power (“ morally impossible” is only“it that suchautomata to but impossible construct it that notdoes isontologically mean this that show (2008) Wheeler and (1992) Cottingham However, impossible. practically as ofdegree ofcomplexity. isonly a matter machine. It essential no is There former. simple a and mind a of devoid the man mechanical a between nature, in difference no difference, of complexity the in consists craftsmanship human machine. The made onlyby difference moving andmachines other man a mechanical between watercounterweights, orheat. springs, by moved are that parts rigid of composed systems are considers he that devices All automata. man-like little even and mills clocks, as such automata, different and gardens, royal As a consequence the man made by craftsmen will be nothing but a mechanical a but nothing be will craftsmen by made man the consequence a As different ( ways. many in themselves moving of power the without not are men, by only made are they although which, machines, similar other and mills, fountains, artificial clocks, Wesee Despite his examples of man-like and animal-like automata, Descartes presents them presents Descartes automata, animal-like and man-like of examples his Despite 55-56) VI, far movements itself within has ( men. by invented be can that and those of any than wondrous more ordered better incomparably is God, of hands the by made been having which, machine a as body this regard will they For each animal. of body the in are which parts other the all and veins, arteries, nerves, muscles, bones, of multitude great the with comparison in parts, of number small very a but so, doing in using, without differentmake, can men of many ingenuity the how machines moving or automata of cognizant are who those to strange seem way no in will This il est moralementimpossible il World , RA 42; AT 120) XI, que moralement il seroit possible seroit il moralement que 110 ” – ” AT VI 57). There to the are some limits ” – AT VI 56). The English AT – The ” 56). VI Discourse , RA , 71; AT

CEU eTD Collection 321-322) his of edition French the in adds Descartes that so organisms, artificial and organisms natural between difference ( seen.” be can movements and ( them” made who those of hands the to “proportional be must machines the man, by made Being perceivable. the become bodies that animal in such exist that scale, instruments” other> different or springs, a “ capable be to enough large be always must them, or make necessarily men since springs, difference

CEU eTD Collection matter I was greatly helped by considering artefacts.” ( artefacts.” considering by helped greatly I was matter this “In artefacts: of contemplation the by inspired was he system his of construction the in organisms.his andin confesses machines He between similarity the of idea the retains nevertheless Descartes man, mechanical a of construction actual the out ruling While 1.2. MechanicsMethod as possible. became mimesis, Platonic by implied flaws the without thing, material every of reproduction complete the theoretically,on, least now from at because, status new a technology gives mind organic viewed. could be mechanism minute every which in point the to probably vision of power the expand to serve would that in with dealt is on rests possible morally is what of advances: technological domain the that idea the to committed Descartes be that sustain should to Wheeler Michael entitles analogy of kind Such Galileo. before moon the of view magnified a been have should impossible equally However, impossible. morally being living artificial an of creation the render organisms natural of parts minute As far as he [Descartes] can judge, it is practically impossible to construct a machine a construct to impossible practically is it judge, can [Descartes] he as far As the and instruments and senses human between disproportion this of consequence The Descartes’ argument for the ontological possibility of a mechanical man without a without man mechanical a of possibility ontological the for argument Descartes’ intervention, human of power the not if senses, human of power the of extension The (Wheeler, not byphilosophical speculation. and 2008,317) investigation scientific rigorous by determined be end, the in must, do might machine mere a what of limits upper the that view the to committed argumentconcerned, is this as far as is, he However, mechanisms. special-purpose different enough contains that , where Descartes presents the method of creating artificial means artificial creating of method the presents Descartes where , 112 Principles IV288; I 203,CSM AT VIII Principles that

CEU eTD Collection he considers valuable for his reform of philosophy: simplicity and evidence of the first the of evidence andbyexperiments. the instruments confirmation use the principles, ofsuitable and simplicity philosophy: of reform his for valuable considers he the employs that craftsmanship of also features three are There he system. his constructing in artisans but of methods nature, and machines between identity the of idea the deduces rules. canexplainedbymechanical that be fully mechanisms composed byminute machines artisan, an by constructed machines as nature and men analysing in idea this uses He 326) many different kinds of motions in the machine I am assuming to be made by the by made be to assuming am I machine the in motions of kinds different many imagine could I that me to seems it And ways. different many in themselves moving of power the without similar not are other men, by only and made are mills, they although which, fountains, machines, artificial the clocks, on only see We depend organs. to and of matter arrangement from proceed to imagined our be of may those that all imitate functions ultimately and breathe, eat, walk, it make the to all necessary it parts within puts he also but members, our all of shape and colour the externally it give he does only not that so us, like possible as much as it make to God expressly forms which machine, earthen or statue a than other nothing is body the that assume I difficult to discover than any of the questions usually propounded in geometry or geometry in propounded usually questions the ( disciplines. orother physics of any than the discover to immediately difficult settle to try noreasonwhyshould seem more this issurely since oftruth; there examination for the to necessary more is that them all care greatest the with We seeking for use mathematicians. first them use the rather must of not puzzles the solve must to or philosophers we the of controversies art, by prepared than rather minds our in innate be to seem which principles, rough some only find to outset the and tongs, anvil, an hammers, the at able been have we if that, us oneself. Thisto teaches useful example things other manufacture all of first would one but others; of use the for iron of object any or helmets or swords forge to try once at then not would into wood of pieces shape to hammer, one equipped, Thus need. to according a sort their this of materials other collect of to and tongs, place in construct rock of piece to a take to iron, how of lump rough us a or stone hard a anvil an as teach use to first at forced be would themselves one example, which for blacksmith, the of art the and them, of one practice to wished one if Thus help, instruments. outside no need [ arts mechanical of the those resembles method this Indeed, only not Descartes machine, and man between established he likeness the From no have would you that artistry much so ( not be thinkmore. could there reason to it attribute not could I and God, of hands Rules VIII, RA 19; AT 397) X 113 Man , RA 41-42; AT 120) XI mechanicis artibus mechanicis ] which ]

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CEU eTD Collection fully explain and mentally reconstruct the entire material nature. material the reconstruct entire and mentally fully explain can he method, mechanical and mechanics employing philosophy.By his of features positive main the of one Descartes for is mechanics, of use frequent the and with similarity the namely byexperiments. its inresults shouldbe properconfirmed orderarranged and motions) and magnitudes and (shapes principles distinct and clear employ should philosophy Likewise, experience. with accord in are conclusions its all and instruments and materials simple fundamentals as contains it that is philosophy for model a as mechanics for esteem high his of endeavour.reason The mechanical a to similar is philosophy his that proud also is true conclusions. be but consequences cannot are method found,the the proper and principles true the Once experience. by confirmed rules the following by only perfection Moreover, not only does Descartes employ the methods of the mechanical arts, but he but arts, mechanical the of methods the employ Descartes does only Moreover,not RAPreface; 229-230, AT( truths. 18) IX other with occasionally meet to them following by fail cannot philosophy, we in principles true by have we little when So, come practice. they they through perfection experience, because to little by yet revealed first, is at effect imperfect whose and true rude something are contain they although that, arts the all In What others, namely Fromondus, see as an important flaw of Cartesian philosophy, Cartesian of flaw important an as see Fromondus, namely others, What I AT 85-86; RA 1637, 3, October 420-421) Fromondus, for Plempius (To true. its is for it philosophizing it because condemn to of were he style if as thing my same the me condemns to no seems he this mechanics, to is if similarity that there so which ... experiments. in true philosophizing by of confirmed kind are conclusions whose and the evident, and mathematical not use is that argument I that namely, of, proudest am I what and philosophy my be about to prefer myself is I believe what is I That praiseworthy. what most condemning is he motions, and magnitudes and shapes considers only it mechanics, like because, him to “crass” too seems philosophy my if For 115 Principles ,

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CEU eTD Collection complete because craftsmen’s mechanisms, i.e. the mechanics as technology, have weight, have technology, as mechanics the i.e. mechanisms, craftsmen’s because complete not is identity this Nevertheless bodies. natural in principles different presuppose to need no is there then craftsmen’swork, on phenomena mechanisms natural those of If mechanisms. M “ Géométrie que chose autre n’est geometry,“ mechanics: and physics and and mechanisms. ofactualmachines production design knowledge, the with deals that art an science, applied an as mechanics means ( ethics and medicine with level places same the on and mechanics knowledge of division the to refers Descartes when contrast, By phenomena. and natural explains that endeavour theoretical a science, physics a being as former the takes mathematics with mechanics of identification The technology. as mechanics and science of principles the being philosophy. natural ofthe principles Cartesian entire physics, and thusthe mathematics pure and geometry of principles the mathematics, ( in species.” or part rules a forms no mechanics which are of physics, there in good that hold not certain do that is mechanics “it nature: mechanical but else nothing is physics Principles my entire physics is nothing but mechanics but nothing is physics entire my é chanique. pure mathematics … And since all natural phenomena can be explained in this way ... way this in explained be can and phenomena natural geometry all since And… of mathematics pure those are physics in require, or accept, I which principles only The The identity between physics and mechanics is a consequence of Descartes’ of consequence modelling a is mechanics and physics between identity The between identity double this affirms explicitly Descartes correspondence his In as mechanics mechanics: of kinds two works Descartes’ in distinguish should We physics. in desirable ( or admissible either are principles other any that think not do I Principles 0, R 7-7; A II 36 oevr hsc s cetnie with coextensive is physics Moreover, 326) VIII AT 270-271; RA 203, ” - ” To 30 [Debeaune], April 1639; CSMK 135, AT II 542) 64, CSM I247, 64,CSM AT VIII 78-79) ” - To Mersenne, 27 July 1638; CSMK 119, AT II 268) and AT119, 268) CSMK II 1638; July 27 ToMersenne, - ” my entire physics is nothing but geometry entirebut my nothing is physics 117 ” (“ ” toute ma Physique ne soit autre chose que chose autre soit ne Physique ma toute Principles , Preface, AT VIII 14), he 14), AT Preface, VIII , ” (“ ” ma Physique ma

CEU eTD Collection enter the pores of iron and mechanically move ironfrom toward away of the magnet. theiron pores andor enter move mechanically AT bythe screwsmagnet emitted explanation: minute the same 8) of kind Magnetismreceives mechanical IX mercury, ( their and principles.” otheradopted all thingssome have similar as which elsewhere. The of ofdryness humidity, and the mayvoid of beatoms, cold, and heat said same , salt, of gravity, this bodies descend in that principle way, makes that the cause or is, it we derive from must and of the nature what for called donot is center of know descendtowardsthat we all the heavy earth, we the call to not thedid that bodies proves clearly experiment usvery terrestrialalthough presupposeweightbodies, in but periphery. toward of andlighter theparts vortices universe the escape of of who them known none have “I 44 Nature ordinary “the and conditions initial geometrically by determined nature renders This bodies. of motion of laws mechanical the to according matter of rearrangement geometrical the is evolution natural respect this In mechanics. and geometry physics, between identity double his of consequence the is cosmology Descartes’ 2.1. Space-Matter Nature of Evolution 2. The Deterministic extension. matterand between identityDescartesdraws that ontological the on based is identity gorounded epistemically This natures. simplest the by explanation shape and motion.one reducibleto weights heavy lift (in mechanisms simple explains it when weight of notion the uses Descartes Descartes. for qualities occult are distance, a at action of forms other and magnetism also but Scholastics, the by conceived was Weight, as bodies. of motion of laws the only identity this from retains Descartes mechanics. of science pure the by qualities primary to reduced be to are these All etc. impenetrability, Descartes explains gravitation asof Descartes pushing continuous large of the of matterthe centres parts toward The identity between physics and geometry is imposed by the need for clarity and clarity for need the by imposed is geometry and physics between identity The ” - World , AT 34). XI An account of the machines by means of which a small force can be used to used be can force small a which of means by machines the of account An , AT 435-447 , I ), not as a genuine quality (Principles I, 4; IV, 20-24) but as but IV, 20-24) 4; I, (Principles quality genuine a as not ), 44 118 laws of nature of laws ” (“ ” les loix ordinaires de la ordinairesde loix les Principles , Preface; RA, Preface; 225,

CEU eTD Collection to be just as we now see them.” (AT see be weto just them.” now as VI, CSM 45; I, 133-134) time things come purely all means theof have couldcourse material in of bythis alone the that miracle creation impugning we it without may to normallydoes, believe operate as to and nature concurrence enable thenhis lent of that ofestablished nature given the aprovided the world laws the God the beginning form chaos, he had only it asbe”: if theGodto in evenlikelybeginning itpossible, made just “So,even much more from had if is that “it in partwrites fable of onthis the fifth the World from toweof the them, configuration motion bethe know. world should get, for of the fable that likely It is whatand enquire theoflaws hand,properties Genesis,can described matter in the onthephysicist that, other but 45 of way our in lies substance corporeal and space between difference “The shapes: different of parts many in divided as conceived is matter while continuum seamless a as space of think 9th ofJanuary1639(ATto from Mersenne II 482)and inwork: later the in at arrived not although which conclusion a itself, space but nothing Descartes’is that matter follows It shape. and size namely extension, onthem. God that imposes externalmotions and the Descartes can claim, by employing this device of the fable that, on one hand, the world has been formed as been the worldas byemploying ofonone formed that, has device canthehand, fable this Descartes claim, is what Descartes considers the real way in which the universe way formed. real which considers in the was is Descartes This the what is bywhat he supported into many such parts, some larger, others smaller, some of one shape, others of others shape, one of some another one smaller, from them separates God that others Not them. fancy to us larger, pleases it as another, some parts, such many into truly it divides God that addition, in suppose, us Let conceive. also can we motions the all itself in of receiving is capable parts of its each that and imagine, can we shapes the all to according and parts the all in divided be can matter this that further, add, us Let is that place any perceives longer ( void. no it extended, be can imagination our direction suppose us Let matter of parts of arrangements the are universe Descartes’ of conditions initial The The only difference between matter and space is in the way we conceive of them: we them: of conceive we way the in is space and matter between difference only The as same the exactly ( ofa thespace. nature constituting that is body a of nature the constituting extension the that recognize to us for easy is It substance. corporeal and space between difference real no is There of modes except qualities no has it that Descartes’is of matter characteristic main The faster, some another, in others direction, one ( slowerall). ifnot youwish, at others (oreven, in move some makes he created, are they instant first the From them. gives he motions the of diversity the in consists them in places differencehe whole the that think us let them; between void a is there that so World VI, RA 35; AT 32) XI 45 that God creates anew so much matter around us that, whatever that, us around matter much so anew creates God that Discourse on the MethodDiscourse onthe 119 Principles World World . Descartes reaffirms. Descartes his is that narrative is found at least as early as the letter the as early as least at found is II11; CSM I227; AT VIII 46) VI, RA 36; AT 34) XI The

CEU eTD Collection mechanical laws of motion. Ultimately, the initial conditions seem to be not at all important. all at not be the to seem conditions by initial the Ultimately, motion. of determined laws mechanical fully are world the in changes subsequent the intervenes, God unless unchangeable, are motion of quantity initial the and matter divided God which into figures the while And motion. external of quantity own its receives part Each motions. introduces God parts, adjacent between void no allows which space-matter, of division real chaotic this In 2.2. Change inWorld theMaterial emphasis) chaos disordered and confused arbitrary. ishighly the result “Heimposes colours, principle ofdifferentiation.weights orany other forms, qualities, external or internal no are There space. geometers’ and motion without space-matter real between difference no is there God by effected figures into division ( them.” fancy to us pleases it as another, “God parts. into of larger, some others parts, shape, one smaller,such others of many into some truly it divides space-matter divided really God paper, on draw geometers that figures ( them.” conceiving Moreover, God’s real division of space-matter is chaotic, without any order, such that such order, any without chaotic, is space-matter of division God’sreal Moreover, RA 36; AT( everyone. 33) XI by manifestly known not is that something is there that said be having might it or which heavy, of nature or the in light quality similar or wet, light, color, sound, odor,or taste, some dry cold, or hot being of qualities the this have does matter Nor metal. or stone, wood, of form the as such form, particular more other any air, nor or fire, earth, of form no is there that suppose expressly us let To end, that Principles II 12; CSM I 228; AT VIII 46) Besides, unlike the geometrical the AT228; unlike I Besides, CSM 46) VIII 12; II the poets could describe” ( describe” could poets the no order proportion or World 120 VI, RA 36; AT XI 34) Besides this real this Besides 34) XI AT 36; RA VI, World on it, but composes onit, VI, RA 36; AT XI 35; my 35; AT XI 36; RA VI, World the mostthe VI,

CEU eTD Collection by collisions that follow the mechanical laws ofmotion. laws mechanical follow that the by collisions about brought parts those of arrangement regular and different the is perceive we that world only and the difference parts only ofspace ofmoving primordial chaoscomposed the between nature. inThe subsequent or chaos primordial the in encountered be can of parts arrangements ( together” all taken it to attributed have I qualities the all with it consider I as insofar itself, matter signify to [nature] word that of use make “I matter. moving this than else nothing is nature because ofsubtle matter, certainmovement movement, red isa very rapid heat etc. shapes: and motions specific than more nothing as interpreted by are they bodies unless natural Scholastics, to ascribed are that qualities” “real the of none contains universe This universe. primordial this alone constitutes part such every to God by given forces external laws: mechanical be, followsthe may it however chaos, primordial that sufficient is it world the of state actual the Toat arrive world, one in which we would be able to see not only light, but also all the other the all 34-35) XI also but light, only not see to ( world. real particular, the and in general appear both that things, able be would we which in one world, perfect most a of form the have will they that order good such in themselves dispose and themselves disentangle chaos that of parts the sufficient make are to they describe, or order no imposes poets could the chaos he disordered confused and most the composes but it, on proportion if even and said, have I what he than more that nothing suppose created we has if even that laws those established marvellously so has God For Moreover, sensible qualities are not going to emerge into the nature as we know it know we as nature the into emerge to going not are qualities sensible Moreover, its of arrangement and shape, size, motion, ( parts. assume the to than needing other without matter explained their be in can anything bodies, inanimate all of forms the all even and others, all also but qualities, four these only not mistaken, am I unless And, the by moved and figures different of shapes into chaotically divided Space-matter World World V, RA 34; AT 26) XI I, R 7 T I 3) N te ulte hn sae ie and size shape, than qualities other No 37) XI AT 37; RA VII, 121 World VI, RA 36; AT

CEU eTD Collection the law of exchanging quantities of motion, and the law of moving along straight along lines. law ofmoving and quantitiesofmotion, the ofexchanging the law inertia,of law the nature: actual the in develop to matter for corollaries, unspecified their with of quantities exchange and motions them. between positions relative their change space-matter of parts minute The location. in change than else nothing is motion Cartesian change. qualitative as primarily The motion that Descartes has in mind breaks with the traditional motion viewed motion traditional the with breaks mind in has Descartes that motion The with one another.colliding ( by motions their diversify and change to began also they move, to began they time the there without sides all from on, then from that necessarily follows from it this From them. between in void other a being each touch all they that furthermore and created, were they moment the from motions various had have parts its that assumed have we matter of qualities the among that recall should you better, this understand to order In 7, RA 38-39; AT 38-44) XI ( line. straight a along motion its continue to always tends individually parts its of each nevertheless before, said been has circular,as way some in not is that alongline any place take never can and line curved a along place takes often most motion its is motion own its unless away motion even aif when bodyismoving, a as thirdthat, ...Ishall rule much. add byas increased body’s other the of any take it can nor time, same the at motion own its of much as loses it unless motion any other the give cannot another,body pushes awhen that second rule a it as I suppose ... state. that change to it forces bodies other with of collision the part unless state same particular the in continues each always matter that is first The others. the all know to you enable to believe, I suffice, will which and act, to world be new must this of it nature the which causes to God that according thought rules principal the of three or two out set here shall I along sufficient, are that motion of laws simple three offers Descartes Consequently, 40) to place one from pass ( between. in spaces bodies the all successively makes occupy and another that motion the lines, geometers’ the than of conceive to easier is which one the than other motion any of know not do I me, for As World VII, RA 37; AT 37) XI 122 World VII, RA 38; ATRA 38; VII, XI World

CEU eTD Collection natural phenomena. phenomena. natural results.about marvellous brings it that arranged wonderfully so are parts its i.e. machine, mechanical a into transforms nature chaos, primordial the From motion. of quantities their exchanging by except interact ofnature. the evolution prove mathematically heto can that Mersenne writes he and way this in evolved necessarily nature that convinced is he but nature of course possible a as just explanation his take not does Descartes motion. of laws mechanical three to according matter of parts of rearrangement geometrical a than more nothing is evolution I would think I knew nothing in physics if I could say only how things could be, could things how only say could I if once possible perfectly Thisis otherwise. be not physics could they that demonstrating without in nothing knew I think would I Natural evolution. natural of image deterministic a offers cosmology Descartes’ things for which I could not very easily think up a mechanical explanation. (To explanation. mechanical a up think easily very not [Brasset], 23 April 375; 1649; CSMK ATcould V 346) I which for things material of nature the with connected anything met yet not have I that only add will I for explanation possible other any of rejection the is view this of consequence One in motion of causes CSMK 213; March 1642; ATthe ***, (To similar. V 546) something ‘All or machines’ artificial or in as machine’ same the a are things material like matter, of composed is universe ‘The write to preferred have would machine.’ I a as exists universe the of matter ‘The say you where end, the towards is on commenting worth thought I passage third The not do that parts of rearrangement a is everything bodies, human to stones From CSMK 145, 1640; AT March 11 III 39) Mersenne, (To mathematics. of laws the to physics reduced has one 123

CEU eTD Collection and of soul on the body. The animal spirits form corporeal images of external things on the on things external of images corporeal form spirits animal The body. the on soul of and soul the on body of influence the explain that gland pineal the on images the through passes that movement two-way a is There gland. that on exist that etc.) memories, ideas, of (images representations the in change the is world mechanical the to make can it that change only the humanbody: exerts mechanical onthe mind the that motion human the nature: of evolution deterministic inexorable the modify can that force only the motion, altogether: them reject Descartes evolution, natural of treatment Bacon’s for important fairly theories fact that wine, vinegar, and brandy, which are three different extracts made from the from made extracts different three are which brandy, and vinegar, wine, that fact clearly,We thevery taken. given this are experience they can which from plants the of those than other qualities have extracts their that and foundation, without fiction a only is salt their by flowers of revival the about say they what that believe also know. I not do they what know they that appear it make to only sense uncommon an in words use they believe I chemists. the about Your to judgement Excellency’s subscribe wholly I magic, natural or chemistry in developed phenomena of explanations other for As Given the fact that the human soul or mind exerts influence only on the pineal gland, pineal the on only influence exerts mind or soul human the that fact the Given the and spirits 5, 1649, RAFebruary 296, ATMore, (To the substance. V 276) thinking as defined of I soul that or force mind, the is, that the on incorporeal, other the and soul, only corporeal the called be can organs, the of arrangement depending corporeal, and plainly mechanical indeed, one, – motion of principles different two are there that realized had I of principle new a introduces Descartes nature, deterministic mechanical this Into the up any make that makes those (Toothers. from that November 23,1646,RA ofNewcastle, Marquis the 275; differently AT arranged IV nothing 570) are others is from there distinct as that shapes and some up make matter that matter the of same parts small the that except the them, between difference and one of made are bodies all that think I snow. For or foam, ice, from differs water than or philosophers, the of elements four the do than more no another one from differ mercury and sulfur, salt, their opinion, my in Indeed, qualities. and tastes different such have grapes, same 124

CEU eTD Collection images on the pineal gland do not have qualities, being only patterns of flow of animal spirits. animal of flow of patterns only being qualities, have not do gland pineal the on images The spirits. animal the through mind a of devoid animals in power their exert gland’simages pineal which in way mechanical usual the in body the over power their exert they influence, machine. ofthat theproduction material gland determine pineal will onthe being imprinted which machine a of mind’sidea the of true be must same The mind. the in ideas and images bodies’ external both for symbols but else nothing are gland pineal corporeal the on form The that images mind. the in idea the nor body, external the neither resemble gland pineal spirits. the ofanimal movements changes in at this mind’s gland moving onthe gland, pineal images corporeal will. as ideas imprints soul the hand, other the On soul. the in ideas about bring which gland pineal Once new images are formed on the pineal gland as a consequence of the mind’s the of consequence a as gland pineal the on formed are images new Once to which it is closely united to move in the way requisite to produce the effect that effect the produce to requisite way this volition. ( to relates the in move to united closely is it which to ofgland little the causes it something, wills it because action solely that this, in consists soul the whole the And ... passion. this of sensible be to soul the cause to nature by acting instituted is which which, gland, this in gland, movement particular a the excite they pores, on these enter one only spirits [T]hese ... animal. form this of shape the see brain to it causes soul, the upon the immediately in images [visual] two The An important aspect of Cartesian system is the fact that the corporeal images on the on images corporeal the that fact the is system Cartesian of aspect important An gland. this of movements the change to much do can ( spirits the of course the in occurring changes smallest the that reciprocally, and, very spirits, the alter of course may the greatly it in place taking movements with slightest communicate the that cavities posterior, anterior the of its those of spirits animal the which through duct the and so middleofits insubstance above the suspended gland very small situated certain namely, parts, its of inward a most the merely but brain, the of whole the nor heart, the way no in is immediately functions its exercises soul the which in body the of part the that recognized plainly have I me to seems it care, with matter the examining after But great produce images, corporeal of modification and formation changes, minute This Passions 31; RAPassions 307 ; AT XI Passions 351-352 35-41; RA 309-311; AT XI 356-360) 125 )

CEU eTD Collection human flourishing. toward mean a nor knowledge of source possible a neither is it value; moral or intellectual goals of utility material the First, different. is technology was utility of understanding their but useful, is technology and that AristotlePlato denied value. never its all useful. rest usefulness Andits in stronger arguments forits intrinsicvalue. Technology isworth-pursuingbecause is technology provide should one it, against contempt Aristotelian and Platonic by dominated still culture a in practice and theory accepted an become to technology for But parts. their of movement and arrangement shape, size, the but nothing by determined is nature their view,i.e. of point ontological an from identical are objects natural and artefacts man-made arguesDescartes that 3.1. Utility aGenuine as Value 3. Technology world.physical the resemble not do that representation these of formation the through only known is world physical the hand, other the on and, world, mechanical the in changes triggers soul immaterial for both the which by representations means only the are dis-resemblant they hand, one the of on because, action, for role and knowledge the emphasize Descartes way this In hc ntr a was turn in which , relative to the user of technology, since it is just a mean for personal material personal for mean a just is it since technology, of user the to ntuetl to instrumental higher purposes. higher 126 Second, technology has no intrinsic no has technology Second,

CEU eTD Collection 46 are grace divine of help the without light natural the through beings human by known be can genuine and autonomous an into value spurious and relative a from utility transform to order In ground. metaphysical solid a technology giving highest values. other on dependent remained still but humanity, of flourishing general the to contributing I) Book (Agricola, with.” away done are life of course the preserving carefully more and health sustaining and protecting it. reject to than technology and pursueto is preferable it benefits, the given that, and concludes technology of damages benefits relative relative the compares he as Agricola, Georgius of that is argument more modern still A condition. prelapsarian the restores it as long as only valuable is technology Andcondition. human prelapsarian the of value moral the on dependent fact in is technology of products material of value the argumentation of line this Accordingto Fall. the before man of state paradisiacal the restore would it because “fruits”, material its for worth-pursuing is technology that argued Bacon Victor Francis St. and evaluativeof Georgius Hugh Agricola. of argument the and Bacon, Francis and Victor St. of Hugh by formulated one, theological of utility material the But remaineda technology nature. about knowledge our of warrant the is processes and objects of production and reproduction experiments. technological successful of only Bacon, use for Especially the without impossible is nature of knowledge that evident became it Bacon and and Galileo After technology nature. of using secrets the discover of to order necessity in settings experimental the for argued Bacon and Galileo showed, already See1,section Ch. Descartes makes the decisive modern step and establishes utility as a genuine value, genuine a as utility establishes and step modern decisive the makes Descartes During the Renaissance these two arguments against technology are dismissed. we As dismissed. are technology against arguments two these Renaissance the During Before Descartes, there were two arguments for the material value of technology: a technology: of value material the for arguments two were there Descartes, Before 2.3. Mining andmetallurgy2.3. Mining relative “If we remove metals from the service of man, all methods of methods all man, of service the from metals remove we “If value. value. 46

hs ehooy aqie n uiesl vle as value, universal an acquired technology Thus, . 127 one, he states that the only values that values only the that states he one,

CEU eTD Collection chosen.” (Meditations, RA 125, AT VII 58) 47 good: evil choose cannot will The good. the really is good intellect be to his judge one conducts what mind, the one directing for case rules right the the to according In pursued. be to has that value universal supreme the is best the be to judges one whatever Therefore, will. ultimate free human is the good the that of ground shows intellect, human of finitude the and fallibility human to testifies the the judgesbest: thatto be thing supreme one goodthe as identifies Descartes light. natural the through obtained be can that knowledge best the with accord in ends own their establish to have beings human man, of ends the also but affirming God’s that ofmanbe purpose known: final cannot and the will by instituted values the i.e. will, free our to relative those “Were judged is or be about wouldneverdeliberate what to wasand see to good,I I true what always clearly Because of that lack of knowledge, which involves not only the ends of the universe the of ends the only not involves which knowledge, of lack that of Because ( universe. the creating in himself before set he ends the understand thecould we mind by our that [i.e.] … world the creating in himself before set God ends the ourselves supposing in much too presume we lest beware to ought We This last part, “ part, last This emphasis) one bad very a be perhaps best, may the be judgement to judge we what do we when duty our do always We be best. ( [one] judges to out whatever carry and undertake to will the lack to never [means] manner perfect a in virtue ( pursue To best. the be to judges he something I382, CSM AT do XI 442) to failing ever for him reproach cannot conscience his that way a such in live] to virtue’ [is ‘pursuing call here I What Principles , RA 262-263, AT VIIIa 80-81) even though our judgement may perhaps be a very bad one”, which one”, bad very a be perhaps may judgement our though even 47 while the intellect presents clearly and distinctly what is what distinctly and clearly presents intellect the while 128 Passions ( Passions ego cogitans ego , CSM I384, AT 446) XI , CSM I 391, AT XI 460, my 460, ATXI 391, I CSM , . His argument by starts His . even though our though even

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CEU eTD Collection and mechanics, i.e. technology: and i.e. mechanics, place. central earthly a occupies utility human which in the values, of system for autonomous an creates essential and well-being is utility material that considers Descartes while God, of plan eternal the to relative is utility material that maintains still Bacon value. autonomous and genuine a becomes utility good, be to judged is humanity of well-being the for useful by the instituted is it that way a such in redesigned is it that only but disappears values of domain the that mean not does intellect human the of finitude the from derives that knowledge of lack This God. by established purpose the good, ultimate the see cannot it because but evil the wills it because not but good, not is what choose to will Human beings have to pursue “those things that are most useful to thingsare us”: that most to “those pursue Human beings have Only the ignorance than came from the finitude of human intellect can determine our determine can intellect human of finitude the from came than ignorance the Only RA 58, AT VI 28,my emphasis) ( contented. be to fail not could one case, the and, is this that certain is acquire; one when could one that goods other the all general in and virtues the all acquire well bad, or good either as will the to it represents understanding our unless anything flee or pursue to not tends will our that given For, at n l h od on hr, … te mitnne o elh which health, of maintenance the … there, found ( life. this of goods goods other the all of foundation the and the good first the is unquestionably all and the of fruits earth the trouble-free enjoy to one enable would that devices of infinity an of arrive to possible is It the in finds, one us” to useful most are that things “those Among of habit the 111, AT is IV 291) other the us. to useful most are that things those knowing and in truth, ourselves content we that necessary is perfectly,it the things all knows God only since of knowledge But the requires. occasion the time every knowledge this to acquiescing and remembering is always be one to order well: in required are judge things two only that me to seems It Discourse , and to judge as best one can, in order also to do one’s very best, that is to say, to to is that best, one’s very do to also order in can, one best as judge to and , , RA 74, AT VI 61-62) at knowledge that would be be would that knowledge at 129 it suffices to judge well in order to do to order in well judge to suffices it (To LS 1645, September 15 Elisabeth, very useful in life in useful very ego cogitans ego . Andis what because Discourse : … the invention the … : disposed to disposed Discourse , medicine , ,

CEU eTD Collection together and how they and how together function. assembled are components basic basic these how show scientifically, they and because exist, not do the are what show they species, intentional as such things that and world material the of components because metaphysically, both important vision very of technologies become the Consequently, exist. not do certainty with deduced be cannot be can mechanisms the and mechanically that, implies he Moreover, visualized. function world material the of rest the and body human the Both mechanisms. simple of composed machine a as conceived is organism complex every addition, In mechanisms. simple of composed machine a as body human the presents and uses two the synthesises Descartes depicted. faithfully is body human simple the which a of or machine given a in Vesalius’ appears that of one the is use second Themechanism. functioning the depict to images employs works, the to common one, first The books. technological and scientific in illustration of uses main two are there Renaissance the During climax. the to it takes Descartes but Renaissance, the in noticeable is images scientific of importance The 3.2. Technology of Vision shape and movement. but nothing of composed is world material the the that of shown be help can it the vision of with technologies because technology experiments. by of up number backed is infinite itself almost metaphysics an Moreover, from obtained data the with only progress can Science benefits. material for only worth-pursuing not is technology But technology. Thus, Descartes gives a metaphysical foundation for utility and, consequently, for consequently, and, utility for foundation metaphysical a gives Descartes Thus, regarding physics, things that cannot be perceived perceived be cannot that things physics, regarding 130 Theatres of Machines of Theatres De humani corporis fabricacorporis humani De and other technical other and weight and void, and weight and in

CEU eTD Collection technologically enhanced vision. technologically enhanced by offered image the with accordance in is this and real is one second the Only 39). AT VII me in innate are that notions certain from elicited is, that reasoning, “ one and senses”, the from “drawn small”, “quite one sun, the of images two are there that shows Descartes senses. unaided by offered images the than reason with accord in extent greater a to are telescopes by offered images the that fact the the is vision of of technologies One of use nature. the in of things important knowledge perfect more and greater a give and perception sense senses. unaided than do the object an of image reliable more offersmuch vision a of enhancement technological the ways, certain In imagination. the of even and senses of power the surpasses and world the about such inventions which do more to increase the power of sight than those wonderful those than sight of power the any increase find to to more difficult do is which it inventions And such be. can there useful most the among power undoubtedly its are increase to serve which inventions senses, the of comprehensive most and noblest the is sight since and senses, our on entirely depends life our of conduct The information important much us provides vision of enhancement technological The nae ies rvas te tcnlgcl caatr o i huh. Te wrd of world The thought. his of 1993,79) ofhuman nature reason.(Judovitz, to the corresponds and reflects intimately more character view world mathematical-optical the technological whereas illusion, to reduced is the experience reveals ideas innate and reason with equation its and observation astronomical of valorisation Descartes’ of out create could imagination the than more perceive to us enable telescopes The ( possessed. they than perfect more I152; CSM ATa and VIattain 81) greater to us much for nature way of the knowledge opened have to seem extend telescopes normally these could imagination, forebears their our than there further seen much had vision we our than Carrying earth the before. above objects new other and stars new of number greater a revealed already have time, short a only for use in though which, telescopes eea ie agr ta h earth the than larger times several 131 , “ ”, eie rm astronomical from derived ” ( ” Meditations , RA 115, RA , Optics ;

CEU eTD Collection 64) the(Discourse, easiest RA and consequence, all know” the mosttheas to simplest, a of common and, 74, AT VI earth, even, anwater,found and onthe earth, the heavens,stars, air, things other minerals,are that fire, such and ordinaryand most effects seems and me bythisI that causes; it to deducedfrom had means these could that be of fromare naturally that oursource but truths seeds in certain souls. After first what I that were examined the these withoutany theprinciples world, other who from considering and deriving created God but alone, anything 48 to capacities the humans give in a furthertechnology. contributing development thusto those minuteparts, manipulate probably will it Moreover, ancients. the of imagination wildest the beyond world the of knowledge our improve certainly will This nature. entire development. necessaryconditionofits but the science of handmaids only not are they because endeavour theoretical the in place central a occupy ( possessed.” they than perfect more and greater much nature of knowledge a attain to us for way the opened have to seem telescopes “these Ancients: over have Moderns that superiority theoretical the Bacon, for also as rest, inventions technological On knowledge. of edifice entire the redesign knowledge. Technologicaltheoretical but to human toeasier used make life are only not anymore devices for useful are Telescopes the usefulness. in this of important scope is the is what conception but Cartesian novelty, a represent not does claim This usefulness. their are power [sight’s] increase to be.” ( mostcan among usefulundoubtedly there the serve which “inventions the world: for material important of very knowledge becomes technologies visual of development the Consequently, principles. those from certainty sufficient with deduced be cannot they because necessary alone reasoning “First, I have tried to find in general the principles or first causes of all that is or can be in the world, without firstorbe generalofthe Itriedfindthecauses is world, “First, in principles that can in to all have or As already shown, the most important characteristic of technological inventions is inventions technological of characteristic important most the shown, already As by principles first the from deduced be can properties real its sun, the of case the In os o icuae o, ws t avs o ta lhuh ter ue s o as not is use their although that you advise to wish I you, telescopes discourage last these not constructing in does find may you which difficulty the that so And, the up build that arrangements spatial those see to us help will technology Visual 48 u, fr te mr atclr tig, osrain n xeiet are experiments and observations things, particular more the for but, Optics ; CSM I 152; AT VI 81) Moreover, technological devices come to come devices technological Moreover, 81) ATVI 152; I CSM ; 132 Optics ; CSM I152;; CSM AT VI 81)

CEU eTD Collection weight is notweight is genuine of quality bodies. a 49 for not: do which and exists entities of kind which are, vision and light what view,explains it minuteparts. ofsuch by craftsmen manipulationthe is by Descartes, untouched problem, further course, a Of construction. actual to Those proceed to need craftsmen that description the man. or design the blueprint, the be will drawings artificial an of construction the in step first the be should That body. human the of machine entire the drawings geometrical in represent to possibility the have will we human including way this in and visible bodies, become will senses” our escape to enough minute “organs The bodies. all compose that space-matter of particles minute the viewing claims. hisontological empirically movement, thusproving shape,nothing size and but reveal will humans and animals plants, of image microscope The laws. mechanical simple to nature according move and configuration specific in arranged are and shape and size of only consists whose bodies but nothing is matter that alone, reasoning by deduced metaphysics Descartes’ what see to able be will we telescope, this using By ontology. Cartesian confirm to capacity its is Descartes for important very is – microscope compound unknown still the The grosseur.” term translation the“la givesFrench herethe termfor “weight” quoted As mentionedearlier, One of the reasons for which this type of telescope – in fact Descartes described here described Descartes fact in – telescope of type this which for reasons the of One size, parts. ( oftheir movement the but nothing in differently consists - elements, inanimate the are that of those parts the but nothing of least at - essence and view,nature my total to their according and together; from mingled made are bodies these all other already,philosophers,For nature. many of their opinion of the to knowledge according the also perhaps the at arrive to order and in advantage great derive plants, thereby and us, surround and which bodies animals the the compose of arrangements which and particles mixtures diverse small the see to able be will we them of means by because useful, more much them judge nevertheless I earth), the on see we those as diverse as perhaps and unique as are that bodies heavens planets, the the on there into us, show us to and lift to promise to seems (which others those of that as attractive h The of level the reach eventually can enhanced, technologically perception, new This Optics can be read from different perspectives. From a metaphysical point of point metaphysical a From perspectives. different from read be can Optics , PO 172, , PO AT VI 226-227) 133 49 shape, arrangement and arrangement shape,

CEU eTD Collection physical phenomena. 52 the suppressionheterogeneous of after the itintroduction wouldbe heapplications, asessaysotherwise but quite designed only his an to which 51 replies (AT I 416-420). Fromondus’and especially is Fromondus instructive. See very 9(ATobjections 4to 404-406)Descartes’I and 50 conceptionoftechnology.Cartesian the of part great a extract can we analysis their From technology. with primarily concerned is Descartes lenses”, cutting of method “The and telescopes” of description “The vision”, to useful are which ways the all in throughrays deflect to order in must have bodies the of parts last these In vision. enhancing of technology the parts four last the in discusses Descartes vision, the of discourses six first the in describing After world. material the of description metaphysical the prove to and matter of configuration actual the of perception the geometrically; rearranged and described fully be can that parts spatial but nothing is matter because former, technology.The and science both applications of examples The vision. human enhancing of solutions and problems comprehensive oftechnology.treatment and clear a possible makes background This technology. for instruments Optics the of discourses six first the perspective, technological the Assuming instruments. visual the Opticsinterpret can we perception enhanced technologically of importance the Given sight. the view, species. intentional the here rejects implicitly Descartes example Despite Descartes’ usesnomathematicsdiscussing of in praise almost mathematics,programmatic he did the Descartes compose not Cartesian Forthe clash and between Aristotelian in metaphysics the rvd h cetfc ad mtpyia akrud h eesr theoretical necessary the background, metaphysical and scientific the provide of construction the expounding at aims which treatise, technological a part, in as, n te svnh dsore o i his of discourse seventh the In Optics provides the laws of refraction and reflection and also the physiology of physiology the also and reflection and refraction of laws the provides Optics , “The means of perfecting vision”, “The shapes that the transparent the that shapes “The vision”, perfecting of means “The , 51 of Descartes’ method but the necessary instruments in pursuing in instruments necessary the but method Descartes’ of Discourse onMethod World , i.e. the complete system his, i.e. the complete of science. Optics 134 as the main work for which the three essays arejust essays forthe as three thework main which ecre nurs it h technological the into inquires Descartes 52 the latter, because it allows us to improve to us allows it because latter, the Geometry Geometry Optics , the exchange between Descartes betweenDescartes , the exchange 50 From a scientific point of point scientific a From and and Optics Optics the process of process the are not only not are

CEU eTD Collection internal organs. Given the fact that medicine is the science and art of the mechanical body, mechanical the of art and science the is medicine that fact the Given organs. internal the enhance to view, Descartes’ in able, be may ethics, and mechanics with along physics ( subject.” our to belong not does way, this some in here help can doctors the if but body; new a make not could we “for problem: technological this of impossibility the regarding mildposition a takes Descartes again And technology. of a purpose as impossible, Descartes although by desirable, again raised is chapter, this of beginning a the in analysed knowledge, problem the technological and scientific body”, new a “making of problem The expected. be contemporary to not is brain or nerves of reconstruction given that, means which the transfer tomorally, be, again, retinal seems image impossible. purposes, practical forall i.e. faithfully to order in organs internal of modification The stake. at is them of knowledge the because modified, be to not the are objects The organs. of external of improvement parts four last The gland. pineal the to nerves’ as – but movements image an as not – image this transfer that organs internal the the and of objects, scale at image an retina the on create geometry optical to specific transformations Optics , PO 114, AT 148) Medicine, which is one of the branches of mechanical geometrical mechanical of branches the of one is which 114, AT Medicine, PO 148) , Vision depends on three factors: the objects to be seen, the external organs that by that organs external the seen, be to objects the factors: three on depends Vision ( emphasis) 147-148, my ought. they as received be to impulses these dispose which organs external the and objects, these of impulses organs the internal which receive the objects, the it namely principles, three to to here us add concern must that to things the art all reduce for remains still that all of enumeration exact an make nature, by can each to provided been already has it so manner perfection, what in its considering for that, required are which conditions the all re-examining words, few a in summarize us let operates, vision how examined sufficiently have we that Now, In this passage, we take certainty to represent the above-mentioned moral certainty moral above-mentioned the represent to certainty take we passage, this In not could we for art; through fabric abody( new make their also to is anything it add brain, not the could we and that nerves certain the are which organs, interior the concerning Then, Optics , PO 114, AT VI 148) 135 Optics Optics is dedicated to the to dedicated is , PO 114, AT VI 114, PO , . We can We . we

CEU eTD Collection pick up the light rays individually. rays light pick upthe cannotthat of nerves magnitude by the caused distortions the given results desired the provide cannot it be, may technology telescope our perfect however Therefore, objects. distant or small very for blurred is image the and ray single a than more by influenced are light receive realize Descartes’in order to corpuscles ofspace-matter. ofperceivingthe aim The nervesthat technologymedical with supplemented be must of vision technology the that evident becomes ofplants and throughanimals. dissections career hisentire to during acquire tried he which data data, empirical relevant the of most lacks he because proposals of such offer state the given But, improvements. technology,contemporary possible morally impossible. most probably are they And not does Descartes some propose can one body, human of machine the of workings the regarding considerations those from Certainly, fountains. artificial of model the on etc., nerves, muscles, organs, internal of workings the explained he which in man, on treatise the 1632, in earlier, years five composed, already he that fact the despite issue, this address directly not does he but body, human the of structure internal purposes. organs, istonatural aim perfect fortheir natural more them suitable to render Medicine’s organs. natural of perfection the with deals medicine nature, in exist not do that objects new constructs former the while that is medicine between and optics, case difference this in mechanics, The considerations. mechanical to reduced be can enhancement this u hs hns blns rte o mdcn, woe proe i o rmd the remedy other to of application organs ( are that artificial. the through is deficiencies same the purpose to minister to whose only is to purpose than medicine, organs, natural of to correction the through rather sight of deficiencies belongs things these But eetees f oe aaye h pia ytm o ih n Dsats em, it terms, Descartes’ in sight of system optical the analyses one if Nevertheless, the improve could that technology medical a of idea the engenders Descartes Thus, Optics , PO 126, , PO AT VI 164-165) 136 Optics , whose ,

CEU eTD Collection ein psiiiis bcue o h ue aon f ifrain nee. Sil n certain in the against Still, even prosthesis technological by extended be can abilities natural needed. cases, particular information of amount huge the of because possibilities design human beyond is configuration bodies’ of solution natural the usually, Therefore, contingencies involved. all account into taking and mechanics of laws simple the given possible as perfectly as developed she but artisan’s mechanics the from essentially differ not does Nature ofnature. complexity intothe all take account cannot that enhancement local some for search human the by at arrived are latter the while God, by given rules simplest the of application the through emerge first the that grounds the prosthesis. ofvision byexternal enhancement uponthe concentrates Leaving aside the problem of the internal organs of visual perception, Descartes perception, visual of organs internal the of problem the aside Leaving more are outlines their I174-175, CSM AT while VI 146-147) smaller, are they ( be. to ought they imagine we fainter, because than or darken colours their and blurred, are they than off be farther to us to appear pictures such in depicted things the often For ... others. the of that not but image its presenting object, brilliant most the with accordance in moves it of some by affected bydifferent and the brilliantothers the object, brilliant, whole thatless very objects are is parts its of smallest the when so time; given any at way single a only in moved by being of capable is it parts But objects. other by parts its other in and object one of one in affected be may them of each Thus size. some have very still though small, which, nerve-fibres optic of ends the by covered is eye our of back The Descartes repeats the ancient theme of art that imitates nature but for different reasons. for but nature imitates that art of theme ancient the repeats Descartes us, given has she that advantages the of one. ( more important another be to it gain unless none lose we that and them; constructing in observed had she see we that things the all in possible as much as Nature imitate we that eyes, our before body some place thus we when care, take We to have always will organs on alwaysnatural ones, almost maintainsthat than better artificial Descartes are – object the and eye the between place to forus consider.remain can ( we that bodies other all as well as eye, the of parts transparent the all include I which among – organs external the only Thus, Optics , PO 114, AT VI 148) 137 Optics , PO 117, AT VI 152) Optics ,

CEU eTD Collection following designer’s ofthe instructions. attentive only but skills theoretical require not does and important less is artefacts designed of production The artefacts. needed the of invention the everybody,but almost by performed natural the of endeavour proper be a can which production, actual the not is technology of philosopher.part important most The be to comes design, the namely technology, of part philosophy, natural of important knowledge most the the and principles first the of knowledge the on rests devices technological new of invention the because And devices. technological new of design the invention, the but itself production important the not most technology the of characteristic as sees Descartes craftsmen. of domain the was Technology things. material useful of production the of was technology, Descartes, and of Bacon scope until mainly, The arts mechanical scope. its also changes technology of status elevated The 3.3. A Science: New Technological Design some ones. evennew to features add and all bothnatural to isable prosthesis replace the as useless, mechanism natural the render inventions technological the domains, specific in Moreover, met. be to are humans of needs important so doing in if configurations, natural 123, AT VI 160) sight stronger orweaker. to wish render we as orcontract,according dilate ( must we which opening this also is it light pupil, the of the function the performs receive outside from they which through opening the as inasmuch and useless, pupil the render they as inasmuch spoken, just have we which of telescopes these use we When need for all this; it is enough to know the description of the relevant instruments, so instruments, relevant the of description the know to enough is it this; all for need instruments, as in the treasure world,afford the all he everything wouldrequire. And isno there in fact such this, spending by never, could he to king a were he if relevant even on, so and automatons, everything machines, possess to desire anyone Should 138 Optics , PO

CEU eTD Collection simple, without involving theoretical knowledge, so that a craftsman could make them. make could a knowledge,craftsman that so withoutsimple, theoretical involving of the beginning the in craftsmen of capacities intellectual weak the on insists Descartes production. mindless than else nothing is work their instruments, of manipulation the in acquired skills the Besides artefacts. into materials raw transforming of process the in instruments of manipulation skilful the on rests doing of technology. way proper the and invention genuine considered be can of mechanics knowledge the theoretical on based machine the of idea the of creation intellectual pure the only ( devices technological creating of ways improper as Descartes by rejected are situations Both good fortune. of as be thought can case last the and experience, theof mind inventor. machinein the of idea causes: only three can Suchan have idea intellect, or perhaps a great subtlety of mind by which one might even invent the invent even might ( one knowledge. which previous by any without mind machine of subtlety great a perhaps or intellect, this in is which mechanics, of whose knowledge great a or formed, with been has idea the likeness accordance in beforehand, seen been has machine real such some either of formation the involves it since intellectual, purely is process design the Moreover, made (Toby craftsmen CSMK 145; 8February 1640; them Hogelande, AT have or III 724) ourselves them make can we it, demands occasion the when that requires knowledge of other sciences. ( sciences. knowledge ofother requires that anything assume or to anything, omit to not try I shall and to everyone; intelligible the on myselfdepend make to try shall must I education, formal little speak have usually who craftsmen, shall of skill I which of things the of construction the since And importance Their Aristotle. for as same the almost remains craftsmen of status The previous a remembering merely but something inventing about not is case first The Objections , RA 150, AT VII 104 Optics ) , when he affirms that his description of artefacts is so is of artefacts he affirms his description , when that 139 Optics ; CSMK I152;; AT VI 82-83) Reply by the Author to the First Set of Set First the to Author the by Reply Optics , AT VI 81). Therefore AT81). , VI

CEU eTD Collection sciences, this invention, so useful and admirable, was found in the first place only through only place first the in found was admirable, and useful so invention, this sciences, our of shame the to “But endeavour: scientific the of help the from benefit not did and chance 8 Hogelande, (To February 1640; CSMK 145; ATcraftsmen.” III 724) by made them have or ourselves them make can “we that of production the Hogelande for to write can technology,Descartes of that part so easiest the represents it artefacts, As philosopher. natural the to pursuit of its subdivision assigns autonomous and an technology, into design, technological as known is nowadays which a inventiveness, of technological transforms technology.He developing necessity in background theoretical the and inventiveness human of importance the both of aware is contrast, namely technology, by Descartes, knowledge. theoretical to capacity this link not did he in but inventiveness, human involved aspect other the to pointed Cusa of Nicholas craftsman. metallica Agricola’s in mentioned already was technology of pursuit the in needed knowledge theoretical The nature. about knowledge theoretical of amount large a and invention both involves Design artefacts. of production effective and design between division a established practical the description his concerns. from out leaves and artefacts creating in issues theoretical and practical between distinguishes Descartes which in Mersenne to letter a in reaffirmed 1638; CSMK 130;1638; AT II 447,my emphasis) craftsmen the to men’sthat leave I questions, practical old the for and concerning 123; page on Optics this of my theory the to on enough add included have I to think I ought eyeglasses, I what about advice your for As is technology of development the for craftsmen of importance of lack same The Like Bacon, Descartes criticize the fact that previous inventions were the product of product the were inventions previous that fact the criticize Descartes Bacon, Like has technology of issues theoretical and practical between distinction Descartes’ , but he did not make the distinction that Descartes draws between designer and designer between draws Descartes that distinction the make not did he but , 140 . (To Mersenne, 15 November 15 (To Mersenne, . De re De as

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CEU eTD Collection mechanical technology, the construction of machines, which, as Martial Gueroult (1968, Gueroult Martial as which, machines, of is construction considers the he technology, that mechanical technology of part main other The world. material the about claims own Descartes’ of some prove can it because metaphysics, for and data, empirical provides it because science, for both important very as vision of technology the out singles Descartes 3.4. Mechanical Technology work artisans’ of some rendering thus unnecessary. lenses, cutting for machine a designs even He obtains. result desired the as such them arrange and lenses the cut to order in follow should craftsmen the that procedures the step by step describes Descartes telescopes, of case the In device. the produce to required procedures the of descriptions the of consists process design knowledge the of scientific part last and forth The device. and specific the of blueprint a of materials realization the in involved needs, practical part of This analysis device. the previous of the form integrates geometrical actual the with deals process design proper provided. theThird, be to are mediums certain in transmission light of patterns the concerning descriptions geometric as well as light reflect materials different which in ways specific about information experimental both so, be doing In to use. intended have the fit best forms they that geometrical so examined specific the as well his as serve properties would material that The materials purposes. proper the analyse should designer the Second, minute objects. or distant very of observations possible make would that instruments with vision human enhance to necessary is it case, particular this In devices. technological the of aims the and fulfilled be to are that needs human the into inquiry the is it First, research. of areas four intosubdivided be can design of technological domain the telescopes, of construction the with rmDsats iiino h atpr fof part last the of division Descartes’ From 142 Optics , the four discourses that engage that discourses four the ,

CEU eTD Collection missing part from available manuscriptsmissing available of part Descartes’ from correspond anthat a fragment with to paraphrasethe additional thirteen(1664). chapter rule 2of book4they In 53 Descartes and mathematics, and physics without endeavour blind a just is ( art labor.” mechanical men’s lessen to and arts the all facilitate to technology. of development the for as curious the satisfy to much as serve can that stratagems subtle some very has “Mathematics crucial also is mathematics matter, of science the as science. Alongphysics, of part a but artisanship of product the primarily Technology not is labour.” human of burden the “ease and society” human to useful “very are that designing machines by by knowledge added this apply principles to has first philosopher the the experiments, from and observations deduction through done, is nature of examination speculative the Once desk. philosopher’s the becomes technology doing for place proper the ofphysics. side theprecisely practical the foundthere.all goods and earth the of fruits the trouble-free enjoy to one enable would that devices of infinity an of “ for only developed is science and science of foundation the than else nothing is which metaphysics is point starting first The metaphysics. reach to machines the with begins that philosophy, Descartes’ through point starting other the represents observed, 236-237) This is edition fragment the second of from Antoine Arnauld and Nicole’s Pierre For Descartes, technology ceases to be an art and becomes an applied science, more science, applied an becomes and art an be to ceases technology Descartes, For As a consequence, the craftsman’s workshop ceases to be the seat of technology, and technology, of seat the be to ceases workshop craftsman’s the consequence, a As entire the constitutes causes, of way ( by sought are effects which entire effects,the their constitute of way by sought are causes which in problem, of sort first the that say of burden the can we Consequently physics. true of harvest the labour,be human to ought ease which and notably and society human to useful very are which things many these tomills, in of applied been since have they as them, apply did not and so be, could causes effects the what investigate sufficiently not with did bodies ancients move the can but force; water great and wind that example, for known, been always has It Rules 53 , CSM I77, , CSM AT X emphasis) 471-472,my ” ( Discourse speculative side of physics of side speculative , RA 74, AT VI 62) 143 Regulae . , while the second sort of problem, in problem, of sort second the while , Discourse , RA 48; AT VI 6) The 6) VI AT 48; RA , Logic orthe Logic Art Thinking of rcia side practical the inventionthe

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CEU eTD Collection simple principles and he is confident that by applying these principles in the drawing of drawing the in principles these applying by that confident is he and principles simple ofevery machine. the construction for sufficient than more is mechanisms simple six these of knowledge the that confident is he but mechanics of treatment comprehensive a in considered be to things other many are there that accepts lever.He the and screw the cog-wheel, the wedge, the plane, inclined pulley,the the being those machine, possible every construction the for needed are that mechanisms useful every of design machine. the for consequences, its deriving by sufficient, is that principle new manufacture rashly and physics, ( forthe ofmotions.” instruments production from apart mechanics study who do, many what is “That science. on based not is that mechanics of practice common the condemns harshly Descartes based the entire endeavour of mechanical technology on a very simple very a on technology mechanical of endeavour entire the based Descartes Descartes based technological design, as well as his physics and metaphysics, on very on metaphysics, and physics his as well as design, technological based Descartes 447) AT 73; I CSMK 1637; of October sheets 5 Huygens, (To three more. for my ask up not did filled you have and paper, I as about, be nothing saying can am I in explanation consider which to mechanics an things other countless given are There have ways. different of I sorts all which in applied of machines the Moreover no principles. in be would they for here, other assume they when do written often they as account, own their on wrong going have of danger I little the than subject this about more no knew machines new inventing to themselves devote who those if useful be would It simple all of physics the explains Descartes Huygens, to letter same the In weights; CSMKheavy 66-67; AT I 435-436) October 5 lift to used Huygens, be can (To force small a it. which of means to by machines the applied of account an is 1637; force a such supposing on, so and inches, six of height a to weight 400-pound a or foot, one of height a to weight 200-pound a the that raise can feet is two of height a to say,which pounds of, 100 weight a raise principle, can that force same single a on based is machines these all of invention The Rules 144 V, RA 11; AT 380) X

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CEU eTD Collection Earlier, as 1631,ittranslated in French was into 54 of division Bacon’s philosophy. into light brought science, for night” profound most the of middle the in “born that, thinker important most the as Bacon mentioned and foundations famous his In Encyclopaedia arts. mechanical the to attention much métiers des et arts des sciences, des raisonné arts: mechanical the and science emphasizes which project, Encyclopaedists’ the of title the from human visible of is influence Descartes’ source and Bacon’s the progress. as arts mechanical the in trust their regard highly Encyclopaedists technology.The through humanity of development the for arts mechanical the and science of importance the recognized which Enlightenment, the by especially philosophy, of reformers etc. science, in experiments for necessity the technology,through medicine, new a of necessity the their through nature of master modernity and possessor the into into man transforming infused of aim common the nucleus philosophies: strong a as regarded be could those and are technology similar, are propose of they that technology of conceptions characteristics main the but different; respective somewhat their issues, scientific and ontological other on diverge Descartes and Bacon that fact the Given influence. Bacon’s of consequence a be could technology and science between relation new the as well as technology of importance the on Descartes’ emphasis authors. both in similar are technology concerning ideas many if its scope. methods and Atlas Novus possibly The absurd itmountain is to refers because title Atlas island had mind. the and lost in to not Bacon that Given Descartes’ affinity with and admiration for Bacon, it would come as no surprise no as come would it Bacon, for admiration Descartes’ and Given with affinity oh Bcn ad Dsats wr osdrd b ae hlspes a h great the as philosophers later by considered were Descartes and Bacon Both The New New AtlantisThe . 54 In all of these works, Bacon presents his conception of technology, its aims, its technology, aims, of its conception his presents Bacon works, these of all In en L od dAebr xone h nihemn aus and values Enlightenment the expounded d’Alembert Rond Le Jean , published in Latin in 1633 with the title, mentioned in the letter,the in mentioned of title, the with 1633 in Latin in published , L'Atlas Nouveau L'Atlas 153 . It was the first general encyclopaedia to devote to encyclopaedia general first the was It . . rlmnr Discourse Preliminary Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire ou Encyclopédie, o the to

CEU eTD Collection In fact, Bacon recognizes that these new natural motions exceed the domain of mechanics, of domain the exceed motions natural new these that recognizes Bacon fact, In motions. natural new of emergence the but motion external of transformation the just not are to according they because matter “marvellous” are outcomes the arranging but geometrical, necessarily not of rules, scientific that form, same the takes nature assisting for method Bacon’s potentialities. desired its actualize to matter active this assist should technology then motions, potential internal have that atoms of composed is nature if But, one. desirable more another, into Theexternally, applied motion, applied. one transform is to only serve motion Descartes of external machines when effect desired the produce to order in corpuscles these ofspatially arranging isa technology matter iscomposedcorpuscles, then ofinert nature If endeavour. technological the of essence the determines nature of constituents ultimate the to approach their natural, completely is technology philosophers both for that fact the Given atoms. active Bacon’s and corpuscles inert and passive Descartes’ between this that in is deep difference respect striking have major The technology. differences on these conceptions their sciences); for consequences biological vs. sciences (mathematical model scientific the experience), from induced vs. deduced (rationally principles first of status the atoms), active vs. corpuscles (inert matter of structure ultimate the concern differences These approaches. philosophical different from arise conceptions their aspects, important and many in similar are Descartes and Bacon by down laid technology of characteristics the Although 1.2. The Differences Descartes.” (D’Alembert, l’illustre succéda Bacon chancelier “Au Descartes: is Encyclopaedists the for importance of order the in thinker second The arts. mechanical and science experimental on emphasis the which on model the is knowledge human L’Encyclopédie , Discours préliminaire 154 Encyclopaedia is constructed, with special with constructed, is , 1751,25)

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CEU eTD Collection degree than their Classical counterparts” (McClellan III & Dorn, 2006, 296). An important An 296). 2006, Dorn, & III (McClellan counterparts” Classical their than degree greater much a to instruments on depended therefore they and approach, in experimental and character in qualitative more generally were sciences Baconian “the since available, readily is system philosophical his into technology and experiments of integration the those Bacon For materialize that mechanisms system. his of part major a as technologies and experiments includes working Descartes explanations, involve explanations mechanical since mathematical to reducible is phenomenon natural that every argues Descartes 296), 2006, Dorn, & III (McClellan approach” in experimental not were sciences Classical the considered, things “all Although processes. different from arise outcomes these but philosophy practical their of outcomes technological same the mainly considered Descartes and Bacon Both explanation. the framing of way the in only consist certain produce to nature outcomes. force would that artefacts technology” of construction “Baconian the a with concerned and machines, mathematically-based with primarily dealing technology”, “Cartesian a of existence the consider can one division this of consequence a As inductive. and experimental are that heat”, electricity,and of magnetism, study systematic the “primarily sciences”, “Baconian character,and in deductive and apodictic are that optics, and mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, i.e. sciences”, “classical between difference the as 296) (2006, Dorn & III McClellan by out spelled differenceis This aspects. biological on emphasis special with science, natural is it Bacon for while geometry, algebraic own his of form the in mathematics, is science paradigmatic the Descartes For technology. of pursuit the govern ofmechanics.” possessionthrough knowledge ofa the “great scientist the of mind the in artefact the of idea the of formation the but nothing is design The h w rsac rgas osdrd tcnlg s a hl n h differences the and whole a as technology considered programs research two The Finally, Bacon and Descartes are divided by the paradigmatic science that should that science paradigmatic the by divided are Descartes and Bacon Finally, 156 qua mechanical explanations. And explanations. mechanical

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CEU eTD Collection The technologies used for scientific purposes are not just means to obtain new data but they but data new obtain to means just not are purposes scientific for used technologies The experiments. technological elaborate from or instruments, by aided i.e. observation, accurate very from come not do they if accepted not are claims scientific some because endeavour technological a thus becomes science do that To constructed. claim be the should instruments involve scientific to comes verified experimentally the be that must claim conclusions The scientific phenomena. examined the produce and isolate would that machines setups: experimental by confirmed be and construct should knowledge imperative: technological ofuseful artefacts.the creation with be concerned to is philosophy natural practice, actual in than theory in more on, although now From undertaking. technologically-minded a become to philosophy natural constrained endeavour, ofthefeature philosophical andthegoal, as genuine ofexplanation both a as mode central a as inventions mechanical and machines of Bacon and Descartes by imposition The 2.3. Embedded Technology: Utility scientific medicine and science-based medical technologies in full flower in today’s in &2006,396-397) Dorn, civilization. (McClellan industrial flower full in technologies medical science-based and medicine scientific These experimental setups imply, in most situations, the construction of artefacts and artefacts of construction the situations, most in imply, setups experimental These drawn conclusions test theory.from the Chene, 2004,71) (Des and to putting shapes, of capable situations) locations, experimental observational generate (or the to setups ability the concerning was skill requisite conditions other The bodies. initial of natural laws motions and a from axioms) mathematically for conclusions as requisite deriving became (treated of skills that was new first two The philosopher. mechanism, of advance the With a claims, (2004) Chene Des as core, its at contains philosophy Mechanical 162

CEU eTD Collection bring into modern philosophy as unchallenged features. Along with these come the themes the come these with Along features. unchallenged as philosophy modern into bring of technology, advocacy their through Descartes, and Bacon that elements the some of just are its as results. constructed are not life of burdens the eliminate would that machines the if enterprise, Scholastic mere a sterile, Bacon’s machines, useful of remains philosophy. Philosophy of outcome necessary and natural the is fruit, construction of experiments The interests. scientific “mere” the beyond philosophy.” “practical a for claims their through introduced Descartes and Bacon that imperatives these accepted scientists modern all not, or consciously And, devices. technological of functioning the on experiments, and observations of number indefinite an on but principles first the from deduction direct on not based is things particular of knowledge the still, but mathematics, of certainty subsequent the and God of veracity the in grounded ultimately is truth Descartes For function. fruit, of experiments the and light of experiments the i.e. applications, technological their that fact the but of experiments through form discovered other nature of any laws of the for conceive confirmation not does Bacon confirmation. theory of form a are also The utility of knowledge as well as the necessity for empirical results of philosophy of results empirical for necessity the as well as knowledge of utility The of Dorn,III & 2006,246) types different (McClellan that. for powerful less no proved it but posthumous, largely was science of categorizing world In the in influence His outcomes. practical produce to light” benefits. of “experiments with combined be must practical fruit” of “experiments that specified for likewise Bacon experiments, search men,” to “Dowry laborers the group, of one especially aside castes set he the utopia, scientific Among a for techniques.) envisioned Bacon and devices from useful forthcoming similarly promised potentially inventions research scientific future matter,for no but, philosophy natural of worthwhile independently arose of as kind press and discovery. investigation systematic these to that technologies say neglected (Bacon printing the the and of silk, compass, examples the gunpowder, to pointed Bacon Bacon. Francis in ideologue foremost its found knowledge useful as science of perception The goes machines constructing of requirement this Descartes and Bacon for Moreover, 163

CEU eTD Collection 245) Alchemy, both in medicinal and its metallurgical another.” forms, exemplifies 2006, (McClellan Dorn, III& emerged fromone which route useful be canshould made and knowledge that practical. and the doctrine represent the withbelief universe, and the of possibility forces , in controlling permeate their that sprang historical moresource. Renaissance magic theThe social of than for utility from one ideology science handmaiden as view theology. the subservient to of philosophythe ofmedieval science irrelevance natural and be therefore encouraged. ofThe with contrasted the practical was ideology view and the activist Hellenic century,seventeenth and human can welfare should activities thatand promote scientific science the conviction 56 technological the issues, metaphysical on focused philosophers later that fact the Despite metaphysics. of expense the at philosophy, and science of feature central a introducing as technology in subsequent succeeded Descartes from and sees Bacon science, one and philosophy As in endeavour. developments philosophical and scientific modern the of pivot the Technology, systems. becomes not, philosophical their or in acknowledged occupies technology that place central the from arise arguments their And Descartes. and Bacon by Renaissance, the in begins that trend a value, central a as utility of imposition The present. the to up Modernity all informs that Descartes and Bacon of legacies powerful the Until Antiquity. of values ofknowledge: appropriateaims the utility among to rank it unacceptable Renaissance, was central of revaluation, a reversal, complete a represents andtechnology morality. and nature and technology science, and technology between relations the of above discussed “Although not absolutelynew, “Although not asserted in the social be of claimsfor utility to widely the science began higher considerations of virtue, remains [for Plato and Aristotle] the least important Truerecreation. must bellow knowledge least even ranking sciences, and arts the of product the Aristotle] and Plato [for remains virtue, of utility considerations values, higher modern of reversal complete almost an In life human for utility their and machines of appreciation Descartes’ and Bacon’s This revaluation, the imposition of utility as a central value, remains one of the most the of one remains value, central a as utility of imposition the revaluation, This (Whitney, inventions. of any, 1990, 32) powers if human use, proper increases the and for guidance purpose supplying not also without but technique provides it that today is thought that perspective) opposite the goodfor?” are they what one strandThe ofclassical to danger according oftechnology from (but way “Yes, question, the with greeted often but are education same in humanities the of advocates the much in question the beg to merely was utility” of sake the “for answer The what.” of sake the “for ask 164 per se per and divorced from divorced and 56 is completed is

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CEU eTD Collection 57 as such methods demonstrative but syllogistic, are demonstrations mathematical the of some least at that show to attempts were there Modernity principles. Early first In science. a not is it such, from as and, character in syllogistic not certainly is deductions Mathematics syllogistic through demonstrate” we whereby quality certitude. proper. mathematical and mathematics arts mechanical i.e. to meaning new mechanics, a gives Descartes Specifically, applied and mechanics theoretical difference implicit between an upon based is identification this although science, into mechanics of transformation the for basis theoretical the provides who Descartes, by up taken are ideas Bacon’s fruit.” of “experiments his knowledge, of ends the as and light”, of “experiments his knowledge, of source the as both physics, of part central a them making arts, mechanical the on philosophy his centre to first the is Bacon character. scientific their emphasise and rank Descartes and Bacon pre-modern use to or, between production terminology, material and knowledge theoretical i.e. technology, new a and available. become human and changing behaviour framework forexplaining aims human new because technology, by transformed is morality and values of domain the Finally, product. technological a into nature transforms he Equally, physics. mathematical into science, philosophy,i.e. natural transforms Descartes Thus mechanics. but Descartes for else nothing is the which physics with identified being knowledge of of tree Cartesian philosophy. trunk the in arts, mechanical place and mechanics central with concerned a primarily is assuming Knowledge technology by reformed also God. of is experiment mechanical Knowledge a machine, a but is universe the all arts, mechanical by practically, not if theoretically least at created, be can entity physical every that fact the Given Vulgar or, or mechanical arts, Latin: in The most pervasive legacy of Bacon and Descartes is that the domains of science and science of domains the that is Descartes and Bacon of legacy pervasive most The scientia a rtes and βαναύσων τέχναι, βαναύσων and

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CEU eTD Collection morality. As already shown, through technology, Bacon and Descartes introduced material introduced Descartes and Bacon technology, of through modification shown, already the As morality. is technology of centrality the by brought change considered less A 2.5. Technology and Ethics norhistorically. conceptually neither issustainable that a definition science, applied as technology of definition the and technology and science between union inseparable not systems their in valuable be to comes Truth applications. practical of success the assure values those following only and basis Descartes’ indications. theoretical the lacking lenses cuts and machine the constructs he when Ferrier by differently still employed he is and when lenses, cutting for than machine the vision designs and same light the explain he is when it differently Although it uses machines. Descartes those mechanics, of realisation material the concerns it when science applied vulgar as but machines, new of design the concerns it when science applied ingenious as phenomena, physical of explanation the concerns it when science as mechanics while craft, a not and philosophy natural of part a still is mechanics otne o b hpd i elnc ml, lrey dvre rm te practical the of from bodies divorced tapping without largely III&2006,290-291) (McClellan Dorn, knowledge. scientific proceeded mold, engineers Hellenic and technologists a and in applications, shaped itself enterprise be scientific The to ... continued case. the never almost was it centuries nineteenth is early and technology eighteenth the In contact. that close in conducted often pages, indeed are and development research these when today even in true partially only repeatedly belief a science, applied challenged inherently been has which belief, common the in reinforcement found Revolution Industrial the of inventions technical the for account Revolution Scientific the of innovations theoretical the that myth The as only demonstration and truth was knowledge physical pure of aim the so, Even per se per but as a mean to attain practical outcomes. Their views created the myth of myth the created views Their outcomes. practical attain to mean a as but 169 Descartes considers Descartes

CEU eTD Collection for what “better” means: for what “better” criteria sufficient and necessary give cannot one because eliminated are ends natural which the and perils the hand, other the byexperts. guided governance require seem oftechnology rational to complexity On disturbing. is society lead would that scientists of class closed all-powerful an of picture the hand one the On governance. technology on debates contemporary in present still are that issues political and technology, social regarding any by means. technology of development the for argued they technology, of role beneficial the emphasizing by Moreover, systems. their of value central a as life earthly human for utility change is inherently beneficial because it enhances human welfare and autonomy. and welfare human enhances it because beneficial inherently is change technical Bacon for ancients, the to contrast further In power.… to pursue linked knowledge would philosophy natural which in beginning new a for prayed and words of vanity a as philosophy Greek criticized Bacon — revelation Christian of deployment of ethics creative his by supported vision a — modern nature of state the in suffering unjustly as beings distinctively the articulated human of vision moral a of forcefully basis the on (1620), Instauration Great The technology.In most who Bacon was It Another debated idea is that of progress that becomes self-contradictory in a world in world a in self-contradictory becomes that progress of that is idea debated Another informed and free the (Arnhart, 2005,132-133) ofordinary citizens. consent without life social shape technology and fear science their modern confirming that as this see science Baconian of critics The innovation. such of problems ethical the understand to wisdom the with those by regulated be to needs it society,for dangerous be therefore can and innovation technological and scientific that implies view.This public full and to open inventions, were they if experiments, harmful be would those that discoveries public scientific general The the … from people. hide docile must a over philosophers rule to secrecy and manipulation use could elitescientific a how of depiction disturbing a is it Bacon, with disagree who those For [ it progress, society. good a promote scientific could technology and science modern how of of vision inspiring vision Bacon’s share who those For considerations moral with along discussed, Bacon England, of Chancellor Lord As 2005,1151-1152)(Mitcham, 170 New Atlantis New ] is an is ]

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CEU eTD Collection justice to and to clarify some of the core ideas of their philosophy: utility, the centrality of centrality the utility, philosophy: their of ideas core the of some clarify to and to justice rend to fails analysis epistemological an since perspective, technological the from works their approach to had I influence powerful their emphasize view.to pre-modern order Moreover, in the against it analyse to necessary was it shift Descartes’Bacon’s and paradigm of magnitude the understand to accordingly, production; material toward approach contemporary the of background familiar the became philosophy. technology natural regarding of core ideas These the become mechanics and arts mechanical while knowledge, proper of status the to raised is artefacts new of invention machines, or artefacts, about thinking philosopher; natural the of endeavour proper a the becomes function; and constitution their technological in and identical things are natural artefacts prostheses; by improved be can body human the even and inventions, technological through transformed completely be can nature value; genuine a is technology toward considered be to comes utility Descartes’ Bacon’smaterial and in works: approach reversed completely This artefacts. of production the and knowledge proper between gap irreducible is an there men; for free and nobility the for is unsuited objects useful producing and inventing of activity the artefacts; technological and things natural between kind in difference a is there moreover, it; to improvements small bring only can but nature surpass cannot thinkers, Greek Ancient to according Technology, needs. material satisfy ignoble to aims that endeavour lower a it considering it, disvalue to tended world Ancient the history, of dawn the since humans of activity constant a been has artefacts of production the Although production. material useful regarding conceptions pre-modern the challenged who Descartes, and Bacon to indebted is technology of understanding contemporary The Conclusions 172

CEU eTD Collection considers mechanical arts as a model for his philosophical research (Ch. II, 1.2), as the as 1.2), II, (Ch. research philosophical his for model a as arts Bacon mechanical life. considers of burdens a the i.e. eliminating for Science’, objects Active artificial or invent Philosophy, would that ‘New philosophy a of creation the at aims and natural philosophy his of core the as arts mechanical introduces Bacon revaluations, Renaissance by revelation’. ofartificial principle Solla called‘the Price de Derek what 3.5), I, (Ch reproductions laboratory and experiments prostheses, artefactual through known be can nature that idea the is Renaissance the of breakthrough conceptual A nature. mathematize to possibility the and invention, of role the knowledge, technological of importance the utility, material of value the technology, and nature between similarity the to pertaining arguments bring thinkers Renaissance 2.4), I, (Ch. magic natural and 2.3), I, (Ch. metallurgy and mining 2.2), I, (Ch. alchemy 2.1), I, (Ch. mechanics as such domains, of variety a In voiced. be to the begin conception Aristotelian the to during counterarguments Renaissance only Nevertheless, condition. prelapsarian the restore to mean possible a as it St. of Hugh heading general the Victor, under technology classified who of that is Renaissance the before technology toward approach positive only The activities. human lowest the among technology classifies and 1.4), I, (Ch. and knowledge technology between and 1.2) I, (Ch. nature and technology between gaps irreducible for argues Aristotle 1.6). and 1.1 I, (Ch. objects material with involved too are they because artisans to citizenship deny Plato, as well as Aristotle, 1). (Introduction, contempt medieval i.e. production, material useful for used term the and vulgar and ignoble considered was Technology views. Aristotelian by shaped extent large a technology. naturebetween and technology, of character scientific and similaritythe scope the mechanics, and arts mechanical Until the beginning of the seventeenth century the approach toward technology was to was technology toward approach the century seventeenth the of beginning the Until Against this background shaped by the Scholastic-Aristotelian conception and shaken and conception Scholastic-Aristotelian the by shaped background this Against 173 banauson artes mechanicae mechanicae artes , reflects this Ancient and Ancient this reflects , and considered and

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CEU eTD Collection uls hi rtns n ehooy aqie e tts e cp n new and scope new a status, new determinations. a acquires technology and writings, their Descartes publish and Bacon when century, seventeenth the of half first the technology in obsolete undervalued becomes that conception traditional The prostheses. through bodies new creating at and life prolonging at also but health maintaining at only not aims that medicine technological a of prospects the created and useful materially be should knowledge that idea the imposed They science. applied is technology that and extent large a to overlap technology and science that argued They modernity. into infused they that technology regarding legacy common a leave they IV, 1.2) (Ch. assumptions ontological different with start and methods different follow they although IV,and (Ch 1.1), philosophy natural of outcome proper the as Descartes’technology on his emphasis in Bacon by influenced probably was works. Descartes utility,material commonofBacon’s are features oftechnology scientific character and the and literature. of secondary importance the technology, the and nature in between identity the emphasized development, Technological insufficiently is fact this that and endeavours usefulmaterially consequences and practical envisaged the technology, i.e. philosophy, practical and philosophy theoretical between that mind, natural my to and important equally interplay, philosophy different a first on focused between I philosophy, interplay the in interested is who (1992), Garber inventio the technological that is conception the and Descartes 3.1) III, (Ch of value genuine a legacies as utility of powerful imposition most being the of capable enhanced, machine and a repaired is body mechanically human the that idea the with Along contrivance. I tried to show that Bacon and Descartes gave a central place to technology in their in technology to place central a gave Descartes and Bacon that show to tried I n is a matter of a priori mechanical design (Ch III, 3.3). Therefore, unlike Daniel unlike Therefore, 3.3). III, (Ch design mechanical priori a of matter a is n of Descartes'of writtings 175 .

CEU eTD Collection Denis Diderot & Jean le Rond d’Alembert (eds). 1751-1772. 1751-1772. (eds). d’Alembert Rond le Jean & Diderot Denis Copenhaver,P. 1992. Brian B. Charles Schmitt, & Desmond. 2006. Clarke, 2008. Zvi. Biener, 2006. Mario. Biagioli, 2007. R. William Newman, & Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, Aristotle. [1531-1533]. 2004 Cornelius. Henry Agrippa, 2001. Hans. Achterhuis, Books List in the of writings andwerementioned Descartes' *** Bacon's Abbreviations vi. onpage Bibliography raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une Société de Gens de lettres de par Gens et sciences, uneraisonné des arts métiers, Société des des philosophy Renaissance ofPittsburgh. thesis,doctoral University Descartes and Galileo scholasticism, in manner geometrical the and metaphysics University Press. ofChicago MIT. byDonald by JamesFreake, ed. Tyson. Publications. Llewellyn University Press. Complete WorksComplete h nt f sine i al-oen piooh: Subalternation, philosophy: early-modern in science of unity The Descartes. Descartes. A Biography aie’ isrmns o rdt eecps mgs secrecy images, Telescopes, credit. of instruments Galileo’s The American philosophy of technology: the empirical turn empirical the technology: of philosophy American The . Edited by Jonathan Barnes. Princeton University Press. byJonathan1991. University Barnes.Princeton . Edited . University Press. University . Oxford 176 Three books of occult philosophy occult of books Three . Cambridge University Press. University . Cambridge A history of . western of history A The artificial and the natural the and artificial The Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire ou Encyclopédie . Translated . Volume3. . Indiana . The . . , .

CEU eTD Collection og aeaO 01 2001. O. Pamela Long, Lefevre, Wolfgang (ed). 2004. 1993. Laurence. Lampert, 2008. (eds). Sophie Roux, & Roy Laird, 2000. H. Trevor Levere, & L. Frederic Holmes, 1851. Alexandria. of Hero Helen. 2009. Hattab, [1556]. 1912 Agricola. Georgius 2006. Stephen. Gaukroger, Garber, 1992. Daniel. [1638]. 1914 Galilei. Galileo 2004. Dewald, Jonathan (ed). 2001. Dennis. Chene, Des 1996. Dennis. Chene, Des 6 volumes. Charles Scribner’s6 volumes. Charles Sons. University Press. thought Knowledge fromKnowledge Antiquity to the Renaissance Nietzsche RevolutionScientific London. Hoover.Henry Salisbury House. Shaping of andthe Modernity,Science 1210–1685 &Crew Alfonso de Salvio. William Andrew Publishing. . Cornell University Press. University . Cornell . New Haven, . New Haven, Yale. Descartes onformsDescartes andmechanisms Descartes' Metaphysical Physics Descartes' Metaphysical Openness, Secrecy, Authorship. Technical Arts and the Culture of Culture the and Arts Technical Authorship. Secrecy, Openness, Physiologia. Natural Philosophy in late Aristotelian and Cartesian and Aristotelian late in Philosophy Natural Physiologia. Nietzsche and Modern Times: A Study of Bacon, Descartes, and Descartes, Bacon, of Study A Times: Modern and Nietzsche Spirits and Clocks. Machine and Organism in Descartes in Organism and Machine Clocks. and Spirits The Pneumatics The . MIT. . Springer. Europe World Modern the Early of 1450to 1700:Encyclopedia Dialogues concerning two new sciences new two concerning Dialogues Picturing Machines 1400-1700 Picturing De re metallica re De h mrec f a Sinii Culture Scientific a of Emergence The . Translated for and edited by Bennet Woodcroft. Bennet by edited and for Translated . Mechanics and Natural Philosophy before the before Philosophy Natural and Mechanics 177 . . Trans. by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou and Hoover Clark Herbert by Trans. Instruments and experimentation in the in experimentation and Instruments . The Johns University Hopkins Press. . The UniversityPress. ofChicago . Cambridge University Press. University . Cambridge . Oxford Press. University . MIT. . . Translated by Henry by Translated . Cornell . .

CEU eTD Collection itr hms Nlo. 20. 2007. Nelson. Thomas Winter, 1990. Elspeth. Whitney, Sawday, Jonathan. 2007. 1615. Caus. de Salomon Ross, David. 1995. Plato. 2006. (ed). Markku Peltonen, 2008. (eds). Loraine Daston, & Katharine Park, [1450]. 1996 Cusa. of Nicholas 2001. (eds). Anthony Grafton, & R. William Newman, 1994. Carl. Mitcham, 2005. (ed.). Carl Mitcham, Meijers, Anthonie (ed.). 2009. Harold. 2006. Dorn, & E. III, James McClellan Complete WorksComplete philosophy Thomson Gale. Johns University Hopkins Press. DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska –Lincoln.DigitalCommons@University ofNebraska thirteenth century Norton. Press. Early Science Modern Hopkins. Arthur J. Press. Banning Europe Modern inAlchemy Early Aristotle . The UniversityPress. ofChicago . Edited by John M.. EditedbyJohn Cooper. 1997. Hackett. hnig truh tcnlg: te pt ewe niern and engineering between path the technology: through Thinking Les Raisons des Forces des Raisons Les Mouvantes The Engines of ImaginationThe Engines Paradise restored: the mechanical arts from antiquity through the through antiquity from arts mechanical the restored: Paradise . Philadelphia: . Philadelphia: American PhilosophicalSociety. . Routledge. nylpda o cec, tcnlg, n ethics and technology, science, of Encyclopedia Philosophy of Technology of Philosophy Sciences andEngineering . Cambridge University Press. University . Cambridge The Cambridge Companion to Bacon to Companion Cambridge The doad et Mente de Idiota h ehncl Polm n te Cru f Aristotle of Corpus the in Problems Mechanical The . MIT. 178 Science and Technology Science World in History The Cambridge . Volume Science. of History Cambridge The 3. (Layman on Mind). Translated by Jaspers by Translated Mind). on (Layman . Routledge. Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Astrology Nature: of Secrets . A J. de boutique la en : Francfort . Cambridge University Cambridge . volumes. 4 . . Elsevier. . The .

CEU eTD Collection itl . ne,G,Nni .adKrfli,NC es) (eds.), N.C. Karafyllis, and R. Nanni, G., Engel, C., Zittel, Francis Bacon andhisContemporariesFrancis Bacon 179 . Brill. Philosophies of Technology: of Philosophies

CEU eTD Collection Des Chenes, Denis. 2004. “Mechanism”, in Dewald, Jonathan (ed.), (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Mechanism”, 2004. Denis. Chenes, Des Derek. Prince, Solla de (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Magic”, 2004. John. Sewell, P. Allison & Coudert, in Recapitulation”, A Writings: Anonymous “Descartes’ 1982. Hiram. Caton, in Explanation” Mechanical and Automata “Ancient 2003. Sylvia. Berryman, (ed.), Carl Mitcham, in new” and old “Atlantis, 2004. Larry. Arnhart, W.G. R. Anderson, 2000. (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Matematics”, 2004. Amir. Alexander, and chaptersArticles Volume 4.pp.49-54. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia Volume 4.pp.68-71. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia Change Relevant?Models of Scientific (ed.), Rachel Laudan, in Interaction”, Sons. Volume 4.pp.12-16. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia 1700: to Journal of Philosophy (4), pp.344-369. technology,science, andethics pp. 5-34. (ed.), H. Trevor 1984. “Notes Toward and Philosophy of the Science/Technology the of Philosophy and Toward “Notes 1984. Instruments and experimentation in the history of chemistry of history the in experimentation and Instruments “The Archaeology of Chemistry” in Holmes, Frederic L. & Levere, & L. Frederic Holmes, in “The Chemistry” Archaeologyof 20. pp.299-311. . Thomson pp.132-134. Gale. 180 Reidel Publishing. Reidel The Nature of Technological Knowledge: Are TechnologicalKnowledge: of Nature The . oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . 6 volumes. Charles Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 Europe 1450 to 1700: to 1450 Europe Europe 1450 to 1700: to 1450 Europe nylpda of Encyclopedia Phronesis Europe 1450 Europe Southern . MIT. . , 48 ,

CEU eTD Collection Henninger-Voss, Mary. 2004.“Technology”, (ed.), in Dewald, Jonathan (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Renaissance”, 2004. F. Paul Grendler, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Acoustics”, 2004. Paolo. Gozza, (ed.), Carl Mitcham, in “Progress” 2004. L. Steven Goldman, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in instruments”, F.“Scientific Thomas Glick, Garber, (eds.) in & Loraine Park, Katharine Daston, and 2008.“Physics Foundations”, Daniel. in scientifica Alessandro conoscenza e matematiche “Dimonstrationi 2010. Giovanni. Ferraro, Profitable and Conclusions, Grounded Observations, “‘Industrious 2008. Luisa. Dolza, Piccolomini” in Burns, H., Di Teodoro, F.P. & Bacci, G. (eds.), (eds.), Teodoro,F.P.G. Di Bacci, H., & Burns, in Piccolomini” Contemporaries (eds.), N.C. Karafyllis, & R. Nanni, G., Engel, C., Zittel, in And France”, In Stay Technology ‘s Bacon Francis During Province’: Culture That of State Best the Discoveries; and Inventions Volume 6.pp.8-17. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia 177-185. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia Volume 1.pp.13-14. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia technology, andethics Volume 5.pp.333-339. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia University Press. Science Modern Early 3. Volume Science. of History Cambridge The architettonica: daVitruvio aWinckelmann . Brill. pp.1-20. Brill. . Thomson pp.1519-1523. Gale. hlspis o ehooy rni ao n his and Bacon Francis Technology: of Philosophies 181 . . 6 volumes. Charles Scribner’s Sons. pp. Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . Leo S. Olschki S. Editore.pp.215-233. Leo oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . nylpda o science, of Encyclopedia uoe 15 o 1700: to 1450 Europe Europe 1450 to 1700: to 1450 Europe Europe 1450 to 1700: to 1450 Europe Europe 1450to 1700: Saggi di letteratura di Saggi . Cambridge .

CEU eTD Collection Melero, Joaquin Perez. 2009. “From alchemy to science: The and Revolution Scientific The science: to alchemy “From 2009. Perez. Joaquin Melero, in Concept”, Hazardous a of Emergence “Technology The 2010. Leo. Marx, (ed.), Wolfgang Lefevre, in Mechanics”, “Drawing 2004. S. Michael Mahoney, to 1450 Europe 2004. (ed). Jonathan Dewald, in Method”, “Scientific 2004. O. Pamela Long, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Nature”, 2004. O. Pamela Long, in technology?” is “What (1985). S.J. Kline, Jurgen.Klein,Bacon’s “Francis 2008. the Operativa, TraditionScientia of Workshops,and the Levin, in Descartes”, in Technology and Representation, “Vision, 1993. Dalia. Judovitz, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in Matter”, of “Theories 2004. John. Henry, Press. pp. 63-86. (ed.), Michael David Volume 4.pp.54-59. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia Enlightment in Spanish American mining and metallurgy”, in Rosenberg, Gary D. Gary Rosenberg, in metallurgy”, and mining American Spanish in Enlightment Culture Machines 1400-1700 Volume 5.pp.339-343. World.Modern Early Scribner’s Sons. the Charles of volumes. Encyclopedia 6 1700: Volume 4.pp.253-258. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia 215-218. 21-50. Contemporaries his and Bacon Francis Technology: (eds.), of N.C. Philosophies Karafyllis, & R. Nanni, G., Engel, C., Zittel, in Nature”, of Secrets , 51(3),July 2010.pp.561-577. . MIT. Modernity and the hegemony of vision of hegemony the and Modernity 182 Bulletin of Science, TechnologySociety Science, & of Bulletin oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . . University of California of University . uoe 15 o 1700: to 1450 Europe Europe 1450 to 1700: to 1450 Europe Technologyand rl. pp. Brill. . Picturing 1, pp. 1,

CEU eTD Collection Newman, William R. 2000. “Alchemy, Assaying, and Experiment”, in Holmes, Frederic L. & L. Frederic Holmes, in “Alchemy,Experiment”, 2000. William and Assaying,R. Newman, Newman, William“Technology1989. R. ”,Late and the in Alchemicalin Debate of Status Problematic The “Introduction: 2001. Anthony. Grafton, & R. William Newman, of Tradition Renaissance and Medieval “The 2001. E. John Murdoch, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Paracelsus”, 2004. T. Bruce Moran, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in “Alchemy”, 2004. T. Bruce Moran, in Technology and Ethics of Interaction “The 2009. Briggle. Briggle, and Carl Mitcham, nylpda o h al oen World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia SciencesEngineering (ed.), Anthonie Meijers, in Perspective” Historical of Geological Society America. pp.51-62. (ed.), MIT. pp.35-54. (ed.), Trevor H. Levere, Isis MIT. pp.1-38. (eds.), Anthony Grafton, & R. William Newman, in Europe”, Premodern in Alchemy and Astrology Matterand Early Corpuscular Theories Modern (eds.), R. William Newman, & E. John Murdoch, Christoph, Lüthy, Volume 4.pp.392-394. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia Volume 1.pp.32-35. , 80(3).pp.423-445. “The” Revolution in Geology from the Renaissance to the Enlightment the to Renaissance the from Geology in Revolution “The” Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe Modern Early in Alchemy and AstrologyNature: of Secrets . Elsevier. pp.1147-1194. Instruments and experimentation in the history of chemistry of history the in experimentation and Instruments 183 oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . . Brill. pp.91-132. . Brill. Philosophy of Technology and Technology of Philosophy uoe 15 o 1700: to 1450 Europe uoe 15 o 1700: to 1450 Europe Minima Naturalia Minima Late Medieval Late . The . ” in ” . .

CEU eTD Collection Weeks, Sophie. 2008. “The Role of Mechanics in Francis Bacon’s Great Instauration”, in Instauration”, Great Bacon’s Francis in Mechanics of Role “The 2008. Sophie. Weeks, in Distinction” Art-Nature the and Bacon “Francis 2007. Sophie. Weeks, of Foundation Epistemological The Machine: the “Legitimating 2008. Andres. Vaccari, Bensaude-Vincent, in Mechanics”, Ancient in Nature and “Art 2007. J. Mark Schiefsky, (ed.), Markku Peltonen, in science” of idea “Bacon’s 2006. Paolo. Rossi, (ed.), Jonathan Dewald, in Galilei”, “Galileo 2004. A. Eileen Reeves, Holmes, in Alchemy”, in Reproducibility and “Apparatus 2000. M. Lawrence Principe, in tradition” knowledge maker’s the and forms “Bacon’s 2006. Antonio. Perez-Ramos, history of chemistry (ed.), H. Trevor Levere, & L. Frederic Press. pp. 99-120. (ed.), Markku Peltonen, itl . ne, G, Nni . & Krfli, NC es) (eds.), N.C. Karafyllis, & Technology: R. Francis Bacon andhisContemporaries Nanni, G., Engel, C., Zittel, 117-145. Bacon andhisContemporaries (eds.), N.C. Karafyllis, & R. Nanni, G., Engel, C., Zittel, in Descartes” Rene of Philosophy Natural the in Metaphor Technological 67-108. (eds.), R. William Newman, & Bernadette Companion to Bacon Volume 3.pp.5-8. World Modern Early the of Encyclopedia . MIT. pp.55-74. . Cambridge University Press. pp.25-46. University . Cambridge The Cambridge Companion to Bacon Companion to The Cambridge . Brill. pp.287-336. . Brill. 184 ntuet n xeietto n the in experimentation and Instruments The Artificial and the Natural the and Artificial The oue. Cals Srbe’ Sons. Scribner’s Charles volumes. 6 . Philosophies of Technology: Francis of Philosophies . Brill. pp.133-195. . Brill. . Cambridge University . Cambridge Europe 1450 to 1700: to 1450 Europe hlspis of Philosophies The Cambridge The Ambix . MIT. pp. MIT. . 54. pp. 54.

CEU eTD Collection isl da. 00 Te Scooia ot f Sine, i in Science”, of Roots Sociological “The 2000. Edgar. Zilsel, (ed.), Carl Mitcham, in Applied” and “Pure 2005. J. Russell Woodruff, in Mind” of Mechanization the on Descartes Machines: “God’s 2008. Michael. Wheeler, December 2000,30(6).Sage. pp.935-949. December technology,science, andethics MIT Press. pp.307-330. (eds), M., Wheeler, & O. P.,Holland, Husbands, . Thomson pp. 1552-1555. Gale. 185 The Mechanical Mind in History in Mind Mechanical The oil Suis o Science of Studies Social Encyclopedia of Encyclopedia , ,

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