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Home , Roger Bacon

FROM THE JAMES LIND LIBRARY

Roger Bacon and the beginnings of experimental in Britain

Eric Sidebottom Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, OX1 3RE, UK Correspondence to: Eric Sidebottom. Email: [email protected]

DECLARATIONS Bacon is something of an enigma. He has I am puzzled that RW Southern’s biography of been called many things – ‘Britain’s first scientist’, Grosseteste does not mention ,2 des- Competing interests ‘wonderful doctor’, ‘conjurer’ and ‘magician’. pite the Preface in AC Crombie’s None declared Many of the details of his life are uncertain and and the origins of experimental science, published they have been discussed and argued about by half a century earlier, which states: ‘In the 13thC, Funding scholars for centuries. He is generally thought to the Oxford school, with Robert Grosseteste as its

None declared have been born in , Somerset, around founder, assumes a paramount importance: the 1214, although some authors have put his date work of this school in marks the beginning Ethical approval of birth as late as 1220. There is good evidence of the modern tradition of experimental science’.3 that he was in Paris in 1245 and 1251, but it is What is clear is that Roger Bacon was an Not applicable uncertain if he ever actually studied in Oxford. innovative thinker and a courageous scholar, not Contributorship If he did, he would have met Robert Grosseteste, afraid to challenge current beliefs about philoso- often described as Oxford University’s first phy, science and religion. His writings were exten- Sole author Chancellor (although his role is better described sive and have probably been more intensively Acknowledgements as ‘master of students’ (magister scholarium). studied than those of Grosseteste. I am indebted to Eva Bacon’s entry into the Franciscan order, plaus- It was possibly Bacon’s acquaintance with Guy Oledzka and Bruce ibly in 1257, is also conjectural; but it is clear that Foulquois, formerly a lawyer and military man Barker-Benfield, of his relationship with the Franciscan hierarchy who became a cardinal in 1261 and was, at times, rather stormy.1 He was openly crit- Clement IV in 1264, which stimulated Bacon’s the Bodleian Library, ical of some of their values and beliefs and it was most famous writings. Indeed, as Pope Clement, for their invaluable not surprising that they sometimes tried to Foulquois commanded Bacon to send, ‘as quickly help in locating, muzzle him. Again the details of his alleged as possible and in a fair hand’ his written translating and ‘imprisonment’ are unclear. works on , science and religion. There commenting on It is likely that Bacon spent the last years of his must have been some misunderstanding because manuscripts for me; life in the Franciscan House in Oxford, where he Bacon was asking the Pope at that time to bless to Gillian Lewis for died and was buried in 1292. his intention to write a comprehensive ‘encyclo- talking to me about paedia of current knowledge’. The Pope’s request provoked a flurry of activity on Bacon’s and science and Bacon’s writings part, which resulted in the completion of his directing my read- Opus maius in 1266. This was intended to be a ing; and to the Although Bacon is often celebrated as the first true summary (somewhat lengthy) of knowledge experimental scientist in Britain, this accolade about the natural world and was divided into Bodleian Library for may more properly be accorded to Robert seven parts: permission to use in Grosseteste (c 1170–1253). Grosseteste definitely the James Lind influenced Bacon and may well have taught (I) The causes of ignorance Library images from him. Although much is now known about (II) The relation of the to pages in the 15th Bacon’s extensive writings – and they are rightly (III) and the power of century manuscript admired for their scholarship and lucidity – it is (IV) , including and of Bacon’s Opus not clear how far they are original or the extent maius to which they were derived from contact with (V) (perspectiva) contemporary scholars such as Grosseteste, (VI) Experimental science , Thomas Wallensis and others. (VII) Moral philosophy

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Part VI of Bacon’s Opus maius – Experimental After dispatching his Opus maius to Rome, Bacon Science – contains the passages for which he is apparently worried that it may not have reached principally remembered. The various abbrevi- the Pope, or that it might have been too long for a ations used by scribes make it hard for non-med- busy Pope to read, and that it was incomplete. ievalists to recognize the key passages.4 Accordingly he rapidly wrote his Opus minus,to P 389 of the 15th Century Digby manuscript in summarise and supplement the Opus maius. This the Bodleian Library in Oxford states: was despatched by ‘special courier’ – a favourite pupil of Bacon’s named John. Bacon then worked Positis radicibus sapientiae Latinorum on his Opus tertium, a much expanded volume. penes Linguas et Mathematicam et Perspectivam, Unfortunately, the Pope died in 1268 without nunc volo revolvere radices a parte Scientiae apparently ever communicating his opinions on Experimentalis, quia sine experiential nihil suf- Bacon’s works. ficientia sciri potest [my emphasis] Having laid down fundamental principles of the Oxford’s celebrations wisdom of the so far as they are found in of Roger Bacon , mathematics, and optics, I now wish to unfold the principles of experimental science, since There are several visible reminders of Roger without nothing can be sufficiently Bacon’s link with Oxford in the 13th century. known. There are two ways of acquiring know- Around the corner from Roger Bacon Lane, there ledge, one through , the other by experiment. is a memorial plaque on the south wall of the Argument reaches a conclusion and compels us to Westgate Centre (nearly opposite the street-level admit it, but it neither makes us certain nor so entrance to the car park, and overlooking a litter- annihilates doubt that the mind rests calm in the strewn area of waste land). The plaque marks the intuition of truth, unless it finds this certitude site of Greyfriars Church, which stood there from by way of experience. Thus many have arguments about 1246 until 1538, when Franciscan houses toward attainable , but because they have were closed by Henry VIII. The inscription on not experienced them, they overlook them and nei- the plaque records in English and the ther avoid a harmful nor follow a beneficial course. life of one of ’s most distinguished Even if a man that has never seen fire, proves : by good reasoning that fire burns, and devours and destroys things, nevertheless the mind of one The great philosopher, Roger Bacon, known as the hearing his arguments would never be convinced, wonderful doctor who by the Experimental Method nor would he avoid fire until he puts his hand extended marvellously the realm of science, after a or some combustible thing into it in order to long life of untiring activity near this place, in the prove by experiment what the argument taught. home of his Franciscan brethren, fell asleep in But after the fact of combustion is experienced, Christ AD 1292. the mind is satisfied and lies calm in the cer- tainty of truth. Hence argument is not enough, Words from Bacon’s Opus maius are inscribed but experience is. above the entrance to the Daubeny Building of Oxford’s Botanic Garden: Bacon is making a point that brings to mind a passage in Ibn Sina’s Qanun, written two centuries Sine experientia nihil sufficienter sciri potest earlier, namely: [Without experiment nothing can be properly known] If it is said that some parts of medicine are theoret- ical and other parts are practical, this does not mean Finally, in the court of the University’s Museum of that one part teaches medicine and the other puts it Natural History, there is a statue of Roger Bacon into practice ...both parts of medicine are science, carved in Caen stone by Henry Hope Pinker. but one part is the science dealing with the prin- Bacon is depicted holding an astrolabe and calli- ciples of medicine, and the other with how to put pers – the former representing his scientific stu- those principles into practice.5 dies, the latter suggesting an aspiration to

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harmony. The statue was unveiled at a lavish cele- concentrate attention on things rather than bration in 1914, on the 700th anniversary of words. He led the way towards the conception of Bacon’s birth. The event was reported at length science as the inductive study of , based on in Nature.6 and tested by experiment. After the statue had been unveiled at the museum, eulogies were given (‘Bacon was the I wonder whether the 800th anniversary in 2014 most important phenomenon of the Middle will be celebrated in such style! Ages’ – Humboldt) and graciously accepted by the University Chancellor, Lord Curzon. A lunch References was then served at Merton College, at which Sir 1. Molland G. Bacon, Roger (c. 1214–1292), Oxford Dictionary of William Osler thanked visitors from the Vatican, National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. the French Academy, the Franciscans and Online edition, September 2010 University for their contributions. 2. Southern RW. Grosseteste, Robert (c.1170–1253), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Delegates were then offered the choice of going Press, 2004. Online edition, September 2010. See http:// either to the Sheldonian Theatre to hear a ezproxy.ouls.ox.ac.uk:2117/view/article/11665 (last Romanes Lecture on ‘Atomic Theory’ given by accessed 15 April 2013) Sir JJ Thompson; or to the Bodleian Library to 3. Crombie AC. Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental view an exhibition of Baconian books, manu- Science. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953 4. Bacon R. Opus maius. MS Digby 325, 15th century manu- scripts and prints. The celebration ended with a script. Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1266 [ con- garden party at Wadham College. sulted: Bridges JH, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1897 Sir Archibald Giekie – President of the Royal and Burke RB, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Society – summed up the rationale for such an Press, 1928] extensive celebration: 5. Ibn Sina (c. 1012 CE; c. 402 AH). Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb [’s The Canon of Medicine] 6. The commemoration of Roger Bacon at Oxford. Nature Dispensing with the futile disputational subtleties 1914;93:405–6 of the schoolmen of his day, [Bacon] strove to

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