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24 The Open Family Studies Journal, 2014, 6, (Suppl 1: M3) 24-30 Open Access Early-Fatherhood in White City, Jabavu, : A Time-Bound, Contextual Construct Naledi Selebano and Grace Khunou*

University of , Kingsway and University Rds, Auckland Park,

Abstract: While young mothers have enjoyed the interests of researchers and policy makers, young fathers’ experiences have only been examined recently. Through a thematic content analysis of interviews with six black young fathers from White City, Jabavu in Soweto, this article argues that early fatherhood should be understood through an examination of how it is lived in the social, political, cultural and economic contexts of particular communities. The data from this study indicate that there are strong ties between the young men’s experiences and the overall community values, history and culture where they experience fatherhood. The article concludes that for appropriate policies and strategies to be implemented where young fathers are concerned, more context specific research should be conducted. Keywords: Early fatherhood, socio-economic context, White City Jabavu, young fathers’ experiences.

INTRODUCTION presents contemporary South Africa with many challenges such as a high unemployment rate among black people. When public discourse and research refer to teenage Recent statistics show that the unemployment rate stands at pregnancy and early-parenthood, the dialogue typically 35.6% for black people, 22.3% for coloureds, and 11.7% for focuses on young women [1]. The South African Department Indians and Asians and only at 5.9% for white people [7]. of Education’s most recent analysis of teenage pregnancy examined teenage fathers and their attitudes towards early Socio-economic and political factors play a significant fatherhood [2]. The report indicates that the risk factors role in informing our understanding of fatherhood. In a associated with teenage pregnancy for young women are developing country such as South Africa, the social and similarly applicable to young men [2]. Findings [3] indicate economic elements are important to consider when defining the significant gap posed by the lack of research on young fatherhood [8]. Thus, the socio-historical context in which fathers as they face many negative educational, financial, the definition is provided should be considered and should social, health and other developmental consequences. The include issues of class, race and sexual orientation [9]. Some high teenage pregnancy rate and the high number of illegal cultures allow fathers to be active in the day to day rearing of abortions done out of fear by young girls clearly indicate that their children while others allow them to be passive and more interventions must take place for young men [4]. Such sometimes, absent. For example, the migrant labour system interventions will allow for more support from young men that was prevalent in apartheid South Africa compelled men facing the possibility of early-fatherhood. to leave their homes to work in the mines [5]. Consequently, father’s absence is acceptable in modern day South Africa. Interventions for young fathers will also begin to address Another legacy of the migrant labour system is defining the negative experiences [5] associated with early- fatherhood predominantly as an act of providing financial fatherhood. Even though this negativity led to a focus on support to the children [2]. Moreover, research demonstrates early-fatherhood depression, stress, dependency and reckless that compared to other groups, blacks are much more likely behaviour, a need also exists to look into the resilience that to be poorer and have pitiable access to healthcare, some of the young, poor fathers present. Scholars [5] also educational and psychosocial resources [10, 11]. found that some of the young men in their study had strong social networks but needed further societal support. By Again, ‘fatherhood’ has undergone a variety of changes contributing financially to the well-being of their children, throughout South African history. During pre-colonial times, young fathers find an affirmation of the self [5]. fathers were seen mainly as protectors and providers [12]. In these early contexts families and society in general feared Issues of affirmation of the self for black men in South and respected the father as the ultimate symbol of power [6]. Africa cannot be divorced from colonial and apartheid Fathers had to spend time with their children to exercise history and its negative effects on experiences of fatherhood authority over them. The father had also the responsibility to [6]. For example, the unequal distribution of resources across provide for the family and guide children by making different racial groups and genders during the apartheid era important decisions on their behalf such as when to get

married [6]. These roles were based on assumptions that

*Address correspondence to this author at the University of Johannesburg, fathers displayed particular qualities. These qualities include; Kingsway and University Rds, Auckland Park, South Africa; protecting, supervising, defending, supporting, educating and Tel: 011 559 3346; E-mail: [email protected] shielding from harm [13]. However, research rightly

1874-9224/14 2014 Bentham Open Early-Fatherhood in White City, Jabavu, Soweto The Open Family Studies Journal, 2014, Volume 6 25 maintains that fatherhood means different things in different programmes and arts and culture. It however, proved contexts and the definitions are also time-bound [9]. difficult to get all the participants from Ipelegeng, as only one participant from the youth centre agreed to participate in For example, little knowledge exists about processes the study. The other two identified from Ipelegeng refused leading to the age that young men enter into fatherhood. In a study with young men events that lead to involvement as they did not regard themselves as young fathers. One denied the paternity of the child while the other fatherhood prior to the age of 26 were identified as one lost the baby when it was two months old. No one else significant [14, 15]. The study revealed that most young from the youth centre fitted the selection criteria for the fathers engaged in sexual activities early in their lives, most study; as a result we used the snowballing selection method. often commencing at 14 years of age. However, another Snowballing refers to finding participants through referrals scholar [14] contends the difficulty of distinguishing an age cohort that comprises of young fathers because of the from other participants [18]. Furthermore, this type of sampling usually applies when the already sampled cases complexities associated with the concept of fatherhood itself. know others with similar characteristics. The one participant Similar to the definitions of fatherhood, ‘young-fatherhood’ from Ipelegeng and another one used for piloting referred also depends on the socio-cultural context within its more participants to us during the course of the study. definition. The appropriate ages selected for transitions to different social roles influence these decisions. Examples The interviews lasted for over an hour after which we include roles such as working, parenting and being marriage transcribed and analysed them using the thematic content compatible [14]. analysis [19]. The analysis went beyond emerging themes and we discussed it in a way that indicates the connections From the evidence provided by Pears et al. [14] and Jaffe and synthesis with already existing work on the topic [19]. et al. [15], we argue that viewing men through an We used pseudonyms to protect the identity and integrity of environmental focus best observe the transitions to early- fatherhood. Individual internal and external assets require the participants. Furthermore, the University of the non-medical ethics committee provided exploring as experiences differ from situation to situation ethical clearance for this study. [5]. In spite of the amount of resilience demonstrated by researchers [5], many studies show low academic Research Site: Contextualizing White City, Jabavu, performance and achievement, deviant behaviour at school, Soweto drug problems, and school dropout as the intrapersonal effects of early-fatherhood [3, 14, 15]. In qualitative research, understanding the social context in which people produce ideas and knowledge is important Despite these obstacles, research shows that young [18]. An apartheid separatist policy that sought to segregate fathers in South Africa hold a deep sense of responsibility black people and reserve the city for whites and mainly for towards their children [2]. However, in other cases, the economic activity gave birth to Soweto. As a consequence of young men simply show no interest and did not successfully the introduction of the White City area, a campaign to transit from boyhood to manhood [16]. When parents terminate the overcrowded, poverty-stricken and filthy highjack the father’s responsibilities young fathers become squatter camps resulted in the splitting of residents of Jabavu ‘almost absent’ as a result of feelings of inadequacy, internal across White City, Jabulani, Moletsane, Naledi, Senaoane conflict and fractioned transitions [2, 17]. This study used and Dlamini [20]. the qualitative research approach in establishing how young fathers cope with early-fatherhood in township contexts The township received the name White City because of where poverty and unemployment are a reality. A brief the concrete roofed ‘elephant houses’ that were initially discussion of the methods used for collecting the data painted white. The township is one of the most populated in presented in the findings section of this article is captured Soweto with more than two families at times occupying one below. yard or space ordinarily allocated for only one house. The houses are single, free standing structures, divided into three METHOD parts shared by three families in either two or three rooms and have electricity and clean running water [20, 21]. As a This study adopted the interpretive, which maintains that it cannot objectively study reality but rather the political, low-income community, working adults in White City, Jabavu hold various positions in the nearby city and the economic and social context that participants live and informal sector is growing. About 40% of the households do interact in the interpretive paradigm. This is central in the not have any means of generating income, while a daunting conduct of this study and what this article intends to 60% of the adult population is unemployed [21]. This socio- instantiate about young fathers from White City, Jabavu in economic scenario is a reality of many other townships Soweto. We used purposive and snowball sampling methods to recruit participants and chose it as a result of the already where the majority of black people reside. available knowledge of the population’s characteristics [18]. Interviewee Dynamics and Conceptions of Young We conducted in-depth interviews with six black men, Fatherhood between the ages of 18 and 25, and all were the residents of White City, Jabavu, Soweto. Two of the young men studied The first author in this article undertook the fieldwork at universities, while others worked ‘piece jobs’ in either that informs this paper. She is a young black woman from a supermarkets or tuck shops in and around their community. neighbouring township, who at the time of the study, was registered for a post graduate degree in Social Work. We recruited the initial participants from the Ipelegeng Although young and black, like the participants, the gender Youth Leadership Development Programme. Ipelegeng of the young woman influenced her role as a researcher in empowers young people through economic development 26 The Open Family Studies Journal, 2014, Volume 6 Selebano and Khunou many interesting ways particularly with regards to the the role. A father must be able to provide financially for the understanding of young fathers. child, guide the child and offer emotional support, featured as the most prominent ideas. The provider’s role is very During the course of this study, the fieldworker prominent in how we understand fatherhood. As indicated in developed a peculiar interest in the day to day discourses of the community about early-fatherhood. She found herself the literature, traditionally, conceptions of fatherhood were directly linked to the idea of father as the provider [23]. We interested in public discourse on young fatherhood wherever found the same to be true in other studies of father absence. she went. For example, she captured in her field diary, a For Tshepo, a self-supporting 24 year old young man, who conversation that she heard between an elderly woman and a worked at the airport and had a two year old son at the time pregnant school girl in a taxi. The woman was asking the girl of the interview, fatherhood meant the following: if the man who had impregnated her was still around “as after getting what they want, these young boys run away” “a father must be a good example to his child (Field notes, 20 July 2012). Although the girl said the father and be a good person. He must always be is there for her and is supportive, the woman warned her by there for the child, financially, emotionally suggesting that he would change for the worst and thus and be there physically” (interview, Tshepo, encouraged the girl to be ready for single-parenthood. This 17 August 2012). type of talk captures societal reality where even though, It is interesting how Tshepo spoke of these traits even “Africans are as pronuptial as Whites, both in a desire to though he is not allowed contact with his child. He claimed marry, and in the perceived advantages of marriage” [22], that the maternal family refused him contact and accused more African women are unmarried and are raising children him of denying the paternity of the child. These issues are in context of father absence. On the other hand, research on highly contentious in the South African fatherhood context. fatherhood and child support in Johannesburg [23] found that Literature indicates that in cases of denied paternity, conflict even though the idea of the absent uncaring father defined surrounds the role of the father [23]. In her paper on young public discourses of fatherhood, the situation of fathers was fatherhood and child support, Khunou [16] also indicates more complex. that the maternal family plays an important role in In agreement with Khunou’s [23] idea of multiple encouraging or discouraging active fatherhood. experiences of fatherhood, the fieldworker captured in her From Themba’s perspective, provision and love are field diary, cases where other members of the community significant in defining fatherhood. Themba loved his five were compassionate and sympathised with the young fathers. year old daughter dearly and perceived fatherhood An entry of the 2nd of August indicated that before an differently; even though it was difficult accepting the interview with one of the participants, his sister said: “at pregnancy of his ex-girlfriend. Themba now adores his child least their generation has become more responsible and is and says that she completes him. He was 23 years old and in more caring” (Field notes, 2 August 2012). Young fathers the third year of university, studying towards a B.com degree are not necessarily uncaring and passive, but they find it at the time of the interview. Themba said the following about difficult to support their children in all possible ways [5]. what it meant for him to be a father: These contradictions reflect exactly what Morrell [24] meant when he argued that men cannot be clustered into one rigid “you know, a father must be able to interact category. with the child, be there through thick and thin. Money is also important; children are FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION expensive so as a father you must ensure that We collected data for this article from six men, all fathers there are nappies, milk and everything. But to one child each, and only one experienced denied access to ultimately, the love is the most important his child. The first theme discussed in this section is on how factor because money won’t raise a child” fathers speak about love and provision as significant markers (Interview, Themba, 29 August 2012). of young fatherhood. Secondly, the section discusses how Themba’s explanation also highlights the fear that the observation of what one participant calls ‘good’ and accompanies the entry into fatherhood. This also suggests ‘bad’ fathers’ influences learning and therefore how young the constant negotiation of the idea of fatherhood and that fathers make meaning of fatherhood and what is expected comes with expectations and role changes. He also mentions from them. The third section looks at how denied access and the importance of money and speaks of a “child as the distance experienced by young fathers influences expensive”, thus foregrounding the ‘traditional’ notion that a experiences of less involved fathering. The final section father is a provider. In Khunou’s [16] discussion of money deals with the consequences of less involved fathering and and manhood, it was not acceptable when a woman took how it plays a role in signifying the notion of father as a over the financial responsibility in the relationship. provider in the lives of the young fathers. The themes Similarly, Themba carries the entire financial burden in discussed in this section illustrate the complexities in how raising the child; he sees it as his responsibility and not that the young fathers understand themselves and how others, in of the mother. This, then, makes his statements contradictory turn, understand them in their environment. – “money will not raise a child” – and does not fit in with his Love and Provision as Significant Conception of Early- signifying the provider role. Themba explains the prevalence Fatherhood of the element of love; he puts it as a cherry on top in that once you have dealt with the money in the provider role the In exploring the meanings attached to fatherhood, we father must not forget to love. In the case of many South asked participants to reflect on their own understanding of African men, the unemployment of the father challenges the Early-Fatherhood in White City, Jabavu, Soweto The Open Family Studies Journal, 2014, Volume 6 27 idea of a father as a provider [23]. In 2012, the fathers I could see that there was something unemployment rate of men in South Africa stood at 25.6% missing, the children got out of hand and some [7]. were very poor so I made up my mind that no this is what a real father should be doing” Neo, a 24 year old father of a two year old boy, at the time of the interview also confirmed financial provision as (interview, Neo, 28 July 2012). an important element of fatherhood, even though he made Neo’s argument highlights that he had no initiation into some reference to nurturing and caring. He said: fatherhood, but drew from his own experiences to know what roles fathers play. The significance in his earlier “He must provide financially. But also not just argument that a father should guide his children shows that someone who sets rules for his child but is also his friend. And when the child gets old you for him, children get out of control in the absence of a father. Studies of father’s absence signify the role of the father as must know that you are a brother to that child. guide. Neo’s conception links fatherhood with order and And your child shouldn’t feel intimidated by direction. Although Neo’s notions of the father as guide you” (interview, Neo, 28 July 2012). holds some truth other research cautions that single mothers Neo’s conception of fatherhood seems more like a do not necessarily raise naturally deviant children [25]. redefinition of what he once understood about the term. He Learning influences how the young fathers conceive their argues that fatherhood should not only be about exercising role as fathers. Tshepo learned about fatherhood through power over your children, but guiding them. This speaks observation of his social context, this is what he said: directly to Lesejane’s [6] explanation of a definition of fatherhood in the patriarchal context. He argues that in “ja it’s out there as well, people that are close patriarchy, a father is there to make decisions for the children to me, and as I was growing up there were and exercise authority over their lives. Fatherhood is also fathers around me that I saw. So I also learned associated with great responsibility. Swartz et al. [5] and from them” (interview, Tshepo, 17 August Khunou [12] argue that young fathers must take fatherhood 2012). seriously and not as a channel to prove their masculinity. For Tshepo attributed his understanding of fatherhood to Sipho, an unemployed 23 year old at the time of the what he saw around him. This added to his frustration of not interview, fatherhood meant: interacting with his child. He mentioned that a father should “...mmm... According to me? Is someone who set a good example but his denied access to his child takes is able to take his responsibility? Besides this away from him. On the other hand, Themba’s money I can mention love do you get me?” experiences were different, he learnt from having what he (Interview, Sipho, 2 August 2012) called ‘good’ and ‘bad’ uncles’. Uncles, according to Ratele Consistent with the existing literature, the present study [26], are significant as social fathers. Themba shared his experiences in the following way: shows how meanings of fatherhood still signify the longstanding paradigm of fathers as providers [2, 12]. “my father raised me well so I know that I owe However, given the growing economic challenges and high it to my children to do the same. I would also unemployment, more and more fathers are not working and say that I could see with my uncles (laughs) can thus expand their roles to nurture and care. Even though the good ones, they really loved their children literature also suggests that young fathers expressed a deep and did everything for them. But the bad ones sense of responsibility towards their children [5], this study were always in trouble, I remember my aunt indicates that unemployment and the hegemony of the dropping her child on the ‘stoep’ because my provider role act as barriers towards the fulfilment of uncle didn’t send money…I knew then that I fatherhood aspirations of love and care that some young wouldn’t want to raise my children like that” fathers hold. (interview, Themba, 29 August 2012). Observation of ‘Good’ and ‘Bad’ Fathers: How Social Themba’s witnessing makes a distinction between the Context Influence Young Fathers Conceptions of good and the bad fathers and draws memories of how the Fatherhood bad ones affected the children. This helped him to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours. While exploring influencing factors of the young men’s Literature also shows that because masculinities are learned, conceptions of fatherhood, it became evident that the social this indicates that social roles, including fatherhood, emerge context within which they grew up played a significant role from the attained masculine identity [27]. Hence, Themba in shaping these ideas. The participants referred to their own distinguished between responsible and irresponsible observations of fathers around them as well as their own masculinity and chose one based on the perceived fathers, highlighting that fatherhood is a learned social role. consequences. This, then, highlights the significance of the Consequently, understanding fatherhood must include socio- relationship between the person and the environment and economic factors, history, and culture [5, 8]. Neo’s ideas of how both become important in forging parenting roles for being a good father were influenced by his observations in young fathers. his community. His conception reiterates his idea of a father as guide; he shared this idea in the following way: Denied Access, Distance from the Child and Implications for Young Fathers Roles “I can say growing up I have seen fathers…well some fathers do all this, even my Most young fathers are unmarried and do not reside with own father. In families where there are no their children; as a result, this distance often impedes their 28 The Open Family Studies Journal, 2014, Volume 6 Selebano and Khunou ability to play the carer-nurturer role [5]. The mother then in frequent and intense interactions between fathers and their remains the primary caregiver while the father just shares children. These include: cognitive independence; improved these roles. Cultural expectations create another obstacle for academic achievement; positive socio-emotional young fathers in performing their fatherhood roles. The development; positive peer relations; and career success and maternal family often rejects and despises the young father a higher education expectation [28, 29]. These are however due to the negative meanings of teenage pregnancy for their only possible when the father holds healthy notions of what daughters [23]. This ultimately prevents any form of contact it means to be a man and a father. with the child. For example, at the time of the interview, Tshepo experienced refusal of interaction with his child and Fulfilling the Provider Role: Young Fatherhood not only negative for Young Fathers only had pictures of him on his phone. He expressed this separation thus: For this study not all participants had left school or had “Her family doesn’t want me and she likes bad low paying jobs. Instead, early-fatherhood influenced some mouthing me to them, telling them that I’m a of the young men to work harder in order to provide for their player and a bad boy. That has hindered me children and set good examples for them. This is not fully from seeing my child. And they are insisting consistent with literature that suggests that young fathers are that I denied the paternity of the child” usually from poor backgrounds and therefore do not provide (interview, Tshepo, 17 August 2012). for their children [17]. Denied access to the child for non-resident young fathers For example, Neo worked as a lecturer at the local leads to serious challenges for these fathers. Mothers also college and studied for a B.Com Marketing degree part time. quote this factor when they experience conflict with the He shared that he worked hard so that he can provide his son fathers; the child is caught in between. For Kgomotso the with the life that he never had. However, for Kgomotso the following indicates how he spent time with his child: situation was different, he left school in order for him to provide for his child, this is what he said about his “ja he lives with his mom, during weekends experiences: there are some things that I do to get some money. But during the week I make sure that I “Actually I didn’t finish school, I stopped at go see him. He is very young so I can’t play grade 11, that’s where I stopped so that I can with him. I just hold him and kiss him…ja” go to college, at high school I should have (interview, Kgomotso, 20 July 2012). finished it last year, but I couldn’t finish because my girlfriend fell pregnant. I couldn’t Mothers, deemed as primary caregivers, bear the continue, I mean she had to drop out too so I responsibility of rearing their children. Fathers, and joined her since no one could be there to especially unmarried young fathers, are expected to visit provide for the baby” (interview, Kgomotso, their children and do not live with them. Hence, despite 20 July 2012). needing prolonged interaction, young fathers cannot attain it because of their predetermined role in child rearing [2]. The above experience is consistent with research that Sipho’s experiences were somewhat different; although he suggests that to fulfil the provider role; many young fathers did not live with his child he interacted with him daily. leave school to find employment to support their children However, the decision to do so was left entirely up to him [17]. Kgomotso’s job basically only puts food on the table and was not seen as a prerequisite, Sipho said: since it does not pay much. The following indicates his sense of the job; “Almost each and every day, sometimes he spends some time at my house, if not I go to “My mom has a tuck-shop at Randfontein, so I the mother’s house” (Sipho, interview, 2 go there and help her out. She doesn’t pay me August 2012). much, it only all depends on how business was on that day. yea like that” (interview, Although distance is not a challenge for Sipho, and Kgomotso, 20 July 2012). therefore he can be present whilst not staying with his child, this is not the norm for other young fathers. For example, Working for so little pay, seemed like the only option for Karabo could not interact frequently with his child due to Kgomotso to fulfil the provider role. Again the fact that he distance, he said that: left school might in the long run have negative consequences for his child, especially given the high unemployment “It’s hard spending time with him because they challenges in South Africa. Although Kgomotso’s case live far, but I ensure that I see him at least twice illustrates that young fathers might need to leave school to in a week, depending on whether I’m working or find work, this is not true for all young fathers. For example, not” (interview, Karabo, 22 June 2012). Themba comes from a family of four; his mother was an Literature indicates that young fathers find having long educator and his father a doctor at a public hospital in and meaningful interactions difficult because of the Soweto. He was well groomed, well dressed and his parents geographical distance between them [2]. This then results in sponsored his tertiary studies. He became a father in grade frustrations for the young men as they cannot fully enact the 12 and even though he took a break from studying, he nurturing and caring roles that they desire. Although there is enrolled for a B.Com degree, completing his final year at the little information available about the effects of young time of the interview. Therefore, Neo and Themba fall fathers’ involvement in the rearing practices of their outside the category of risk of low income jobs or children, literature highlights a number of benefits that result Early-Fatherhood in White City, Jabavu, Soweto The Open Family Studies Journal, 2014, Volume 6 29 unemployment at the age of 30 as suggested in some [2] Panday S, Makiwane M, Rancho C, Letsoalo T. Teenage literature [30]. pregnancy in South Africa: with a specific focus to school-going learners. South Africa: National Department of Education 2009. Although young fathers deem both nurturing and material [3] Thornberry TP, Wei ER, Stouthamer-Loeber M, Van Dyke J. provision important, the need to provide financially often Teenage fatherhood and delinquent behaviour. United States of America: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention overrides caring as this role is associates with manhood and 2000. adulthood. This confirms what other studies show; [4] Smith PJD. Social work interventions for unmarried teenage Madhaven et al. [31] argues that fatherhood largely depends fathers. Doctoral [dissertation]. South Africa: University of on access to resources. Khunou [12] also echoes this when Stellenbosch 2006. she suggests that it is often middle class men who have no [5] Swartz S, Bhana A. Teenage Tata: voices of young fathers in South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press 2009. trouble enacting both the provider and carer role and which [6] Lesejane D. Fatherhood from an African cultural perspective. In: poorer fathers only aspire to. Richter L, Morell R, Eds. Baba: Men and Fatherhood in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press 2006. CONCLUSION [7] Statistics South Africa. Mid-year population estimates 2012. [Cited 2012]. Available from: www.statssa.gov.za Understanding early-fatherhood without unravelling the [8] Morrell R. Fathers, fatherhood and masculinity in South Africa. In: very factors that complicate it is a challenge. These factors Ritchter L, Morell R, Eds. Baba: Men and Fatherhood in South are found in how the young fathers comprehend their Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press 2006. experiences and the social, cultural, economic and political [9] Peters HE, Peterson GW, Stenmetz SK, Day RD. Fatherhood: research, interventions and policies. New York: The Haworth Press factors specific to time and space that inform those Inc 2000. experiences. This article argues that full comprehension of [10] Coovadia H, Jewkes P, Sanders BD, McIntyre D. The health and early-fatherhood is impossible without an understanding of health system of South Africa: Historical roots of current public how the person interacts with their environment and vice health challenges. Lancet 2009; 374: 817-34. versa. [11] Burns JK. The mental health gap in South Africa -A human rights issue. Equal Rights Rev 2011; 6: 99-113. The young men in this study clearly illustrated how they [12] Khunou G. Fathers don’t stand a chance: experiences of custody, acquired their assumptions of what fatherhood means access and maintenance. In: Ritchter L, Morell R, Eds. Baba: Men and Fatherhood in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press 2006b. through general interactions in their community as well as [13] Bradley EA. Fatherhood: the role of a father. USA: Tate Publishing the past experiences with other men in their community and & Enterprises, CCC 2009. families. This in a nutshell shows, how and what was [14] Pears KE, Pierce SL, Kim, HK, et al. The timing of entry into available to the young fathers in their particular context, fatherhood in young, at risk men. J Marriage Family 2005; 62: 429- 47. what helped shaping their beliefs and consequently how they [15] Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, et al. 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Received: July 25, 2014 Revised: October 13, 2014 Accepted: October 30, 2014

© Selebano and Khunou; Licensee Bentham Open.

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