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Plant Diversity BIOL 221

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Plant Diversity BIOL 221 Ch. 29 Plant Diversity BIOL 221 Overview: The Greening of Earth • First 3 billion years of Earth’s history • The terrestrial surface was lifeless • Since colonizing land • plants have diversified into roughly 290,000 living species Land plants evolved from green algae • Green algae called charophytes • are the closest relaves of land plants • Comparisons of both nuclear and chloroplast genes • point to charophytes as the closest living relaves of land plants Red algae ANCESTRAL Viridiplantae • Note ALGA Chlorophytes • that land plants are not Streptophyta Charophytes descended from modern charophytes Plantae Embryophytes • but share a common ancestor with modern charophytes 1 Morphological and Molecular Evidence • Many characterisIcs of land plants • also appear in a variety of algal clades • land plants share four key traits only with charophytes: 1. Rose-shaped complexes for cellulose synthesis 2. Peroxisome enzymes 3. Structure of flagellated sperm 4. Formaon of a phragmoplast Adapta@ons Enabling the Move to Land • Sporopollenin • In charophytes • polymer that prevents exposed zygotes from drying out • Movement onto land • Provided: unfiltered sun, more plenful CO2, nutrient-rich soil, and few (any?) herbivores or pathogens • Challenges: a scarcity of water and lack of structural support Morphological and Molecular Evidence • The accumulaon of traits that facilitated survival on land • may have opened way to colonizaon by plants • Systemasts debang the boundaries of the plant kingdom • Some think the plant kingdom should be expanded • to include some or all green algae • UnIl resoluIon • we will retain the embryophyte definiIon of kingdom Plantae Red algae ANCESTRAL Viridiplantae ALGA Chlorophytes Streptophyta Charophytes Plantae Embryophytes 2 Derived Traits of Plants • Four key traits appear in nearly all land plants • but are absent in the charophytes: 1. Alternaon of generaons • with mulIcellular, dependent embryos 2. Walled spores produced in sporangia 3. MulIcellular gametangia 4. Apical meristems Derived Traits of Plants • alternaon of generaons Gametophyte Gamete from (n) another plant Mitosis Mitosis n • Plants alternate between two stages n n n • Gametophyte - haploid Spore Gamete • produces haploid gametes by mitosis MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION • Sporophyte – diploid 2n Zygote • from fusion of the gametes Mitosis • produces haploid spores by meiosis Sporophyte (2n) • diploid embryo (zygote) Alternation of generations • retained within female gametophyte (haploid) • placental transfer cells Embryo • Transfer nutrients from parent to embryo 2 µm Maternal tissue • Extra surface area for exchange • Embryophytes Wall ingrowths 10 µm Placental transfer cell • Land plants because of the dependency of the (outlined in blue) Embryo (LM) and placental transfer cell (TEM) embryo on the parent of Marchantia (a liverwort) Walled Spores Produced in Sporangia • Sporangia • Organ on sporophyte that produces spores Spores Sporangium • Sporocytes • Diploid cells in sporangia Longitudinal section of Sphagnum sporangium (LM) • undergo meiosis Sporophyte to generate Gametophyte haploid spores Sporophytes and sporangia of Sphagnum (a moss) • contain sporopollenin 3 Mul@cellular Gametangia • Gametangia • Produce gametes • Archegonia Archegonium Female gametophyte with egg • Female gametangia • produce eggs and Antheridium are the site of with sperm ferIlizaon Male • Antheridia gametophyte Archegonia and antheridia of Marchantia (a liverwort) • Male gametangia • site of sperm producIon and release Apical Meristems • Apical meristems • Used by plants to sustain conInual growth • Cells differenIate into various Issues Apical Developing Apical meristems meristem leaves of shoot Apical meristem Shoot 100 µm of root Root 100 µm The Origin and Diversificaon of Plants • Fossil evidence • indicates that plants were on land • at least 475 million years ago • Fossilized spores and Issues • have been extracted from 475-million-year-old rocks (a) Fossilized spores (b) Fossilized sporophyte tissue 4 The Origin and Diversificaon of Plants • Land plants can be informally grouped 1 Origin of land plants (about 475 mya) 2 Origin of vascular plants (about 420 mya) 3 Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya) (bryophytes) plants Nonvascular • Based on the presence or Land plants Liverworts absence of vascular ANCES- 1 Hornworts TRAL GREEN ssue ALGA Mosses Vascular plants Vascular Lycophytes (club mosses, plants vascular Seedless • Vascular plants spike mosses, quillworts) 2 Pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns) Seed plants • Have vascular Gymnosperms 3 ssue Angiosperms 500 450 400 350 300 50 0 • Most plants Millions of years ago (mya) • Bryophytes • Nonvascular plants The Origin and Diversificaon of Plants • Seedless vascular plants • Can be divided into clades – Lycophytes – club mosses and their relaves – Pterophytes – ferns and their 1 Origin of land plants (about 475 mya) 2 Origin of vascular plants (about 420 mya) (bryophytes) plants Nonvascular relaves 3 Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya) plants Land Liverworts ANCES- 1 Hornworts TRAL – Seedless vascular plants are GREEN ALGA Mosses Vascular plants Vascular paraphyleIc Lycophytes (club mosses, plants vascular Seedless spike mosses, quillworts) 2 Pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns) – And are of the same level of Seed plants Gymnosperms 3 biological organizaon Angiosperms 500 450 400 350 300 50 0 Millions of years ago (mya) The Origin and Diversificaon of Plants • Seed • an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protecIve coat • Seed plants form a clade • and can be divided into further clades: 1 Origin of land plants (about 475 mya) – Gymnosperms 2 Origin of vascular plants (about 420 mya) (bryophytes) plants Nonvascular 3 Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya) plants Land Liverworts “ ” ANCES- 1 Hornworts – naked seed plants, TRAL GREEN including the conifers ALGA Mosses Vascular plants Vascular Lycophytes (club mosses, plants vascular Seedless spike mosses, quillworts) 2 Pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns) – Angiosperms Seed plants Gymnosperms 3 Angiosperms – flowering plants 500 450 400 350 300 50 0 Millions of years ago (mya) 5 Bryophyte life cycles dominated by gametophytes • Bryophytes • represented today by three phyla of small herbaceous (nonwoody) plants – Liverworts, phylum Hepatophyta – Hornworts, phylum Anthocerophyta – Mosses, phylum Bryophyta • Mosses are most closely related to vascular plants Bryophyte Gametophytes • In all three bryophyte phyla • gametophytes are larger and longer-living than sporophytes • Sporophytes • typically present only part of the Ime Fig. 29-8-1 “Bud” Male Key gametophyte Haploid (n) (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Spores Gametophore Spore Female dispersal gametophyte (n) Rhizoid Peristome Sporangium MEIOSIS Seta Mature Capsule sporophytes (sporangium) Foot 2 mm Capsule with Female peristome (SEM) gametophytes 6 Fig. 29-8-2 Raindrop Sperm “Bud” Antheridia Male Key gametophyte Haploid (n) (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Egg Spores Gametophore Archegonia Spore Female dispersal gametophyte (n) Rhizoid Peristome Sporangium FERTILIZATION MEIOSIS Seta (within archegonium) Mature Capsule sporophytes (sporangium) Foot 2 mm Capsule with Female peristome (SEM) gametophytes Fig. 29-8-3 Raindrop Sperm “Bud” Antheridia Male Key gametophyte Haploid (n) (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Egg Spores Gametophore Archegonia Spore Female dispersal gametophyte (n) Rhizoid Peristome Sporangium FERTILIZATION MEIOSIS Seta (within archegonium) Zygote Capsule Mature (2n) sporophytes (sporangium) Foot Embryo Archegonium Young sporophyte 2 mm (2n) Capsule with Female peristome (SEM) gametophytes Bryophyte Gametophytes • A spore germinates into a gametophyte • composed of a protonema and gamete-producing gametophore • Rhizoids • Anchor gametophytes to substrate • Lack of vascular Issues restricts the height of gametophytes 7 Bryophyte Gametophytes Raindrop • Mature gametophytes Sperm “Bud” Antheridia Male Key gametophyte • produce flagellated Haploid (n) (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) sperm in antheridia and “Bud” Egg Spores Gametophore Archegonia an egg in each Spore Female dispersal gametophyte (n) Rhizoid archegonium Peristome Sporangium FERTILIZATION MEIOSIS Seta (within archegonium) Zygote • Sperm swim through a film Capsule Mature (2n) sporophytes (sporangium) of water to reach and Foot Embryo Archegonium ferIlize the egg Young sporophyte 2 mm (2n) Capsule with Female peristome (SEM) gametophytes Bryophyte Sporophytes Raindrop • Bryophyte sporophytes Sperm “Bud” Antheridia Key Male gametophyte Haploid (n) (n) • grow out of archegonia Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Egg Spores Gametophore • smallest and simplest Spore Female Archegonia dispersal gametophyte (n) Rhizoid sporophytes Peristome Sporangium FERTILIZATION MEIOSIS Seta (within archegonium) Capsule Zygote Mature (2n) sporophytes (sporangium) Foot Embryo • of all extant plant groups Archegonium Young sporophyte 2 mm Capsule with Female (2n) • consists of a foot, a seta (stalk), and peristome (SEM) gametophytes a sporangium, Gametophore of Thallus female gametophyte Sporophyte • also called a capsule Foot • which discharges spores Seta through a peristome Capsule (sporangium) Marchantia polymorpha, a “thalloid” liverwort • Hornwort and moss sporophytes have m µ Marchantia sporophyte (LM) stomata for gas exchange 500 Plagiochila deltoidea, a “leafy” liverwort An Anthoceros hornwort species Sporophyte Polytrichum commune, hairy-cap moss Sporophyte Capsule (a sturdy plant that
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