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Register Set Accumulators Data Registers

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Register Set Accumulators Data Registers register set Registers are fast memory, almost always connected to circuitry that allows various arithmetic, logical, control, and other manipulations, as well as possibly setting internal flags. Most early computers had only one data register that could be used for arithmetic and logic instructions. Often there would be additional special purpose registers set aside either for temporary fast internal storage or assigned to logic circuits to implement certain instructions. Some early computers had one or two address registers that pointed to a memory location for memory accesses (a pair of address registers typically would act as source and destination pointers for memory operations). Computers soon had multiple data registers, address registers, and sometimes other special purpose registers. Some computers have general purpose registers that can be used for both data and address operations. Every digital computer using a von Neumann architecture has a register (called the program counter) that points to the next executable instruction. Many computers have additional control registers for implementing various control capabilities. Often some or all of the internal flags are combined into a flag or status register. accumulators Accumulators are registers that can be used for arithmetic, logical, shift, rotate, or other similar operations. The first computers typically only had one accumulator. Many times there were related special purpose registers that contained the source data for an accumulator. Accumulators were replaced with data registers and general purpose registers. Accumulators reappeared in the first microprocessors. • Intel 8086/80286: one word (16 bit) accumulator; named AX (high order byte of the AX register is named AH and low order byte of the AX register is named AL) • Intel 80386: one doubleword (32 bit) accumulator; named EAX (low order word uses the same names as the accumulator on the Intel 8086 and 80286 [AX] and low order and high order bytes of the low order words of four of the registers use the same names as the accumulator on the Intel 8086 and 80286 [AH and AL]) • MIX: one accumulator; named A-register; five bytes plus sign data registers Data registers are used for temporary scratch storage of data, as well as for data manipulations (arithmetic, logic, etc.). In some processors, all data registers act in the same manner, while in other processors different operations are performed are specific registers. • MIX: one extension register; named X-register; five bytes plus sign; can be concatenated on the right hand side of the A-register (accumulator) • Motorola 680x0, 68300: 8 longword (32 bit) data registers; named D0, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, and D7 Assembly Language - 1 address registers Address registers store the addresses of specific memory locations. Often many integer and logic operations can be performed on address registers directly (to allow for computation of addresses). Sometimes the contents of address register(s) are combined with other special purpose registers to compute the actual physical address. This allows for the hardware implementation of dynamic memory pages, virtual memory, and protected memory. The number of bits of an address register (possibly combined with information from other registers) limits the maximum amount of addressable memory. A 16-bit address register can address 64K of physical memory. A 24-bit address register can address address 16 MB of physical memory. A 32-bit address register can address 4 GB of physical memory. A 64-bit address register can address 1.8446744 x 1019 of physical memory. Addresses are always unsigned binary numbers. See number of bits. • MIX: one jump registers; named J-register; two bytes and sign is always positive • Motorola 680x0, 68300: 8 longword (32 bit) address registers; named A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, and A7 (also called the stack pointer) general purpose registers General purpose registers can be used as either data or address registers. • DEC VAX: 16 word (32 bit) general purpose registers; named R0 through R15 • IBM 360/370: 16 full word (32 bit) general purpose registers; named 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A (or 10), B (or 11), C (or 12), D (or 13), E (or 14), and F (or 15) • Intel 8086/80286: 8 word (16 bit) general purpose registers; named AX, BX, CX, DX, BP, SP, SI, and DI (high order bytes of the AX, BX, CX, and DX registers have the names AH, BH, CH, and DH and low order bytes of the AX, BX, CX, and DX registers have the names AL, BL, CL, and DL) • Intel 80386: 8 doubleword (32 bit) general purpose registers; named EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, EBP, ESP, ESI, and EDI (low order words use the same names as the general purpose registers on the Intel 8086 and 80286 and low order and high order bytes of the low order words of four of the registers use the same names as the general purpose registers on the Intel 8086 and 80286) • Motorola 88100: 32 word (32 bit) general purpose registers; named r0 through r31 constant registers Constant registers are special read-only registers that store a constant. Attempts to write to a constant register are illegal or ignored. In some RISC processors, constant registers are used to store commonly used values (such as zero, one, or negative one) — for example, a constant register containing zero can be used in register to register data moves, providing the equivalent of a clear instruction without adding one to the instruction set. Constant registers Assembly Language - 2 are also often used in floating point units to provide such value as pi or e with additional hidden bits for greater accuracy in computations. • Motorola 88100: r0 (general purpose register 0) contains the constant 32 bit integer zero floating point registers Floating point registers are special registers set aside for floating point math. index registers Index registers are used to provide more flexibility in addressing modes, allowing the programmer to create a memory address by combining the contents of an address register with the contents of an index register (with displacements, increments, decrements, and other options). In some processors, there are specific index registers (or just one index register) that can only be used only for that purpose. In some processors, any data register, address register, or general register (or some combination of the three) can be used as an index register. • IBM 360/370: any of the 16 general purpose registers may be used as an index register • Intel 80x86: 7 of the 8 general purpose registers may be used as an index register (the ESP is the exception) • MIX: five index registers; named I-registers I1, I2, I3, I4, and I5; five bytes plus sign • Motorola 680x0, 68300: any of the 8 data registers or the 8 address registers may be used as an index register base registers Base registers or segment registers are used to segment memory. Effective addresses are computed by adding the contents of the base or segment register to the rest of the effective address computation. In some processors, any register can serve as a base register. In some processors, there are specific base or segment registers (one or more) that can only be used for that purpose. In some processors with multiple base or segment registers, each base or segment register is used for different kinds of memory accesses (such as a segment register for data accesses and a different segment register for program accesses). • IBM 360/370: any of the 16 general purpose registers may be used as a base register • Intel 80x86: 6 dedicated segment registers: CS (code segment), SS (stack segment), DS (data segment), ES (extra segment, a second data segment register), FS (third data segment register), and GS (fourth data segment register) • Motorola 680x0, 68300: any of the 8 address registers may be used as a base register Assembly Language - 3 control registers Control registers control some aspect of processor operation. The most universal control register is the program counter. program counter Almost every digital computer ever made uses a program counter. The program counter points to the memory location that stores the next executable instruction. Branching is implemented by making changes to the program counter. Some processor designs allow software to directly change the program counter, but usually software only indirectly changes the program counter (for example, a JUMP instruction will insert the operand into the program counter). An assembler has a location counter, which is an internal pointer to the address (first byte) of the next location in storage (for instructions, data areas, constants, etc.) while the source code is being converted into object code. The VAX uses the 16th of 16 general purpose registers as the program counter (PC). Almost the entire instruction set can directly manipulate the program counter, allowing a very rich set of possible kinds of branching. The program counter in System/360 and 370 machines is contained in bits 40-63 of the program status word (PSW), which is directly accessible by some instructions. • IBM 360/370: program counter is bits 40-63 of the program status word (PSW) • Intel 8086/80286: 16-bit instruction pointer (IP) • Intel 80386: 32-bit instruction pointer (EIP) • Motorola 680x0, 68300: 32-bit program counter (PC) processor flags Processor flags store information about specific processor functions. The processor flags are usually kept in a flag register or a general status register. This can include result flags that record the results of certain kinds of testing, information about data that is moved, certain kinds of information about the results of compations or transformations, and information about some processor states. Closely related and often stored in the same processor word or status register (although often in a privileged portion) are control flags that control processor actions or processor states or the actions of certain instructions.
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