A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Ede Language Communities of Benin and Togo

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2011-002

A sociolinguistic survey of the Ede language communities of Benin and Togo

Angela Kluge, editor A sociolinguistic survey of the Ede language communities of Benin and Togo

Angela Kluge, editor

SIL International® 2011

A SOCIOLINGUISTIC SURVEY OF THE EDE LANGUAGE COMMUNITIES

BENIN AND TOGO

Series editor: Angela Kluge

Ede language family overview (by Angela Kluge, editor) Volume 1: Ede language family – Background and assessment methodology (by Angela Kluge) Volume 2: Cabe language area (by Angela Kluge) Volume 3: Ica language area (by Angela Kluge) Volume 4: Idaca language area (by Angela Kluge) Volume 5: Ije language area (by Jeff H. Schmidt) Volume 6: Kura language area (by Jude A. Durieux, Eveline I. K. Durieux-Boon, and Angela Kluge) Volume 7: Northern Nago language area (by Jude A. Durieux, Eveline I. K. Durieux- Boon, and Angela Kluge Volume 8: Southern Nago language area (by Michael M. McHenry)

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Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to present a tentative classification of the Ede language varieties (Defoid language group), spoken in the southeastern part of West Africa. Further, given the chaining pattern of the Ede cluster, this paper discusses whether the individual Ede speech varieties should be regarded and classified as dialects of one larger language or as closely related but distinct languages. To date no satisfying solution is available. Further, this paper serves as an introduction to the 8-volume series “A sociolinguistic survey of the Ede language communities of Benin and Togo, represented in a series of reports published in SIL Electronic Survey Reports. Volume 1 of this series, Ede language family: Background and assessment methodology (Kluge 2009), presents pertinent material on the larger Ede language area and discusses the research questions and methodology applied for the sociolinguistic study of the Ede language continuum, material that would otherwise be repetitive in each of the other volumes. Volumes 2–8 report on the individual sociolinguistic surveys conducted among the Cabe speech communities (Kluge 2009), Ica, (Kluge 2009), Idaca (Kluge 2009), Ije (Jeff Schmidt 2009), Kura (Durieux, Durieux-Boon and Kluge 2009), Northern Nago (Durieux, Durieux-Boon and Kluge 2009), and Southern Nago (Michael McHenry 2009). iv

Contents

Ede language family overview Volume 1: Ede language family—Background and assessment methodology 1. Background information 1.1. Language classification 1.2. Language area 1.3. History of migration 1.4. Population 1.5. Education 1.6. Religious affiliation 1.7. Language development 1.7.1. Yoruba in Benin 1.7.2. Ifè in Togo 2. Previous research 3. Research questions 4. Methodology 4.1. Techniques 4.1.1. Community interviews 4.1.2. Individual interviews 4.1.3. Word and phrase lists 4.2. Implementation 4.3. Selection of survey locations, and survey subjects, and interpreters 4.3.1. Survey locations 4.3.2. Subject selection 4.3.3. Selection and training of interpreters 4.4. Terminology 4.4.1. “Yoruba” 4.4.2. “Ifè” Appendices Appendix A. Language maps for Benin and Togo Appendix B. Alternative spellings of Ede variety names Appendix C. Terminology C.1. Yoruba C.2. Nago C.3. Anago C.4. Ana Appendix D. Written materials in Yoruba Appendix E. Questionnaires E.1. Community questionnaire E.2. RTT questionnaire E.3. Individual sociolinguistic questionnaire E.4. Non-formal education questionnaire E.5. Church questionnaire Appendix F. RTT text preparation F.1. Rationale v

F.2. Test preparation F.3. Scoring procedure Appendix G. Ede RTT texts: Transcription, interlinear translation, comprehension questions, and baseline answers G.1. Yoruba G.2. Ifè narrative Appendix H. RTT baseline scoring system H.1. Yoruba H.2. Ifè narrative Appendix I. Ede word and phrase lists: Background information I.1. Elicitation points I.2. Details on elicited lists Appendix J. Ede wordlist: French glosses Appendix K. Ede wordlists: Categories for similarity groupings Appendix L. Ede wordlists: Elicited data sorted by gloss Appendix M. Ede wordlists: Percentage and variance matrices for lexical similarity M.1. Computation I M.2. Computation II Appendix N. Ede phrase list: French phrases Appendix O Ede phrase lists: Elicited data sorted by gloss References vi

Ede language family overview

The Ede language varieties belong to the group of Edekiri languages (Defoid language family) from the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo phylum. These varieties are spoken in the southeastern part of West Africa. Expanding westward from southwestern Nigeria, the Ede speech communities occupy large areas of central Benin, as well as two pockets in the eastern part of central Togo. In his discussion and classification of the Defoid languages, Capo (1989) presents an inventory of all the languages of this language family, as well as a general summary of phonological characteristics of Defoid. Building on Akinkugbe’s (1978) and Williamson’s (1989) work, and based on personal fieldnotes, Capo (1989:281) suggests the classification of the Defoid languages into two major branches, one of which is Yoruboid which comprises two language groupings, Edekiri and Igala. Edekiri in turn is comprised of the Ede and the Isekiri groups. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, (New) Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid 1. Edekiri (Yoruba/Isekiri) a) Ede (Yoruba) b) Isekiri / South East Ede 2. Igala Capo (1989) further divides the internal classification of the Ede varieties into four clusters, that is, Central Ede, Northeast Ede, Northwest Ede, and Southwest Ede. A more recent classification of the Ede varieties is suggested by Kluge (2007). This classification is based on a synchronic analysis of word lists elicited in the early 1990s for 28 Ede varieties. The findings of Kluge’s (2007) analysis suggest a grouping of the Ede varieties into three larger clusters, that is, Western, Eastern, and Northern Ede, with two subclusters each for the Northern and Eastern Ede clusters. The classification of Ede language varieties drawn from Kluge’s (2007) synchronic analysis is only to a certain degree comparable to Capo’s (1989) classification, which is due to two facts. First, Capo’s (279–281) classification includes only a selection of the varieties mentioned in his preliminary listing of Ede varieties, while the classification of the remaining varieties is somewhat uncertain. Second, Capo’s study considers a number of Nigerian Ede varieties that were not included in Kluge’s analysis. Thus, while Capo’s classification provides a more detailed picture for the Nigerian Ede varieties, Kluge’s synchronic analysis provides a more detailed classification for the Ede varieties of Togo and Benin. That is, Capo distinguishes for the Nigerian Ede varieties between three major clusters, that is, Northwest, Central, and Northeast Ede, while Kluge’s (2007) findings identify all of these varieties as components of a Southeastern Ede cluster. In contrast, Capo classifies all of the Ede varieties of Togo and Benin as Southwest Ede, while Kluge makes further distinctions between Northwestern, Southwestern, Northeastern, and Southeastern Ede. In addition, Kluge suggests a third major subgrouping, Northern Ede, consisting of the Mokole variety only. Neither Capo’s (1989) nor Kluge’s (2007) classification, however, is based on a thorough diachronic analysis. Therefore, both need to be regarded with some reservation. With that caveat, Capo’s and Kluge’s classifications with their differing foci constitute a complementary picture of vii the entire Ede language family. The accompanying map displays the geographical locations of the Ede varieties taken from both Capo and Kluge. The clustering is from Kluge’s synchronic lexical analysis. Figure 1: Map of the Ede language area (adapted from Capo 1989; based on Microsoft Corporation 2002)

Mokole

Kura_A Kura-P

Ana Nago(N)_M Cabe_S Nago(N)_K Yagba Ica Cabe_T Egbe Bunu Moretan Oshun Ibolo Gbede Igbomina Ijumu Oworo Ifè-T Oyo Boko Ifaki Owe Idaca Ijesha Ifè-At Ifè-Ak Ukare Oka Yoruba-I Ile-Ife Nago(S)_K Ekiti Egba Owo Oba Nago(S)_P Ondo Ije Ije Ijebu Ikale

Yoruba-P Awori Ilaje

Legend Western Ede Eastern Ede Northern Ede Southwestern Ede Southeastern Ede

Northwestern Ede Northeastern Ede

Ede varieties mentioned by Capo (1989), but not investigated in the 1990s studies

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The Ede speech groups are situated geographically in a contiguous arrangement from the southwestern corner of Nigeria across southeastern and central Benin into the eastern part of central Togo. This arrangement suggests a chaining pattern for the Ede cluster in which the individual Ede speech groups have contact relationships with the other Ede groups surrounding them which results in the linguistic similarity of adjoining groups. This suggestion is confirmed by a first descriptive analysis of the computed Ede similarity matrices (see Appendix M): overall, the investigated Ede speech forms are marked by relatively small lexical differences between adjoining dialects whereas differences are greater between Ede varieties at opposing ends of the chain. The chaining pattern of the Ede cluster raises the question of whether the individual Ede speech varieties should be regarded and classified as dialects of one larger language or as closely related but distinct languages. In general, both linguistic and nonlinguistic factors need to be taken into account when considering whether different speech communities are distinct languages or dialects of the same language. As Hymes (1974:123) points out, “what counts as a language boundary cannot be defined by any purely linguistic measure. Attitudes and social meanings enter in as well.” Therefore, in terms of distinguishing dialects from languages two aspects need to be considered: (1) intelligibility due to structural cohesiveness, and (2) socio-political, cultural, and historical affinity. Both of these aspects are taken into account, for example, by the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005:8) which maintains that languages are speech varieties that are unintelligible and/or do not share a common ethnolinguistic identity, while dialects are speech varieties that are inherently intelligible and/or do share a common ethnolinguistic identity. Distinguishing dialects from languages in terms of their intergroup intelligibility and affinity is especially applicable when considering language groups for which one speech variety can be identified as transdialectal standard, or “main dialect” (Brown 1998), with which the remaining varieties of the language group have an intelligibility and ethnolinguistic relationship. The situation may be less straight forward though in language continua situations, where adjacent dialects are intelligible to each other while intelligibility decreases as the distance between dialects along the chain increases. As a result, as Karam (2000:126) points out, the speakers of dialects at opposite ends of the chain will not understand each other “at first encounter … due to the dissimilarities between their respective language systems.” Moreover, as Brown (p. 29) points out, in “some language chains and continua there are no dominant dialects around which others are clustering.” In such situations, the various speech communities of a language continuum may have distinct ethnolinguistic identities although they may acknowledge that neighboring speech varieties are very similar to their own variety. This pertains especially to language continua that have not yet undergone large-scale language development efforts. Among the Ede varieties, two have thus far undergone language development on a larger scale: Yoruba both in Nigeria and Benin, and Ife in Togo. It appears, however, that, as far as Benin and Togo are concerned, currently neither of these development and standardization efforts are of such magnitude that either Yoruba or Ife could serve as the transdialectal standard, or “main dialect” (Brown 1998); not all of the Ede varieties of Benin and Togo have the required inherent intelligibility and ethnolinguistic relationships. This situation raises the question whether it is possible to classify the individual speech varieties of the Ede continuum as distinct languages of a larger Ede language group or as dialects of an ix

Ede language. Moreover, the question presents itself whether it is even useful or desirable to force the components of a language continuum into the framework of the dialect-language dichotomy. In fact, it is suggested here to refrain from such classification and instead to refer to Ede as a “continuum” and to its components as “varieties, that is speech or language varieties. Since these terms are neutral and outside the dialect-language dichotomy, it is maintained here that they would better serve the particularities of the Ede continuum with its chaining pattern in terms of intergroup intelligibility and affinity. Therefore, this paper tentatively submits the following classification for the Ede language continuum and its components: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, (New) Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid, Edekiri, Ede continuum Northwestern Ede Ede Kura Southwestern Ede Ede Ica Ede Idaca Ede Ife Ede Nago Northern etc. The above classification avoids the language-dialect dichotomy. This classification, however, poses immediate problems to systems of language identifiers, such as ISO 639 (ISO 639/Joint Advisory Committee 2007), the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) and others that are faced with having to decide which speech varieties to list as languages. In Benin, Yoruba is the best known of the Ede varieties and has undergone a considerable degree of standardization. Given that a number of Benin’s Ede communities understand Yoruba well and could function well using Yoruba as their standard, these varieties could well be considered as dialects of Yoruba. There is, however, a gradual decline in understanding for the Ede varieties geographically farther away from where standard Yoruba is spoken until Yoruba is no longer functional. Given their lack of understanding and also given their lack of ethnolinguistic identity with Yoruba, these Ede varieties cannot be considered dialects of Yoruba. If these varieties were classified as separate languages, though, this could very well be resisted by those neighboring Ede communities who have marginal functionality and whose speech varieties were classified not as distinct languages but “only” as dialects of Yoruba. The same applies, although to a lesser extent, to Ife in Togo and the Ede varieties in its immediate neighborhood. If, however, the speech of each Ede ethnicity with a distinct speech were to be classified as a distinct language, the total number of languages within the Edekiri group would be overcounted. If, instead, all Ede speech varieties were considered as dialects of either Yoruba or Ife, the number of Ede languages would be undercounted. (Bergman 2009) The problem faced in attempting to classify the Ede speech varieties is typical for language continua for which as yet no transdialectal standard or “main dialect” has emerged, such as is the case, e.g. with French or German. To date no satisfying solution is available. A predominantly sociolinguistic rather than mainly linguistic approach was taken for a larger study of the Ede language continuum, which was conducted by the Togo-Benin branch of SIL x

International in the early and late 1990s.1 The main objective of this study was to assess whether and to what extent existing literature and literacy efforts in Yoruba and Ife could extend to the other Ede communities, or whether additional language-based development programs in some of the remaining communities would be beneficial. The first phase of this study constituted the above mentioned elicitation of word lists among 28 Ede communities of Benin, Nigeria and Togo (Kluge 2007), together with the elicitation of phrase lists and the administration of sociolinguistics community questionnaires. The main objectives of these elicitations were: (1) to obtain a rough estimate of the computed degrees of linguistic similarity between these varieties, (2) to explore how these varieties might be treated as clusters, and (3) to establish recommendations for further sociolinguistic research. Following this initial research, more in- depth sociolinguistic surveys were carried out in the early and late 1990s in Benin and Togo among seven varieties of the Ede continuum, represented in a series of reports published in SIL Electronic Survey Reports. Volume 1 of this series, Ede language family: Overview and assessment methodology (Kluge 2009), presents pertinent material on the larger Ede language area and discusses the research questions and methodology applied for the sociolinguistic study of the Ede language continuum, material that would otherwise be repetitive in each of the other volumes. Volumes 2–8 report on the individual sociolinguistic surveys conducted among the Cabe speech communities (Kluge 2009), Ica, (Kluge 2009), Idaca (Kluge 2009), Ije (Jeff Schmidt 2009), Kura (Durieux, Durieux-Boon and Kluge 2009), Northern Nago (Durieux, Durieux-Boon and Kluge 2009), and Southern Nago (Michael McHenry 2009).

References Akinkugbe, F. 1978. A comparative phonology of Yoruba dialects, Isekiri, and Igala. Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan. Bergman, T.G. 2009. Personal communication (email). 28 February, Westerville, USA. Brown, Rick. 1998. On criteria for identifying language groups and language clusters. Notes on Sociolinguistics 3(1):3–42. Capo, H.B.C. 1989. Defoid. In J. Bendor-Samuel (ed.), The Niger-Congo languages. Lanham: University Press of America, 275–290. Gordon, Raymond G Jr. (ed.). 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the world, Fifteenth Edition. Dallas: SIL International. Online URL: http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp. Hymes, Dell H. 1974. Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISO 639/Joint Advisory Committee. 2007. ISO Registration Authority. Washington: Library of Congress, Network Development and MARC Standards Office. Online URL: http://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/iso639jac.html. Karam, Francis X. 2000. Investigating mutual intelligibility and language coalescence. Problems of Multilingualism and Social Change in Asian and African Contexts. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 146:119–136.

1 The editor wishes to express her gratitude to Ted G. Bergman of SIL International for his helpful comments and suggestions on this paper. xi

Kluge, A. 2007. A synchronic lexical study of the Ede language continuum of West Africa: The effects of different similarity judgment criteria. Afrikanistik Online 2007(11-02). Online URL: http://www.afrikanistik-online.de/archiv/2007/1328/. Kluge, A. 2009. A sociolinguistic survey of the Ede language communities of Benin and Togo. Vol. 1, Ede language family – Background and assessment methodology. Dallas: SIL International. Microsoft Corporation. 2002. Microsoft Encarta reference library. Microsoft Corporation. Williamson, K. 1989. Niger-Congo overview. In J. Bendor-Samuel (ed.), The Niger-Congo languages. Lanham: University Press of America, 3–45.

Volume 1

Ede language family – Background and assessment methodology

Angela Kluge 1

The Ede1 language varieties (Defoid language group) are spoken in the southeastern part of West Africa. Expanding westward from southwestern Nigeria, the Ede language communities occupy large areas of central Benin, as well as two pockets in the eastern part of central Togo. Among the Ede varieties, two have thus far undergone language development on a larger scale: Yoruba both in Nigeria2 and Benin, and Ifè in Togo. In Benin, the Yoruba language was selected by the government in 1992 as one of six national languages for non-formal adult education. In Togo, government sponsored non-formal education has previously focused on French, Ewe, Kabiye, Moba, and Tem. In the early 1980s, Ifè language development was started in Togo together with the Togo-Benin branch of SIL International. To assess whether and to what extent existing literature and literacy efforts in Yoruba and Ifè could extend to the remaining Ede communities, or whether additional language-based development programs in some of the remaining communities would be beneficial, a sociolinguistic study of the language continuum was launched in the early 1990s. This study was initiated by the Togo-Benin branch of SIL International. During the first phase of this research, researchers of CENALA (Centre National de Linguistique Appliquée) and SIL Togo-Benin conducted initial linguistic and sociolinguistic research, including the elicitation of word and phrase lists, among 28 Ede communities of Benin, Nigeria and Togo. Following this initial research, more in-depth sociolinguistic surveys were carried out in the early and late 1990s among seven of these Ede varieties: Cabe (Kluge 1999a), Ica (Kluge 1999b), Idaca (Kluge 1999c), Ije (Schmidt 1999), Kura (Durieux et al. 1999a), Northern Nago (Durieux et al. 1999b), and Southern Nago (McHenry 1999). Volume 1 “Ede language family” presents pertinent material on the larger Ede language area and discusses the research questions and methodology applied for the sociolinguistic study of the Ede language continuum, material that would otherwise be repetitive in each of the other volumes. After presenting, in Section 1, pertinent background information on the Ede language area, Section 2 briefly discusses previous linguistic research on Ede relevant to the current study. Section 3 presents the research questions for the larger Ede study, followed in Section 4 by a discussion of the applied methodology. This language family report closes with a set of appendices that includes (1) language maps, (2) alternative spellings of the Ede varieties, (3) terminology in Yoruba, Nago, Anagó, and Ana, (4) a list of written materials in Yoruba, (5) the questionnaires, (6) detailed information on the RTT methodology, including the transcription and translation of the RTT texts, (7) their comprehension questions, (8) background information on the Ede phrase, and (9) wordlists and the transcription of the elicited word and phrase list data. A list of references follows the appendices.

1 In general, all language names are spelled using the English alphabet. For a complete listing of alternative spellings see Appendix B. 2 In Nigeria, where Yoruba was declared the official language for the southwestern part of the country in 1977 (Oladejo 1991), a wide range of materials is available. (For more details see Section 1.7.) 2

1. Background information

In the following sections, pertinent background information on the Ede language continuum is presented, including the language classification (Section 1.1), language area (Section 1.2), history of migration (Section 1.3), population (Section 1.4), education (Section 1.5), religious affiliation (Section 1.6), and language development (Section 1.7).

1.1. Language classification

Capo (1989:281), building on Akinkugbe’s (1978) and Williamson’s (1989) work, and based on personal field notes, proposes the following classification for the Yoruboid language varieties: Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, (New) Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid 1. Edekiri (Yoruba/Isekiri) a) Ede (Yoruba) b) Isekiri / South East Ede 2. Igala Within the Edekiri branch, several terms are in use which are not well defined. Capo (1989:277) mentions that Yoruba can be used as “… a cover term for a dialect cluster spoken in Western Nigeria, Benin and Togo. However, in actual fact it seems not to cover the speakers of the cluster in Benin and Togo because they are better known as Nagó or Anagó.” In view of these sometimes ambiguous alternate names and in order to avoid the use of “Yoruba” when referring to these varieties, Capo (p. 281) proposes “Ede,” the standard Yoruba term for “language,” as a cover term for the Yoruba dialect cluster, since all these “lects prefix èdè to their ethnonyms.” This proposal was “tacitly accepted at the 8th LAN Conference at Port Harcourt” (p. 281). Following this proposal, the term “Ede” rather than “Edekiri” or “Yoruba” is employed throughout this report. Further, the term “Yoruba” is be employed following Capo’s definition, according to which “Yoruba” refers to “the standard language of the whole area” (1989:282). (See Appendix C for further discussion.) 3

Table 1: Listing of Ede varieties according to Capo (1989:279-281)

Benin Nigeria Togo

Ajashe Awori Ijumu Ana (Ifè) Ana (Ifè) Bunu Ikale Ica Cabe Egba Ilaje Ica Egbe Oba Idaca Ekiti Oka Ije Gbede Ondo Ketu Ibolo Oshun Mokole Ifaki Owe Nago Ifè Owo Igbomina Oworo Ije Oyo Ijebu Ukare Ijesha Yagba

Capo (1989:281) further proposes the internal classification of the Ede language varieties into four subgroupings. In his view, however, “not enough information is available to arrive at reliable subclassifications” on the basis of “rigorous sound laws and specific innovations.” Therefore, Capo (p. 283) presents his classification with some reservations since noting, however, that “linguistic evidence is found to support existing geographical and ethnopolitical subgroupings.” 1. Central Ede 2. Northeast Ede 3. Southwest Ede 4. Northwest Ede According to this internal classification, the Ede language varieties of Benin and Togo are classified as Southwest Ede (Capo 1989:279-281): Benin: Ajashe, Ana, Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Ije, Ketu, Mokole, Nago Togo: Ana Additional listings of Ede varieties are provided by the Carte linguistique , a language map designed by Benin’s national center for applied linguistics (Centre National de Linguistique Appliquée, CENALA 1990), and by the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005). The Carte linguistique , designed by CENALA (1990), shows the following Ede language areas of Benin: Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Ifè, Ije, Mokole, Nago and Yoruba. The Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) proposes the internal classification of the Edekiri speech varieties into five groupings: Ede, Ifè, Isekiri, Mokole, Ulukwumi, and Yoruba (see Table 2). 3

3 In addition, Gordon (2005) lists Lucumi, “a secret language used for ritual by the Santeria religion” in Cuba.

Table 2: Listing of Edekiri varieties and their subgroupings according to the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005)

Benin Nigeria Togo Ede Isekiri [its] Ede Cabe [cbj]a Ulukwumi [ulb] Nago, Manigri-Kambolé [xkb] Ica [ica] Yoruba [yor] Ifè [ife] Idaca [idd] Akono Ikale Ije [ijj] Awori Ila Nago [nqg Aworo Ilaje Nago, Kura [nqq Bunu Iworro Nago, Manigri-Kambolé [xkb] Egba Jumu Ifè [ife] Ekiti Ondo Mokole [mkl] Gbedde Owe Yoruba [yor] Igbonna Oyo Egba Ijebu Wo Ijesha Yagba a. […] = ISO 639-3 code Disparities between Capo’s (1989) listing of Ede varieties, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005), and the Carte lingustique (CENALA 1990) refer to Ajashe, Ifè, Mokole, Nago, and Yoruba as well as to Isekiri and Ulukwumi. 1. Ajashe Capo (1989) lists Ajashe as an Ede variety of southeastern Benin spoken in the town of Porto-Novo.4 In contrast, CENALA’s (1990) Carte linguistique designates Ajashe as Yoruba, while the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) makes no mention of Ajashe but lists Yoruba with its Egba dialect as the Edekiri language spoken in Porto-Novo. (See also #5 ‘Yoruba’.) 2. Ifè Capo (1989:279) gives ‘Ifè’ as an alternative name for ‘Ana’, while the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) does not classify Ifè as an Ede variety, but lists Ifè directly under the Edekiri node, giving ‘Ana’ as an alternative name; CENALA’s (1990) Carte linguistique designates Ana as Ifè. 3. Mokole While Capo (1989:280f) does not mention Mokole in his internal classification of the Ede language varieties, he includes this variety in his listing of Ede varieties, specifying that it is spoken “in the rural district of Kandi, Borgou province, Benin.” In contrast, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) does not classify Mokole as an Ede variety, but lists Mokole directly under the Edekiri node.

4 All town names, as regards Benin, are spelled according to Benin – Carte générale (Institut Géographique Nationale 1992) or the 1992 Benin Census Data (Ministère du Plan 1993, 1994). For Togo, all town names are spelled according to Togo – Carte générale (Institut Géographique Nationale 1991).

4. Nago The Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) lists three distinct Ede Nago varieties: (1) Kura Nago, spoken in the area of Djougou, in and around the towns of Alédjo-Koura, Pélébina, and Sèmèrè (Atakora province in northwestern Benin); (2) Manigri- Kambolé Nago, spoken in the area of Bassila, in and around the towns of Manigri (Atakora province in northwestern Benin) and – just across the Benin-Togo border – Kambolé (Centre region in northeastern Togo); and (3) Nago, spoken in villages and towns spread across the sous-préfectures of Adja-Ouèrè, Ifangni, Ikpinlè, Kétou, Pobè, and Sakété (Ouémé province in southeastern Benin). Capo (1989) and CENALA’s (1990) Carte linguistique also indicate Nago as a distinct Ede variety, without, however, suggesting a further subclassification. In addition, Capo lists Kétou as a distinct Ede variety, referring to the Kétou sous- préfecture in Benin’s Ouémé province, whereas the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) lists Kétou as one of the main Nago speaking towns but not as a distinct Ede variety. 5. Yoruba For Nigeria, Capo (1989) lists 26 distinct Ede varieties. In contrast, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) does not mention any Nigerian Ede varieties, but does list three distinct Edekiri varieties, namely Isekiri, Ulukwumi, and Yoruba. Under the Yoruba entry, however, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) provides a listing of dialects which corresponds largely to Capo’s (1989) listing of distinct Nigerian Ede varieties: Awori, Bunu (Bini), Egba, Ekiti, Gbedde, Ijebu, Ijesha, Ikale, Ilaje, Ondo, Owe, Oyo, and Yagba. In addition, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) mentions Akono, Aworo, Igbonna, Iworro, Jumu, and Wo as dialects of Yoruba. While Capo does not mention these additional seven dialects, the Iworro, Jumu, and Wo varieties could potentially refer to Capo’s Ede varieties Oworo, Ijumu, and Owo, respectively. Likewise, Capo mentions a number of Nigerian Ede varieties which are not lists in the Ethnologue (Gordon), neither as dialects of Yoruba nor as distinct Edekiri or Ede entries: Egbe, Ibolo, Ifaki, Ifè, Igbomina, Oba, Oka, Oshun, and Ukare. For Benin, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) provides a separate entry for Yoruba which referrs specifically to the Egba dialect and is spoken in Porto-Novo and “throughout the country in the towns and major villages”. (See also #1 ‘Ajashe’.) 6. Isekiri and Ulukwumi Capo (1989) classifies Isekiri as a variety of the ‘Isekiri / South East Ede’ grouping which is distinct from the Ede (Yoruba) grouping; Ulukwumi is listed as a Defoid variety but not further classified. In contrast, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) lists Isekiri and Ulukwumi as two distinct entries directly under the Edekiri node. A more recent classification of the Ede varieties is suggested by Kluge (2007), based on a synchronic analysis of the wordlists, elicited in 28 Ede varieties during the first phase of SIL Togo-Benin’s study of the Ede continuum. Focus of these elicitations were the Ede varieties of Togo and Benin, with elicitation locations chosen on the basis of Capo’s (1989) work on the larger Ede language continuum, as well as Boëthius’ (1983) and Kohler’s (1983) research on Ifè

in Togo. In addition, some wordlists were also elicited in Nigeria, in some of the Ede varieties mentioned by Capo (1989) for this country. Kluge’s (2007) classification is based on a synchronic approach, with the elicited wordlists being analyzed by means of the inspection method which was first described by Gudschinsky (1955). To explore the effects of different similarity judgment criteria , Kluge applied two different similarity judgment criteria sets to the elicited data to identify similar lexical items. The quantification of these similarity decisions generated two sets of statistically significantly different lexical similarity percentages (for more details see also Section 4.1.3 and Appendices K and M). Further anlaysis of the computed similarity percentages by means of multi-dimensional scaling, however, results in compatible conclusions as to the relative relationships of the investigated varieties which in turn leads to similar clustering results. For both similarity judgment criteria sets, the findings of the synchronic lexical analysis indicate the grouping of the Ede varieties into three larger clusters, that is Western, Eastern, and Northern Ede, with two subclusters each for the Northern and Eastern Ede clusters. Table 3 and in Figure 1 present the clustering and geographical locations of the Ede varieties, respectively, with Figure 1 also displaying the remaining Ede varieties of Nigeria, mentioned by Capo (1989) but not included in the current analysis. Table 3: Internal classification of the Ede language varieties drawn from the findings of a synchronic lexical analysis (Kluge 2007)

Western Ede Northern Ede Eastern Ede

Southwest Ana (Sokodé) Mokole Egba Southeast Boko Ekiti Ica Ije Idaca Ijebu Ifè (Akparè) Ijesha Ifè (Atakpamé) Ile-Ife Ifè (Tchetti) Nago-South (Kétou) Morétan Nago-South (Pobè) Nago-North (Kambolé) Ondo Nago-North (Manigri) Owo Northwest Kura (Awotébi) Oyo Kura (Partago) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Cabe (Savè) Northeast Cabe (Tchaourou)

Figure 1: Map of the Ede language area (adapted from Capo 1989; based on Microsoft Corporation 2002)

Mokole

Kura_A Kura-P

Yoruba-P Awori Ilaje

Legend Western Ede Eastern Ede Northern Ede Southwestern Ede Southeastern Ede Northwestern Ede Northeastern Ede

Ede varieties mentioned by Capo (1989), but not investigated in the 1990s studies

In comparing her findings to Capo’s (1989) classification, Kluge (2007) concludes that the classification of Ede language varieties drawn from the synchronic analysis is only to a certain degree comparable to Capo’s classification, which is due to two facts. First, Capo’s (pp. 279– 281) classification is not exhaustive, but includes only a selection of the varieties mentioned in the preliminary listing of Ede varieties, while the classification of the remaining varieties is somewhat uncertain. Second, Capo’s classification considers a number of Nigerian Ede varieties that were not included in the SIL study and thus in Kluge’s analysis.

Kluge’s (2007) comparison of both classifications and their components suggests that Capo’s (1989) classification provides a more detailed picture for the Nigerian Ede varieties, while Kluge’s (2007) synchronic analysis provides a more detailed classification for the Ede varieties of Togo and Benin. That is, while Capo (1989) distinguishes for the Nigerian Ede varieties between Northwest (e.g. Egba, Oshun, and Oyo), Central (e.g. Ekiti, Ifè, and Ijesha), and Northeast (e.g. Gbedde, Ijumu, and Yagba) Ede, Kluge’s (2007) findings indicate all of these varieties as components of a Southeastern Ede cluster. In contrast, Capo (1989) classifies all of the Ede varieties of Togo and Benin as Southwest Ede, whereas Kluge (2007) distinguishes between Northwestern (i.e. Kura), Southwestern (e.g. Ana), Northeastern (i.e. Cabe), and Southeastern (e.g. Kétou-Nago) Ede. In addition, Kluge’s (2007) findings suggest a third major devision, Northern Ede, which is comprised of the Mokole variety. However, since neither Capo’s (1989) nor Kluge’s (2007) classification is based on a thorough diachronic analysis, both need to be regarded with some reservation.

1.2. Language area

The Ede speech communities are located in the southern part of West Africa stretching from Nigeria in the west across Benin to the eastern part of central Togo. (Capo 1989, Gordon 2005) In Nigeria, Ede language communities occupy the southwestern part of the country, namely the Kwara, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo and Oyo states, as well as the western local government area of Kogi State (Gordon 2005). From here the language continuum expands westwards across the border into the Benin’s Ouémé province where the Ije and southern Nago communities are located. These communities are separated from Benin’s remaining Ede varieties by Ouémé river. West of the Ouémé river, in the Zou province, the Cabe and Idaca communities are located. Still further west, on both sides of the Benin-Togo border, another group of Ede language communities is located: the Ica, Ifè, and northern Nago communities (i.e. Manigri-Kambolé Nago). North of these communities, in the Atakora province of northwestern Benin, another pocket of Ede varieties is located, the Kura speech communities. Still further north, ca. 280 km north of the Kura and Cabe communities, in Benin’s Borgou province, is the Mokole language area located. (See Capo 1989 and Gordon 2005.) (See Figure 1 for a map of the Ede language area.) The Ede varieties of Nigeria are bordered by other Benue-Congo languages to the east and north and Mande languages to the northwest. In Benin and Togo, the Ede varieties are bordered by Kwa languages to the south and Gur and Kwa languages to the north (Capo 1989:278, Gordon 2005). (See also Appendix A.)

1.3. History of migration

The following information is taken from Parrinder’s (1947) article entitled “Yoruba-Speaking Peoples in Dahomey” in which he describes the history of migration of the Yoruba people from modern Nigeria westward into Benin and Togo. According to tradition, hundreds, perhaps even thousands of years ago, there was a migration of Yoruba people westward, perhaps from the region of Ilesha (Oyo State, Nigeria). During the last century or two, there have been other waves of immigrants from Nigeria, this time Egba people from the region of Abeokuta (Ogun State).

The immigrants spread from the ethnically mixed town of Porto-Novo (Benin), near the Nigerian border, northward, taking in Sakété, Pobè and Kétou. From there they spread right across the ancient kingdom of Abomey, reaching the towns of Dassa-Zoumé, Savè and Kilibo. “From here the Yoruba extend up to the limits of the ‘cercle’ of Savalou” (p. 122). There are even scattered groups in the area of Djougou and of Bassila, which, neighboring the Kotokoli language area, marks an approximate limit. Descendants of these first immigrants called themselves “Sha” or “Itsha” which might still be seen from the names of some of their principal towns, such as Da- sha (Dassa), Sha-bè (Savè), Sha-bè-lu (Savalou), or Ba-shida (Bassila). “From Bassila the Yoruba spread east to the edges of the Bariba tribe, where the frontier Yoruba villages are Alafia and Tchaourou, both names being Yoruba formations” (p. 122). From today’s Benin, the immigrants spread westward into the Ewe language area in Togo, as far west as Atakpamé and Datcha, the latter corresponding to the Dahomean Dassa. The “… Ana and Atakpa of central Togo claim to derive from Yoruba stock. Many of these Yoruba-speaking peoples are definitely emigrants from the east, having arrived on different dates at their present abode, though no doubt they mingled with older inhabitants” (p. 124).

1.4. Population

The population total for all countries is estimated by the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) with 19,327,000 Yoruba speakers and the total number of second-language speakers of Yoruba is estimated at an additional 2,000,000 speakers. For Nigeria, the total Yoruba speaking population is estimated with 18,850,000 speakers (14.3% of the total Nigerian population of 137,253,133 inhabitants) (Gordon 2005). In Benin, during the 1992 Census, population data were elicited giving totals both by ethnic group, as well as by political community. For ‘Yoruba et Apparenté ’ (Yoruba and Related), the ethnic group total is estimate with 594,776 persons (287,767 males and 307,009 females) (Ministère du Plan 1994:47). It is noted, however, that during the census individuals were asked to which ethnic group they belong and not which language they speak as their first language. Thus, interviewees identified with their father’s ethnic group, even though they might not speak his language nor live in his language area. The Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) provides a higher estimate of Ede speakers of Benin, giving a total of 1,147,000 speakers for all listed Ede varieties (69,000 Cabe, 63,000 Ica, 100,000 Idaca, 80,000 Ifè, 50,000 Ije, 65,000 Mokole, 200,000 Nago, 25,000 Nago Kura, 30,000 Nago Manigri-Kambolé, and 465,000 Yoruba). For Togo, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) gives a total of 142,000 Ede speakers, including 102,000 Ifè speakers and 40,000 Nago Manigri-Kambolé speakers.

1.5. Education

For Benin, the 1992 Census Data lists the percentage of Yoruba et Apparenté people who are preliterate as 69% (59% males, 78% females) (Ministère du Plan 1993:114). Only 29% of Yoruba et Apparenté are reported to be literate in French (39% males, 21% females).

As regards Togo, the 1981 census data (Ministère du Plan et de l’Industrie 1985b) lists neither literacy levels nor levels of scholarization across ethnic group. Therefore, no data regarding education levels among Ede communities in Togo are included.5

1.6. Religious affiliation

The 1992 Benin census data does not list data regarding religious affiliation across ethnic groups. However, some information regarding ethnic groups in Benin and their religious affiliation is provided by Vanderaa (1991). According to Vanderaa’s (1991) survey results, the majority of Ede groups in Benin adhere to Animism (Ica, Idaca, Ifè, Ije, Mokole) while the Cabe people are either Christians or Animists and the Nago people are either Muslims or Animists. For Togo, the 1981 census data (Ministère du Plan et de l’Industrie 1985a:217) gives population totals of religious affiliations across ethnic group. Thus, 44% of the Ede people are listed as Animist (35,262), 25% as Christian (20,191), and 22% as Muslim (17,739).6

1.7. Language development

Thus far, two Ede language varieties have been targeted for language-based development on a relatively large scale, Yoruba in Nigeria and Benin and Ifè in Togo.

1.7.1. Yoruba in Benin

In Benin, the Yoruba language, together with Aja, Bariba, Dendi, Ditammari, and Fon, was selected in 1992 by the government for large-scale non-formal adult education (Direction de l’Alphabétisation 1992). Since Yoruba is linguistically close to Benin’s Ede varieties and serves the language of wider communication for those communities, non-formal adult education programs among the Ede speech communities are also conducted in Yoruba, presupposing that all Ede speakers would be able to benefit from the already existing Yoruba language development and literacy efforts. Concerning Yoruba literacy, a variety of materials are available. Already in the 1970s and 1980s, DAPR (Direction de l’Alphabétisation et de la Presse Rurale) published literacy materials in Yoruba, including a set of primers, a guide to the transcription of Yoruba and a book with stories. In 1993, DAPR revised the set of primers from 1975 and published an arithmetic book. (For more details see Appendix D.) In addition to the materials produced in Benin, a wide range of materials from Nigeria are available, where Yoruba was declared the official language for the southwestern part of the country in 1977 (Oladejo 1991). The standard form of Yoruba (based on “Oyo”) is used for government notices, mass media such as newspapers, broadcasting and television, and primary

5 Reportedly, Adzomada (1989) analyzed the 1981 census data across ethnic groups with regard to levels of scolarization. However, the researchers of the current study were not able to obtain a copy of this study. 6 One percent are listed as “other” (541) and 8% (6,613) as “non-declared.”

and secondary school education (Gordon 2005). It is noted, however, that the Nigerian orthography differs slightly from the orthography implemented in Benin. In addition to the above mentioned governmental efforts at Yoruba development, Yoruba is also used for written materials in the religious domain. The complete Bible was published in 19607 and a revision of the New Testament was published in 1987 (Bible Society of Nigeria 1960, 1987).

According to B. Elegbe (1993, personal communication), former member of the Alliance Biblique au Bénin (Bible Society of Benin) in Cotonou, the 1960 version is marked by a rather antiquated register of language more difficult to read and understand than the 1987 New Testament version, due to the latter’s tone markings and modern language, which reportedly are closer to Yoruba as spoken in Nigeria today. The 1960 version remains, however, the main translation used throughout the churches in the Ede language areas of Benin.

1.7.2. Ifè in Togo

In Togo, government sponsored non-formal education has previously focused on French, Ewe, Kabiye, Moba, and Tem. However, in the early 1980s, Ifè language development was started in Togo by SIL Togo-Benin, with the Tchetti variety, located in Benin close to the Benin-Togo border, chosen as the reference dialect. Following an initial phase during which several aspects of the language were analyzed and an alphabet was established with the collaboration of a local language committee, an Ifè literacy program was begun in 1989. While it is not huge, it has been established as a steady, on-going work, focusing mostly on village adult literacy classes. The first region of the Ifè language area where literacy classes were begun was in the Est-Mono préfecture. The second area to have classes was in the Akparé/Katoré region (Ogou préfecture) where SIL helped to establish a teachers’ association which is carrying on the literacy work. With the 1995 school year, literacy classes were also begun in the region of Datcha/Gléï (Ogou préfecture). By 2004, the program had graduated well over 4,000 Ifè men and women with interest in reading growing steadily. At that time, 45 books in Ifè were available consisting of a core of didactic materials as well as a selection of general reading materials (for a more complete listing see SIL International 2007). (Devine 1996 and 2004, personal communications, Klaver 1997, personal communication.)

2. Previous research

For the Defoid language group as a whole, a classification and an inventory of all the languages of the branch, as well as a general summary of phonological characteristics of the Defoid language group, are given by Capo (1989) (see Section 1.1). A more recent discussion and classification of the Yoruboid speech varieties of Benin is suggested by Baloubi (2004) who separates these varieties into three major groups: a) Benin Southeastern Yoruboid (BSY)

7 Old Testament reprinted from the Edition of 1900; New Testament corrected in 1959. 12

b) Benin Central and Northern Yoruboid (BCNY) c) Nigeria Southwestern Yoruboid (NSY) More specifically, Benin Southeastern Yoruboid is comprised of the Yoruboid speech varieties of southeastern Benin and refers to the Yoruboid communities of Kétou, Pobè, Porto-Novo, and Sakété. The Benin Central and Northern Yoruboid refer to the Ica, Idaca, Ifè, Manigri, Cabe, and Mokole varieties, all of which, with the exception of Mokole, “are geographically an extension of the BSY” (Baloubi 2004:52). These varieties are close to the Nigeria Southwestern Yoruboid varieties, both in terms of their geographic distance as well as linguistic features. As far as specific Defoid languages are concerned, overall, little linguistic research has been done outside the realm of “standard Yoruba.” Focusing on Benin and Togo, specific Ede varieties that have received attention are Cabe, Ica, Idaca, and Ifè. In regard to the Cabe and Ica varieties, some linguistic analysis was done on Cabe in the context of a comparative phonology of Yoruba dialects, Isekiri, and Igala (Akinkugbe 1978) and on Ica in the context of an M.A. thesis that explored the meaning of personal nouns (Aguidi 1992). Concerning Idaca, mention must be made of the work by Odoun Kouyomou. His work includes a description of the phonology (1986) and of various aspects of the grammar (1991c), as well as preliminary sketches of an Idaca-French lexicon (1990, 1991d,e) and an introduction to literacy development (1989,1991b). More recently, Baloubi (2004) presented some work on Idaca, exploring the linguistic and ethic identity of these communities. With regard to the Ifè, linguistic analysis has focused on various aspects of the phonological system (Boëthius 1983, Kohler 1983), the grammar (Boëthius 1987, Klaver 1995, 1999), and discourse (Klaver 1987). In addition, descriptions and discussions of various aspects of Ifè literacy are available such as by Boëthius (1987, 1991) and Odoun Kouyomou (1991a). (For a more complete listing see SIL International 2007). In addition to these linguistic descriptions, wordlists were elicited in various Ede varieties of Benin, such as Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Ifè, Ije, Mokole, Nago from Kétou, and the urban variety of Yoruba (Comission Nationale de Linguistique 1983). Besides linguistic research, various aspects of the history and culture of different Ede varieties in Benin have been studied, among which are Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Ifè, Ije, Mokole, Nago and Yoruba of Benin. (See Appendix D for more details.)

3. Research questions

The purpose of this survey was twofold: first, to assess whether and to what extent existing literature and literacy efforts in Yoruba and Ifè could extend to the remaining Beninese and Togolese Ede communities, or whether additional language-based development programs in some of the remaining communities would be beneficial, and, second, to gather data that would help SIL administrators determine what the nature of SIL’s involvement in the Beninese and Togolese Ede language communities would be. For the current study, the evaluation of a need for separate literature was to be based on criteria established by Marmor (1997). More specifically, the evaluation of literature development needs

13 was to be based on the factors of dialect intercomprehension, language vitality, and language attitudes with emphasis given to the following topics: 1. Dialect intercomprehension

− What are the geographical boundaries of the surveyed Ede speech varieties, which dialects, if any, exist of each variety, and what is the degree of internal comprehension within each Ede speech community? − What is the degree of lexical similarity between the surveyed Ede speech varieties and both Yoruba and Ifè? − What are the Yoruba and Ifè comprehension levels throughout the communities of the surveyed varieties? 8 2. Language vitality

− What are the language use patterns in various social domains, both public and private? − Is the pattern of language use stable, or is language shift occurring or impending? 3. Language attitudes

− What are attitudes toward the surveyed Ede speech varieties and their development, with special attention given to language development work already in progress? − What are attitudes toward the oral and written forms both of Yoruba and Ifè? There were some additional questions, most of which are directly related to the priority and strategy criteria outlined above and which provide updated information for the area. These questions are:

− What is the size of the group(s)? − Which infrastructures already exist? − What is the education situation and literacy rate in the area? − What is the religious situation? Although bilingualism in French was not of major concern for this survey, some data were collected in order to have relevant and updated information about the level of reported proficiency and attitudes regarding French.

8 Marmor (1997:2f) presents the following guidelines by which to draw conclusions from comprehension testing results, along with the suggested type of SIL involvement in language development efforts (see also Section 3): a) High intercomprehension is defined by an overall test average of “over 90% by all segments of the population” (under 45 years of age). In this case, it is assumed that there is no need for separate literature. b) Mixed intercomprehension is defined by a situation in which “no segment of the population scores below 80%, but some segments score below 90%.” In this case the need for separate literature depends upon language attitudes and/or the possibility of a second dialect acquisition program. c) Low intercomprehension is defined as an “overall average below 70%.” In this case, there is a need for separate literature, or if attitudes permit, a strong second dialect acquisition program.

4. Methodology

In the following sections, various aspects of the applied methodology are discussed: techniques, implementation, analysis and applied terminology.

4.1. Techniques

In order to arrive at answers to the research questions mentioned previously, a variety of techniques were chosen: 1. Dialect intercomprehension was assessed through:

− Lexical similarity comparisons among the Ede varieties; − Recorded Text Testing (RTT) assessing comprehension levels both of Yoruba and Ifè; − Interviews with community elders regarding the degree of internal comprehension within each surveyed Ede speech community; − Self-assessed (reported) active and passive proficiency, both direct and indirect (e.g. understanding of radio emissions in the other language), obtained through individual questionnaires; − Interviews with church elders regarding comprehension of Yoruba in the church context.

2. Language vitality was investigated through reported:

− Language use in various domains, both public and private; − Language use of children and the youth for evidence of intergenerational shift.

3. Language attitudes were examined through reported data regarding:

− Attitudes toward the surveyed Ede speech varieties and their development, with special attention given to language development work already in progress; − Attitudes toward the oral and written forms both of Yoruba and Ifè.

Reported data were used to assess the peripheral factors mentioned, reported proficiency in and attitudes toward French, and literacy levels:

− French proficiency and attitudes toward French were summarily looked into by interviewing individuals regarding their own and their children’s French abilities, and their attitudes toward oral proficiency; − Literacy levels were investigated through the interviewing of literacy workers and individual questioning.

The techniques mentioned above were carried out by use of the following tools: 9 1. Community interviews: community, non-formal education,and church questionnaires 2. Individual interviews: Recorded Text Testing (RTT) and Individual Sociolinguistic Questionnaires (ISQs) 3. Word and phrase lists In the following sections, these methods are described in more detail.

4.1.1. Community interviews

A variety of community interviews were conducted in the surveyed areas: with local chiefs and elders, literacy coordinators and church representatives. 1. Chiefs and elders: Community questionnaires were administered to groups of chiefs and elders from the surveyed varieties, and consensus answers were recorded rather than individual responses. The questions were posed in their written order or sometimes following the topic of conversation. Area maps were used in conjunction with the questionnaire to aid in determining language and dialect boundaries. (See Appendix E.1.) 2. Literacy coordinators Regional and/or local literacy coordinators were interviewed either informally or with the aid of a standardized questionnaire. (See Appendix E.4.) 3. Church representatives Church questionnaires were administered to church representatives of different denominations. Sometimes several representatives were interviewed at the same time; however, individual answers for the different churches represented were recorded. (See Appendix E.5.)

4.1.2. Individual interviews

Two different types of individual interviews were conducted among the surveyed Ede varieties: Recorded Text Tests (RTTs) with accompanying questionnaires and Individual Sociolinguistic Questionnaires (ISQs). 1. Recorded Text Testing (RTT) Recorded Text Testing (RTT) was conducted during the third stage of the survey to assess comprehension levels of both Yoruba and Ifè. Personal narratives both originally in Yoruba and Ifè were recorded, as well as two Bible passages translated into Yoruba: Acts 10:1–23

9 Some of the topics listed, both from community and individual questionnaires, were not investigated during the Cabe, Ica and Idaca surveys. (For more details see the methodology sections for the particular survey reports, Kluge 1999a,b,c.)

from the revised 1987 New Testament and Luke 19:11–27 from the 1960 Bible (Bible Society of Nigeria 1960, 1987). With regard to Yoruba, the variety spoken in Porto-Novo was chosen for the narrative given that this variety is regarded as the standard form of Yoruba in Benin. The narrative was given by an L1 speaker of Yoruba, the head of the literacy department in Porto-Novo; the Bible passages were recorded by a female member of his family. For Ifè, a narrative was recorded in Tchetti, the variety chosen for the on-going language development efforts. The narrative was given by an L1 Tchetti speaker, a member of the SIL Ifè language development team based in Atakpamé. In order to design comprehension questions, the narrative texts were transcribed and then translated into French; for the Bible passages a French Bible translation ( La Sainte Bible , Société Biblique de Genève 1979) was sufficient. Based on the French translation, comprehension questions were created and then translated into the language variety of the subjects. Test tapes were then prepared for each text which contained the inserted questions. (See Appendix F for a detailed account of RTT preparation and procedure, Appendix G for a complete transcription and interlinear translation of the texts, including comprehension questions and baseline answers, and Appendix H for the baseline scoring system.) During the actual testing, subjects listened to each section once. They were required to answer the inserted questions in their own language. These answers were translated into French by an interpreter and written down by the researcher. Whenever the subjects’ responses were unclear the researcher probed for clarification from the subjects. The interpreters were responsible for translating probe questions into the surveyed variety, and they were required to translate exactly what the subjects reported. If subjects were unable to answer the question correctly the section was played a second time, but no more than two times. An RTT questionnaire was administered in conjunction with the test. The initial questions were used to screen potential subjects by making sure they fell within the social categories requested, as described in Section 4.3.2. The second section of the questionnaire was administered after the test and inquired into the subjects’ comprehension of the tested texts and their general comprehension of the tested variety. In a third section questions were asked regarding the subjects’ reading and writing abilities and attitudes toward literacy. (See Appendix E.2.) All RTT data were analyzed without any efforts to compensate for the lack of randomness in the samples. Statistical significance of differences between RTT scores for different subsamples was consistently established through the Mann-Whitney U test as described by Bergman (1990:14f), with threshold levels of 95% and 98% being applied. As a measure for the average, the arithmetic mean was used for RTT scores and, in general, the mode for questions.

2. Individual sociolinguistic questionnaire Individual Sociolinguistic Questionnaires (ISQs) were administered to gather reported data regarding: language proficiency; language use with various interlocutors in different social situations; attitudes toward their own speech form and its development, as well as toward

Yoruba, Ifè and French; 10 and the subjects’ literacy level in these languages. (See Appendix E.3.) Questionnaires were administered during both the second and the third stage of the survey. During the second stage, a small sample was interviewed in five Ede communities (Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Northern Nago, and Somperekou) to gather preliminary data on the speech communities, while during the third stage larger samples from different villages were interviewed. The questionnaire was administered to each of the subjects by a member of the survey team with the aid of an interpreter. Some of the questions were omitted if during the course of the interview they were deemed not applicable to a particular subject. This accounts for some of the results being based on numbers less than the total number of subjects. The initial questions were used to screen potential subjects by making sure they fell within the social categories requested, as described in Section 4.3.2. In several instances more than one subject was interviewed at the same time, thus perhaps lowering the reliability of the information received due to the influence of hearing a previous response. In addition, there is evidence that occasionally questions were not asked in a consistent manner across researchers. These factors are only mentioned as they could possibly skew the data. However, neither factor provides a means to measure the possible influence they may have had. All ISQ data were analyzed without any efforts to compensate for the lack of randomness in the samples.

4.1.3. Word and phrase lists

This section describes the rationale behind the elicitation of word and phrase lists, the elicitation procedures, as well as the method used for the analysis of the lists.

4.1.3.1. Rationale

Word and phrase lists were elicited in 28 Ede varieties in Benin, Togo and Nigeria, chosen on the basis of Capo’s (1989) work on the larger Ede language continuum, as well as Boëthius’ (1983) and Kohler’s (1983) research on Ifè in Togo. The main objective of these elicitations was to obtain a rough estimate of the computed degrees of linguistic similarity between these varieties, to explore how these varieties might be treated as clusters, and to establish priorities for further sociolinguistic research by creating a framework for later RTT testing. (See Appendix I.1 for elicitation points.) The 163-item wordlist used was based on Swadesh’s 100-wordlist (Swadesh 1955) and the wordlist published in the Atlas linguistique du Cameroun (Dieu and Renaud 1983) and covered various semantic domains such as natural objects/phenomena, plant parts, animals, persons, body parts, numbers, qualities, colors, and simple activities. (See Appendix J.)

10 During the Cabe, Ica and Idaca surveys some additional questions with regard to attitudes toward other Ede varieties were asked.

The phrase list is based on a list developed by Wiesemann (1988:113f, 1989) with input from a former member of the SIL Ifè team, H. Boëthius. The list focuses on the verbal, as well as on the person (or noun), reference systems; 37 phrases are listed. (See Appendix N.)

4.1.3.2. Elicitation procedure

Ideally, word and phrase lists should be elicited from groups of long-term resident L1 speakers, thus allowing for the discussion of variants, near-synonyms and synonyms. In this manner, group decisions can be made about which form to include in the lists, thus increasing reliability. It is noted though, that most of the lists were elicited from individual L1 speakers of the variety in question rather than from groups of elders. (See Appendix I.2 for more details.) However, with regard to the wordlists, a number of lists were double-checked during the third stage of the survey: those from Ifè (from Tchetti) and Yoruba (from Porto-Novo), as well as the lists from those Ede communities where the third stage of the survey was conducted. 11 Regarding the phrase lists, none of these lists has yet been double-checked.

4.1.3.3. Analysis

1. Wordlists The elicited lists were entered into the computer program WordSurv (Version 2b.5d – Wimbish 1989, JAARS 1994) for further analysis. The program does not apply a linguistic comparative method to the data, and thus does not determine cognates based on historical analysis. Instead, the program performs a count of shared vocabulary between lists based on similarity groupings, as determined by the researcher. Allowing for a few modifications, the lexical similarity decisions were based on the principles provided by Blair (1990:31ff) (for details see Appendix K.) Based on these groupings WordSurv performs a count of shared vocabulary between lists, including a range of error for each count based on the reliability of the wordlist data. Overall, the reliability level assigned to the elicited Ede lists is “D”: average survey situation, but difficulties in bilingual elicitation and not satisfactorily double-checked. 12 Those lists which were verified during the third stage of the survey were assigned level “C”: average survey situation with good bilingual informants and satisfactory opportunity to double-check (Wimbish 1989:31). (See Appendix L for a complete listing of elicited data sorted by gloss.) The performed count of shared vocabulary is represented in a computed percentage matrix for lexical similarity (see Appendix M). However, it is noted that this matrix is preliminary, given that a number of wordlists have not yet been verified.

11 The Ica word list, previously elicited in Bantè, was not double-checked during the third stage of the survey. 12 Given that the lists were not satisfactorily double-checked, level “D” seems to be appropriate.

2. Phrase lists The elicited lists were entered into a word processor and compared by Aguidi. His observations, based on his anticipated comprehension of speakers of the various speech forms, are available in Igué et al. 1993. No formal analysis of the lists has yet been performed; that is, they have not yet been grouped together according to shared grammatical features. Given the lack of verification of the elicited lists at this point in time, as well as the lack of a formal analysis, no conclusions can be drawn from the data. Therefore, the phrase lists will not be further mentioned. (See Appendix O for a complete listing of elicited phrases.)

4.2. Implementation

The survey was designed to be conducted in three stages. The first stage was jointly undertaken by two researchers from CENALA (A.M. Igué, Director of CENALA, and D. Odoun Kouyomou) and several from SIL under the auspices of CBRST (Centre Béninoise de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique). The following two stages were conducted by SIL members with the aid of a Beninese research assistant, R. Aguidi. 13 1. The first stage was carried out during the months of March, April and May 1992. During this stage word and phrase lists were elicited in 28 Ede communities of Benin, Nigeria and Togo. 2. During the second stage, in the latter part of 1992, preliminary interviews were conducted with community elders in six Ede communities both in Benin and Togo: Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Mokole, Northern Nago and Somperekou. In addition, individual sociolinguistic questionnaires were administered to small samples in five of these communities: Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Northern Nago and Somperekou. 3. In order to gather more in-depth data with regard to the assessment of language development needs, the third stage of the survey was conducted among the Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Ije, Kura, Northern Nago and Southern Nago communities. This stage was carried out between January and June of 1993 (Cabe, Ica and Idaca) and in 1997 (Ije, Kura, Northern Nago and Southern Nago). During this stage, community and individual interviews (including comprehension testing) were conducted and data previously gathered were checked. In the following sections, more specific information regarding the applied methodology for the third stage is given concerning procedures, survey locations, subject selection, and selection and training of interpreters.

13 Aguidi, an L1 Ica speaker, has a master’s degree in linguistics from the Université Nationale du Bénin (Département d’Etudes Linguistiques et de Tradition Orale).

4.3. Selection of survey locations, and survey subjects, and interpreters

4.3.1. Survey locations

Both for community and individual interviews an attempt was made to choose a representative sample of the surveyed speech communities. It was assumed that subjects from more accessible or larger villages have a higher proficiency in Yoruba or Ifè due to more contact with L1 speakers of these speech forms. Therefore, both more accessible or larger villages as well as more remote or smaller villages were selected in order to compare the gathered data across location type. The actual test points chosen is described in a separate methodology section for each community where the third stage of the survey was conducted.

4.3.2. Subject selection

As far as community interviews are concerned, no formal selection procedure was established. Interviews with community elders were conducted with groups of elders chosen by the chief or his representative, and church interviews were administered to representatives sent by their various denominations. With regard to subject selection for individual interviews, visits were made to the traditional leaders of each surveyed village to explain the work, arrange a time for the interviews and to request help with the selection of subjects. In most instances the leaders chose someone from the community to coordinate the selection process. During the actual interviews it was also possible for the survey team members to indicate potential subjects from among those who had gathered. Both for RTT testing and ISQs, an attempt was made to choose a representative sample of the surveyed population across gender and age. However, no effort was undertaken to obtain random samples for the RTTs and ISQs; rather stratification with respect to location, gender and age was the major aim. In addition, factors considered to influence the level of proficiency in Yoruba and Ifè were taken into consideration such as residence and travel patterns and religious affiliation. Subjects were asked about their residence and travel patterns, partly to acquire insight into the extent of such residence and travel, but mainly to screen out subjects with extensive exposure 14 to either language. As far as religious affiliation is concerned, it was assumed that through the use of Yoruba in the church context, Christians (that is, those who presumably attend church) might show higher levels of proficiency than non-Christians. In order to keep the selection process simple, subjects were chosen independent of their religious affiliation; however, during the analysis of tested and reported data the possible effect of religious affiliation was investigated. Finally, inclusion of subjects of various education levels and occupations was endeavored by asking the village elders to try to provide candidates with different backgrounds in these respects. As a result, sample proportions by location, gender, age, residence and travel patterns, religious affiliation and education level do not necessarily correspond to like ratios of the populations sampled.

14 Defined as residing (due to permanent residence or frequent travel) in the Yoruba or Ifè language area for longer than one year.

In summarizing the above, subject selection was made according to the following pre-determined social categories: 1. Various ages of both genders: younger (between 15-25 years of age) and older (between 30-45 years of age); 2. Subjects who belong 100% to the surveyed variety (both father and mother are L1 speakers of the surveyed variety), being L1 speakers of the particular variety, and having grown up and lived most of their lives in the surveyed area; 3. Subjects who have not lived in a Yoruba or Ifè area for longer than one year; 4. Selection independent of either their education level or religious affiliation. A description of the actual sample is given in a separate methodology section for each community where the third stage of the survey was conducted.

4.3.3. Selection and training of interpreters

Since no member of the survey team spoke any of the surveyed speech forms it was necessary to enlist members of the surveyed communities to act as interpreters. A Beninese research assistant, R. Aguidi, also an L1 speaker of Ica, assisted the team throughout most of the field trips. 15 Aguidi assisted in the RTT text preparation and served as interpreter during the administration of community and individual interviews. During the actual field trips, additional local interpreters were selected by recommendation from local leaders: either they were enlisted and accompanied the team for the duration of the entire field trip, or they were selected from the local population of a visited location. While no interpreter training was given for the administration of questionnaires and informal interviews, such training was deemed necessary with regard to the conducting of RTT testing. However, Aguidi had acquired an understanding of the nature of RTT testing during his involvement in the development of the various RTT texts, which rendered further training unnecessary for him. As far as the local interpreters are concerned, those who were enlisted for the duration of the entire field trip were formally trained to translate subjects’ responses into French and to translate the probe questions asked by the researchers into the surveyed variety. The training process was a simulation of a test situation with the interpreters taking turns in acting as the subject (listening to the RTT texts and responding in their L1) and the interpreter (translating the answers into French). In the case of the interpreters enlisted from the local population of a visited location it was not possible to have a training session before the actual test situation; however, they were instructed as to the appropriate procedures for the test situation.

4.4. Terminology

Some additional comments appear to be necessary with regard to the terms “Yoruba” and “Ifè” as employed during the third stage of the survey.

15 Only during the Kura and Northern Nago surveys was the team not accompanied by Aguidi, and therefore, members of the local communities had to be enlisted as interpreters.

4.4.1. “Yoruba”

During the Cabe survey as well as during a first phase of the Idaca survey, the researchers referred to “Yoruba” as “Standard Yoruba” or “Yoruba of Porto-Novo,” the standard form of Yoruba for Benin and the variety chosen for RTT testing. However, this terminology proved to be ambiguous. When subjects were asked whether they speak and understand “Yoruba of Porto- Novo,” some subjects were inconsistent in their answers in regard to their reported proficiency. According to Aguidi, the Beninese research assistant, this inconsistency was most likely due to the fact that Porto-Novo Yoruba is regarded as the prestige variety; therefore, subjects may have reported inability to speak it even though they are proficient in it due to their own unwillingness to claim that they speak the prestige variety. Thus, for the remaining part of the Idaca survey and all later surveys, the researchers did not refer to “Standard Yoruba” or “Yoruba of Porto-Novo” but only to “Yoruba.” Whenever subjects responded “Yoruba,” they were asked to specify what they meant by Yoruba; in most cases they referred to Nigerian Yoruba.

4.4.2. “Ifè”

The variety of Ifè chosen for RTT testing is Tchetti, which is, as already mentioned (Section 1.7.2), the variety chosen for the on-going, SIL-initiated language development efforts. However, the Ifè language project is based in Atakpamé, in Togo, where Ifè is the major language. Therefore, during the Cabe, Ica, Idaca, Kura and Northern Nago surveys the researchers referred to “Ifè” as “Ifè of Atakpamé” rather than “Ifè of Tchetti,” which could possibly have skewed reported data. During the Ije and Southern Nago surveys, “Ifè” was referred to as “Ifè of Tchetti.”

Appendices

Appendix A. Language maps for Benin and Togo

The following maps are taken from the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005). 1. Benin

2. Togo

Appendix B. Alternative spellings of Ede variety names

As mentioned previously, spellings of the Ede varieties used throughout this report are in the English alphabet. The following table displays alternative French spellings and, for the Beninese varieties, spellings in the national alphabet as employed by the language map of Benin (CENALA 1990). In addition, spellings given by Capo (1989) in his classification of Defoid languages are listed.

English French Language map of Benin Capo (1989) spelling spelling (CENALA 1990)

Ede Edè Ede Èdè Boko Boko Cabe Cabè Ede-Cab ε Tsáb ε (Sáb έε, Sabẹ ) Egba gbá Ekiti Ekìtì Ica Ica Ede-Ica Ìtsà Idaca Idaca Ede-Idaaca a Idáìtsà Ifè Ifè Ede-If ε Ànà (èdè Ìf ε, I fẹ (Togo)) Ije Ijè Ede-Ij ε Ìj ε Ijebu Ìj εbú Ijesha Ìj εshà Ile-Ife Ìf ε ( Ifẹ ) Kura Koura Mokole Mokolé Ede-Mkle Mklé Moretan Morétan Nago Nago Ede-Nago Nagó Ondo Òndó Owo w

Oyo y Yoruba Ede-Yoruba Yoruba, Yorùbá a. The spelling employed by written materials in the language is “Ìdàáshà.”

Appendix C. Terminology

Within the Edekiri branch, several terms are in use which are not well defined: “Yoruba,” “Nago,” “Anago” and “Ana.” These terms, as Capo (1989) points out in his classification of Defoid languages, are widely used as cover terms for the Yoruboid dialect cluster of Western Nigeria, Benin and Togo while, at the same time, some of them also refer to distinct linguistic communities in these countries. In the following, origin, as far as known, and current use of the above mentioned terms is given in more detail in order to address the question of what the terms “Yoruba,” “Nago,” “Anago” and “Ana” actually refer to.

C.1. Yoruba

Traditionally, according to Iroko (1993), the term “Yoruba” refers to the inhabitants of Oyo 16 and Ile-Ife and their surrounding regions in Oyo State in Nigeria. The “Yoruba” people shared their origin and cultural heritage with surrounding groups. However, at the same time these groups maintained their distinct ethnic identities and were referred to by their distinct ethnonyms such as Egba, Egbado, Ifè, etc. It is only during the first half of the 19th century, under British colonial rule, that this situation seem to have changed. For administrative reasons the British extended the ethnonym “Yoruba” to those groups mentioned who shared a common origin with the Yoruba people. Due to its extensive use for administrative purposes, “Yoruba” became, over time, a common cover term for the Yoruboid dialect cluster. Today, according to Capo (1989:277), “for many, Yorùbá is a cover term for a dialect cluster spoken in Western Nigeria, Benin and Togo. However, in actual fact it seems not to cover the speakers of the cluster in Benin and Togo because they are better known as Nagó or Anagó.” (See following Sections 0 and 0.) While being used as a cover term, “Yoruba” still refers to one distinct language variety within the Edekiri branch. As such it is listed by the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005). The Ethnologue specifies further that the Yoruba language, with approximately 18,850,000 speakers (14.3% of the total Nigerian population of 137,253,133 inhabitants), spreads across the southwestern part of Nigeria, across Kwara, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo and Oyo states, as well as the western local government area of Kogi State. In addition, the term “Yoruba” is also employed to refer to a written form, “the standard variety accepted by most of the dialect speakers” (Capo 1989:277). This standard variety was initially based on the speech variety of Oyo (a town 33 miles north of Ibadan), extreme Oyo regionalisms having been removed (Courtenay 1968:1). Taking these above definitions into consideration, Capo (1989) suggests that “Yorùbá be viewed as a lect within the cluster, a lect socially defined, which has its distinctive characteristics” (p. 277), and that “Yorùbá will then be a dialect, but still the most prestigious dialect of the cluster and the standard language of the whole area” (p. 282). Following this proposal, the term “Yoruba” is employed throughout this report.

16 The ancient city of “Oyo” was destroyed in the 19th century by the Fulbe people and then rebuilt about 100km from its original place.

C.2. Nago

With regard to the origin of the term “Nago,” Parrinder (1947) explains that according to older Fon men the name “was given to the Yoruba people in general during the intermittent wars between Oyo (and later Abeokuta) and Abomey, in the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was an insult, said to mean ‘the lousy’!” Other translations are “the people from over yonder,” or “the strangers from the north.” (p. 122; see also Tidjani 1945). According to the Dictionnaire fon-français (Segurola 1963:402), “Nagónu” (or “Anagónù”) refers to fetishers dedicated to the Sakpota cult, or to the Sέgbó-Lisá, Mǎwǔ, Lisà or Gu cults. (See also Appendix C.3.) The explanations given above appear to indicate that the term “Nago” is a cover term referring to speakers of Yoruboid varieties in general rather than to distinct communities. This view seems to be shared by Capo (1989:277) who states that “… the speakers of the cluster in Bénin and Togo … are … known as Nagó or Anagó” and that they “… are not distinct communities …” However, in the same article Capo (1989) also lists Nago as a distinct linguistic community among all the other Ede varieties, referring to the rural districts of Ifangni, Ikpinlè, Kétou, Pobè and Sakété in the Ouémé province as well as to some villages of Alédjo and Bassila and rural districts of Djougou in the Atakora province.17

C.3. Anago

Concerning the origin of the term “Anago,” Parrinder (1947:122) explains, that “the devotees of the Fon god Sakpata (“earth-smallpox,” corresponding to the Yoruba “Shokpona”) are called Anago-nu, as they speak a cult dialect resembling Yoruba, and the cult is said to have been introduced into the Dahomean kingdom from the region of the Nago to the north.” (See also Segurola 1963.)18 In regard to today’s use of the term “Anago,” Capo (1989:277) mentions several interpretations. “For some non-Yorùbá speakers in West-Africa it refers to ‘Yorùbá’ speakers (only). In the West Indies, it refers universally to the ‘Yorùbá’ speakers. … But for some ‘Yorùbá’ speakers in West Africa, it refers to foreigners.”

C.4. Ana

The term “Ana,” according to Capo (1989:277), is also used as a general cover term for varieties of the Defoid language group in Benin and Togo. However, Capo does not give any further details in regard to the origin and meaning of this term. In addition, Capo (p. 279) also lists Ana as a distinct Ede variety spoken in the rural districts of Bantè and Savalou in the Zou province in Benin and around Atakpamé in Togo, giving “Ifè” as an alternative name for “Ana.”

17 Capo (1989:280) lists Ifangni as Ifanyin, Ikpinlè as Ikpínlέ, Kétou as Kétu, Pobè as Ikpobέ and Sakété as Ikakété. He refers further to Alédjo as Alejo, Bassila as Basila and Djougou as Dzugu. 18 Another explanation is given by Capo (1989:277) who states: “As for the origin of the vocable anago, Biodun Sofunke (pers. com.) suggests that it is cognate with the Assyrian word anuku meaning ‘I.’”

In contrast, the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) does not list Ana as a separate entry but gives it as an alternative name for Ifè; other alternative names are Baate19 and Ana-Ifé. However, Klaver (1996, personal communication), member of the SIL Ifè team in Atakpamé, states that none of these alternative names are used by the Ifè people themselves. It is noted though, that Boëthius (1993, personal communication), former member of the SIL Ifè team, reports that educated Ifè refer to themselves in French as “Ana.” While Capo (1989) and the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) link Ana to the Yoruboid dialect cluster, both Klaver (1996, personal communication) and Boëthius (1993, personal communication) state further that a separate language “Ana,” unrelated to the Yoruboid dialect cluster, exists. In the early 1990s, Boëthius elicited a wordlist in Bagou, approximately 50 km east of Sotouboua and 75 km south of Tchamba, and was told that the name of the language spoken in Bagou is “Ana.” According to Boëthius, the elicited data show that the language from Bagou is not a Yoruboid but rather a Gur language. As such it is also classified by the Ethnologue (see also Naden 1989:147): Central Gur, Southern, Grusi, Eastern.20 However, the Ethnologue does not give “Ana” as the language name but rather “Bago-Kusuntu.” In addition, the findings of the Ede – Northern Nago survey (Durieux et al. 1999b) and also the findings of a survey conducted among the neighboring Anii-Akpe communities (Tompkins and Kluge 1997) suggest that “Ana” could also refer to the Ede – Northern Nago variety spoken in Kambolé (Tchamba préfecture) as well as in Aworo, Biguina and Manigri in the sous-préfecture of Bassila (Benin).

19 “Baate” seems to refer to “Bantè” in the Zou province, Benin. Capo (1989:279–280) specifies that both Ica and Ifè are spoken in the rural districts of Baatεε (Bantè) and Savalu (Savalou). As discussed in the Ica survey report (Kluge 1999b), the Ica distinguish two linguistically homogenous varieties of their language: Ica and Ifè, the latter also being referred to as “Ilodji.” Regarding Capo’s statement that Ifè is spoken in Bantè, it is left unclear whether he refers to the Ica dialect “Ifè” (Ilodji) or to the Ifè language, e.g. as spoken in Tchetti and in Atakpamé. 20 Alternative name: Koussountou; spoken in Bagou and Koussountou.

Appendix D. Written materials in Yoruba

The following list gives a few titles and is not meant to be exhaustive. 1. Literacy materials

− Direction de l’Alphabétisation, République du Bénin, Ministère de la Culture et des Communications. 1992. Iwe ishiro: Livre de calcul en yoruba . Cotonou: Direction de l’Alphabétisation.

− Direction de l’Alphabétisation, République du Bénin, Ministère de la Culture et des Communications. 1993. . : Livret yoruba. Tome I, II . Cotonou: Direction de l’Alphabétisation.

− Direction de l’Alphabétisation et de la Presse Rurale. 1975. . . Programme d’alphabétisation des masses. Course C: Lecture et écriture en yoruba. Livre de l’élève. Premier, deuxième, troisième livret . Cotonou: Direction de l’Alphabétisation.

− Direction de l’Alphabétisation et de la Presse Rurale. 1985. : Contes en yoruba . Cotonou: Direction de l’Alphabétisation.

− Moudachirou, E. 1987. Le pratique de transcription du èdè-yoruba . Porto-Novo: République Populaire du Bénin, Ministère de la Jeunesse, de la Culture Populaire et des Sports, Direction de l’Alphabétisation et de la Presse Rurale (DAPR).

2. Historical and cultural studies on Ede

− Afouda, C. L. 1978. Histoire et civilisation du royaume de Igbo-Idaasa; période précoloniale . M.A. Thesis, Université Nationale du Bénin.

− Agbo, C. 1970. La numération de Dahomey (suite). Numération en idiome “nagot” ou “yoruba” et ses semblables; index alphabétique “nagot”. In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes (Nouvelles série) 16. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 49–89, 99–103.

− Anonymous. 1947. De la naissance à la mort chez les nagots. In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes 900. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 1–2.

− Aworan, A. B. 1994. ee . . Proverbe en idaca. Savè.

− Bernolles, J. 1964. Un mythe nago de Dassa-Zoumé. In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes (Nouvelles série) 2. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 33–49.

− Gbaguidi, B. 1952a. Origine des noms de village. Cercle de Savalou. (Canton des Bantè). In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes 8. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 69.

− Gbaguidi, B. 1952b. Origine des noms de village. Cercle de Savalou. (Canton des Dassas). In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes 13. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 65.

− Gbaguidi, B. 1952c. Sens des noms des villages du Canton: Adjante, Aphassi, Banon, Bante, Bobe, Djagbobo, Djocobo, Koko, Kassola, Lougba, Fira. Cercle de Savalou. In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes 8. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 70–75.

− Koukoui, C. 1953. Kermesse en pays Holli. France-Dahomey 2:4.

− Kourouma, K. 1954. A propos du site légendaire de Savalou (Dahomey). Notes africaines 63:83.

− Lombard, J. 1955. A propos des pierres sculptées d’ifé. Notes africaines 68:97.

− Mercier, P. 1950. Notices sur le peuplement yoruba au Dahomey-Togo. In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes 4. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 29–40.

− Moulero, R. P. 1964. Histoire et légende de chabè (savè). In Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture. Institut de Recherches Appliquées du Dahomey (I.R.A.D), Etudes Dahoméennes (Nouvelles série) 2. Porto-Novo: Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Culture, 51–92.

− Moulero, T. 1927. Proverbes nagots ou yorubas. La reconnaissance africaine 32:5.

− Moulero, T. 1931a. Le mariage chez les Dassa. Etude sur la famille (Dahomey). Echo des missions africaines 2:36.

− Moulero, T. 1931b. Le mariage chez les Dassa. Etude sur la famille (Dahomey). Echo des missions africaines 3:58.

− Nouaillac. 1951. Le hollidjè. France-Dahomey 281:3.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1988a. Cent quarante et un proverbes et vingt devinettes idàáshà . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1988b. Formules de civilité ou compliments et formules de compassion ou condoléances chez les yorubaphones en général et les locuteurs idàáshà en particulier . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1988c. Formules de salutation idàáshà . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1989. Recueil de proverbes, contes, chansons et devinettes idaasha . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1990a. Le corps humain . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1990b. Le peuple m klé . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1990c. Recueil de proverbes et devinettes idàáshà. Tome 1. Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1991a. : Comment transcrire l’idaca . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1991b. Terminologie français-idaasha sur les mesures de capacité, de poids, de distance, de temps, de volume. La numération et l’énumération . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1994a. Les anthroponymies en milieu culturel yoruba des Sous- préfectures de Dassa-Zoumé et de Glazoué . Cotonou: CENALA.

− Odoun Kouyomou, D. 1994b. Recueil de proverbes et devinettes idàáshà. Tome 2. Cotonou: CENALA.

− Oliveira, A. de. 1927. Proverbes nagots ou yorubas. La reconnaissance africaine 33:10.

− Tossou, M. 1973. Les proverbes idatcha . M.A. Thesis, Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle.

− Vendeix, J. 1928. Etude sur le mariage dans le cercle de Savalou. In J. Vendeix, Monographie de Savalou. Doc.C.Sav. 40.

− Verger, P. no date. Yoruba influences. Basil: O du 1.

Appendix E. Questionnaires

E.1. Community questionnaire

(rev 11/96, SIL T/B) Effectué le ______à ______par ______Identité ethnique du chef: ______; des vieux: ______Abréviations: E=surveyed Ede variety, Yo=Yoruba, I=Ifè, F=French, Y=Yes, N=No

1. LA LANGUE DE L’ENQUETE ET LES LANGUES VOISINES 1.1. Comment vous appelez votre propre langue? 1.2. Quelle est l’origine du peuple de ce village? Pour trouver l’étendue de la région où la langue est parlée, montrez une photocopie d’une carte de la région, et posez les questions suivantes. (Utilisez les feutres en couleur) 1.3. Dans quels villages votre langue (èdè) est-elle parlée? (demandez pour chaque village) (Encerclez les villages où la langue est parlée; mettez des parenthèses autour des noms des villages où il n’est pas certain que la langue soit parlée) 1.4. Y a-t-il des villages où plusieurs langues sont parlées? (Encadrez les villages où l’on trouve des locuteurs de plusieurs langues différentes) 1.5. Dans quels villages parle-t-on une langue différente que la vôtre? Quel est le nom de cette langue / ces langues? (Soulignez les villages où il est certain que l’on parle une langue différente que celle en question, et écrivez le nom de celle-ci à côté du village – ceci pour déterminer les frontières de la langue étudiée)

(Tracez une ligne continue là où les frontières sont certaines, et une ligne pointillée là où elles sont incertaines)

2. DIALECTES DE LA LANGUE DE L’ENQUETE ET INTERCOMPREHENSION ENTRE LES VARIANTES 2.1. Parmi les villages où votre langue (èdè) est parlée, il y a-t-il des différences dans la façon de parler? Y N 2.2. Quels villages parlent différemment? (Selon les renseignements fournis par l’enquêté, l’enquêteur devrait …

− mettre la lettre A à coté des villages qui parlent la langue de l’enquête, B à coté des villages d’un autre groupe, C, etc.; − tracer les lignes des frontières dialectales avec les lignes continues et pointillées.)

2.3. Comment appelle-t-on les gens qui parlent: A? ______B? ______C? ______D? ______2.4. Quelles sortes de différences existent entre votre variante et les autres (prononciation, vocabulaire, sont-elles difficiles à décrire)?

Variety A – B: ______

Variety A – C: ______

Variety A – D: ______

Variety A – E: ______2.5. Quelle variante avez-vous le plus de difficulté à suivre? ______2.6. Comment comprenez-vous la variante …? (L’enquêteur devrait utiliser le tableau suivant pour demander aux locuteurs de chaque dialecte comment ils comprennent les autres) ++ très bien; + bien; 0 assez bien; - pas bien; -- pas du tout B C D A ______2.7. Tous les enfants/hommes/femmes ici au village comprennent-ils bien les locuteurs …?

Enfants Hommes Femmes A B C D A B C D A B C D Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N

2.8. Où parle-t-on votre langue le mieux? 2.9. Si on veut écrire votre langue on devrait choisir le parler de quelle région pour l’écrire? 2.10. Si on veut enregistrer une histoire dans votre langue on devrait choisir le parler de quel région pour enregistrer une histoire en E pur? [Ask this question only if you have problems deciding where to record the hometown texts.]

3. L’USAGE DE LA LANGUE/VARIANTE 3.1. Quelle langue utilisez-vous pour: Annonces E Yo I __ Rites de coutumes E Yo I __ Jugements dans la famille E Yo I __ Jugements au village E Yo I __ Conseils d’anciens (au village) E Yo I __ Réunions du conseil traditionnel (régionaux) E Yo I __ 3.2. Avez-vous besoin des interprètes si une variante autre que la vôtre est utilisée? Y N Quelle variante et quelle occasion? ______3.3. A part votre langue, quelle langue est utilisée le plus souvent ici dans votre village? ______

dans la région? ______

4. ALPHABETISATION 4.1. Si on veut écrire votre langue on doit choisir la variante de quel région pour l’écrire? ______

Et, si l’on écrit en variante Yo/I, sera-t-il aussi acceptable? Yo: Y N, I: Y N

Si NON, Pourquoi? ______4.2. Il y a t il des classes d’alphabétisation au village? Y N

Dans quelle(s) langue(s)? Yo I ______4.3. Si on vous donnait le choix entre Yo et I comme langue pour les classes d’alphabétisation, vous choisiriez quelle variante? Yo I 4.4. Si on va commencer un programme d’alphabétisation en Yo / I les gens d’ici vont-ils s’intéresser et s’inscrire pour la classe? Yo: Y N, I: Y N 4.5. L’alphabétisation en Yo / I serait-il supportée par les responsables et les vieux de ce village? Yo: Y N, I: Y N

5. INFORMATION GENERALE SUR LA COMMUNAUTE 5.1. Population au village: Yo: _____ I: ______: ______: ______: _____

5.2. Il y a-t-il des mariages mixtes? Si OUI combien?

Yo: _____ I: ______: ______: ______: _____ 5.3. Il y a-t-il des églises au village? Lesquelles?

______5.4. Quelle langue est utilisée à la mosquée? pour prêcher: E Yo I F __ pour traduire la lecture du Coran: No / Yes: E Yo I F (Sections 4 and 5 were not administered during the Cabe, Ica and Idaca Surveys)

E.2. RTT questionnaire

(3/93, SIL T/B) Effectué le ______à ______par ______Abréviations: E=surveyed Ede variety, Yo=Yoruba, I=Ifè, F=French, Y=Yes, N=No

1. PRESENTATION DE L’ENQUETE(E) 1.1. Nom et prénom: ______1.2. Age: ______1.3. Sexe: ______1.4. Profession: ______1.5. Vous avez atteint quel niveau à l’école? ______1.6a Religion: ______1.6b Dénomination: ______1.6c Fréquentation à l’église/mosquée: Dly sev/wk 1x/wk 2x/mth 1x/mth <1x/mth 1.7. Village natal? ______1.8. Grandi où? ______1.9. Résidence actuelle? ______1.10a Avez-vous habité ailleurs pendant au moins un an? Y N (check for Nigeria, Porto-Novo, Ifè areas (Atakpamé)) 1.10b Où? ______Pendant combien de temps? ______1.11. Langue maternelle du sujet? E Yo I F 1.12. Langue maternelle du père? E Yo I F 1.13. Langue maternelle de la mère? E Yo I F 1.14. Usage de langue entre les parents? E Yo I F 1.15. Langue maternelle de l’épouse? E Yo I F For female subjects: Langue maternelle de la co-épouse? E Yo I F 1.16. Usage de langue du sujet à la maison? E Yo I F Si E, aussi l’usage de …? Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N 1.17. Est-ce que vous voyagez parfois chez les Yo / I? Où? ______

Souvent? ______

(>1x/wk, 1x/wk, 2x/mth, 1x/mth, 4-6x/yr, 1x/yr)

Durée? ______2. POST-IFE TEXTE 2.1. Selon vous, l’homme qui a raconté l’histoire est originaire d’où? I ______Il parle quelle langue? I ______2.2. Comment le savez-vous? ______(If the subject did not answer QST 2.1. correctly, give the answer now) 2.3. Comment avez-vous compris l’histoire? En avez-vous compris: Le tout / La plupart / Un peu / Très peu / Rien 2.4. Sa manière de parler est-il: Très différente de / Un peu différente de / Comme la vôtre? 2.5. Les … de ce village comprendraient-ils toute l’histoire? MY: Y N / MO: Y N / FY: Y N / FO: Y N 2.6. Combien de fois allez-vous dans la région de cet homme? jamais >1x/wk 1x/wk 1x/mth 4-6x/yr 1x/yr autre: ______2.7. Pendant combien de temps restez-vous là-bas? ______2.8. Les gens de là-bas viennent-ils ici? Y N 2.9a Parlez-vous I? Y N 2.9b Comprenez-vous I? Y N 2.9c Comment comprenez-vous leur parler? Le tout / La plupart / Un peu / Très peu / Rien 2.10. Lorsque vous parlez avec un locuteur I, vous parlez quelle langue: E Yo I 2.11. Pensez-vous que c’est bon de pouvoir parler et comprendre I? Y N Pourquoi? 3. POST-YORUBA TEXTES A. NARRATIVE 3.1. Selon vous, l’homme qui a raconté l’histoire est originaire d’où? Yo ______Il parle quelle langue? Yo ______

Parle-t-il le Yo bien? Y N 3.2. Comment avez-vous compris l’histoire? En avez-vous compris: Le tout / La plupart / Un peu / Très peu / Rien 3.3. Les … de ce village comprendraient-ils toute l’histoire? MY: Y N / MO: Y N / FY: Y N / FO: Y N

B. ACTES 10:1-23 3.4. Comment avez-vous compris l’histoire? En avez-vous compris: Le tout / La plupart / Un peu / Très peu / Rien

C. Luc 19:11-27 3.5. Comment avez-vous compris l’histoire? En avez-vous compris: Le tout / La plupart / Un peu / Très peu / Rien

D. APRES TOUS LES TEXTES EN YORUBA 3.6. Parlez-vous Yo? Y N 3.7. Comprenez-vous Yo? Y N 3.8. Pouvez-vous toujours dire tout ce que vous voulez en Yo? Y N 3.9. Pouvez-vous toujours comprendre les locuteurs du Yo? Y N 3.10. Parlez-vous parfois Yo avec vos amis d’E? Y N des locuteurs d’autres dialectes E? Y N (e.g. Cabe, Ica, Idaca, etc.)

Quelle dialecte? ______

4. ALPHABETISATION 4.1. Pouvez-vous lire? Yo: Y N, I: Y N, F: Y N Pouvez-vous écrire? Yo: Y N, I: Y N, F: Y N

Quoi? Yo: ______, I: ______, F: ______4.2. Avez-vous essayé d’écrire en E? Y N 4.3. Pensez-vous qu’il serait bon pour les locuteurs d’E d’être alphabétisé en E? Y N Pourquoi? 4.4. Voudriez-vous vous-même être alphabétisé(e) en

E: Y N, Pourquoi? Yo: Y N, Pourquoi? I: Y N, Pourquoi? 4.5. Si on vous donnait la choix entre une classe d’alphabétisation en Yo et en I, vous choisiriez quelle classe? Yo I 4.6. Avez-vous jamais été inscrit dans une classe d’alphabétisation? Yo: Y N, I: Y N, ___: Y N

4.7. Si un étranger veut apprendre votre langue dans cette région, où devrait-il s’installer pour apprendre l’E pur? Pourquoi? (QSTs 4.2.-4.7. were not administered during the Cabe, Ica and Idaca Surveys)

E.3. Individual sociolinguistic questionnaire

(rev 3/92, after the Cameroonian version) Effectué le ______à ______par ______Abréviations: E=surveyed Ede variety, Yo=Yoruba, I=Ifè, F=French, Y=Yes, N=No

1. PRESENTATION DE L’ENQUETE(E) 1.1. Nom et prénom: ______1.2. Age: ______1.3. Sexe: ____ 1.4. Profession: ______1.5. Vous avez atteint quel niveau à l’école? ______1.6a Religion: ______1.6b Dénomination: ______1.6c Fréquentation à l’église/mosquée: Dly sev/wk 1x/wk 2x/mth 1x/mth <1x/mth 1.7. Village natal? ______1.8. Grandi où? ______1.9. Résidence actuelle? ______1.10a Avez-vous habité ailleurs pendant au moins un an? Y N 1.10b Où? ______Pendant combien de temps? ______1.11. Langue maternelle du sujet? E Yo I F 1.12. Langue maternelle du père? E Yo I F 1.13. Langue maternelle de la mère? E Yo I F 1.14. Usage de langue entre les parents? E Yo I F 1.15. Langue maternelle de l’épouse? E Yo I F For female subjects: Langue maternelle de la co-épouse? E Yo I F 1.16. Usage de langue du sujet à la maison? E Yo I F Si E, aussi l’usage de …? Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N

2. MULTILINGUISME 2.1. Si vous avez habité ailleurs pendant au moins un an (Nigeria, Porto-Novo, Ifè areas): Avez-vous bien compris leur langue? Yo: Y N / I: Y N

Vous avez parlé quelle langue là-bas? E Y I ___ 2.2. Est-ce que vous voyagez parfois chez les Yo / I? Où? ______

Souvent? ______(>1x/wk, 1x/wk, 2x/mth, 1x/mth, 4-6x/yr, 1x/yr)

Durée? ______2.3. Parlez-vous: Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N Si OUI: Quelle langue parlez-vous le mieux? Yo I F 2.4. Pouvez-vous toujours dire tout ce que vous voulez en Yo? Y N 2.5. Comprenez-vous: Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N Si OUI: Quelle langue comprenez-vous le mieux? Yo I F 2.6. Pouvez-vous toujours comprendre les locuteurs du Yo? Y N 2.7. Comment comprenez-vous le parler I? Le tout / La plupart / Un peu / Très peu / Rien 2.8. Ecoutez-vous des émissions à la radio en Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N Comprenez-vous tout ce qu’ils disent? Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N

Quelle émissions? Yo: ______, I: ______, F: ______

Souvent? dly / >1x/wk / 1x/wk / 2x/mth, 1x/mth

3. L’USAGE DE LA LANGUE 3.1. Quelle(s) langue(s) utilisez-vous Laquelle/lesquelles le plus souvent avec / au: parlent-ils avec vous? votre père E Yo I F E Yo I F votre mère E Yo I F E Yo I F votre épouse(s) E Yo I F E Yo I F vos enfants E Yo I F E Yo I F vos ami(e)s E Yo I F E Yo I F vos voisin(e)s E Yo I F E Yo I F les vieux E Yo I F E Yo I F champs/travail E Yo I F E Yo I F sous-préfecture E Yo I F E Yo I F marché local 21 ______E Yo I F E Yo I F marché régional ______E Yo I F E Yo I F locuteurs Yo E Yo I F E Yo I F locuteurs I E Yo I F E Yo I F 3.2. Avez-vous des enfants? Y N Parlent-ils: E: Y N / Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N Ils l’ont appris à quel âge? E: ___ / Yo: ___ / I: ___ / F: ___ Comprennent-ils? E: Y N / Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N Ils l’ont appris à quel âge? E: ___ / Yo: ___ / I: ___ / F: ___

21 Specify locality.

3.3. A partir de quel âge les enfants ici au village peuvent-ils comprendre un locuteur de …? Yo ___ ans, I ___ ans 3.4. Quelle(s) langue(s) parlent les enfants de ce village quand ils jouent avec d’autres enfants?

E: E Yo I Yo: E Yo I I: E Yo I

4. ATTITUDES ENVERS DES LANGUES 4.1. Les jeunes gens parlent-ils E comme il faut? Y N Si NON, comment voyez-vous cela? bon / mauvais / ______Pourquoi? 4.2. Est-il bon de pouvoir parler et comprendre …? Yo: Y N Pourquoi? I: Y N Pourquoi? F: Y N Pourquoi? 4. 4.3. Si un étranger veut apprendre votre langue dans cette région, où devrait-il s’installer pour apprendre l’E pur? Pourquoi?

5. ALPHABETISATION 5.1. Pouvez-vous lire? Yo: Y N, I: Y N, F: Y N Pouvez-vous écrire? Yo: Y N, I: Y N, F: Y N

Quoi? Yo: ______, I: ______, F: ______5.2. Avez-vous essayé d’écrire en E? Y N 5.3. Pensez-vous qu’il serait bon pour les locuteurs d’E d’être alphabétisé en E? Y N Pourquoi? 5.4. Voudriez-vous vous-même être alphabétisé(e) en E: Y N, Pourquoi? Yo: Y N, Pourquoi? I: Y N, Pourquoi? 5.5. Si on vous donnait la choix entre une classe d’alphabétisation en Yo et en I, vous choisiriez quelle classe? Yo I 5.6. Avez-vous jamais été inscrit dans une classe d’alphabétisation? Yo: Y N, I: Y N, ___: Y N (QSTs 1.6c, 1.8, 1.9, 1.16, 2.6, 5.5, 5.6 were not administered during Cabe, Ica and Idaca Surveys)

E.4. Non-formal education questionnaire

(11/96, SIL Togo/Benin) Effectué le ______à ______par ______Abréviations: E=surveyed Ede variety, Yo=Yoruba, I=Ifè, F=French, Y=Yes, N=No

1. PRESENTATION DE L’ENQUETE 1.1. Nom et fonction: 1.2. Langue maternelle? 1.3. Parlez-vous: Yo: Y N / I: Y N

2. INFORMATIONS DEMOGRAPHIQUES A. ALPHABETISATION 2.1. Des classes d’alphabétisation dans la région ici sont organisées dans quelles langues?

Distribution des langues par régions: 2.2. Existe-t-il des classes d’alphabétisation en E: Y N / Yo: Y N / I: Y N

Depuis quand? 2.3. Nombre de classes et le totale d’étudiants pour toute la région (male-female) – (par sous- préfecture s’il y en a plusieurs) 2.4. Situation régionale en ce qui concerne l’alphabétisation (géographiquement):

a) Régions fortes?

b) Régions faibles? 2.5. Comment les classes sont-elles organisées? (yearly schedule; number of students; number of classes/village; rate of successful students) 2.6. Lesquels sont vos projets/visions pour l’avenir à l’égard d’utilisation d’E / Yo pour l’alphabétisation?

Yo:

B. POST-ALPHABETISATION 2.7. Existe-t-il des classes de post-alphabétisation en Yo: Y N / I: Y N

Depuis quand? 2.8. Nombre de classes et le totale d’étudiants pour toute la région (male-female) – (par sous- préfecture s’il y en a plusieurs) 2.9. Situation régionale en ce qui concerne la post-alphabétisation (géographiquement):

a) Régions fortes?

b) Régions faibles? 2.10. Comment les classes sont-elles organisées? (yearly schedule; number of students; number of classes/village; rate of successfull students) 2.11. Lesquels sont vos projets/visions pour l’avenir à l’égard d’utilisation de Yo/I pour la post alphabétisation?

E.5. Church questionnaire

(3/92, SIL Togo/Benin) Effectué le ______à ______par ______Dénomination: ______Abréviations: E=surveyed Ede variety, Yo=Yoruba, I=Ifè, F=French, Y=Yes, N=No

1. PRESENTATION DE L’ENQUETE 1.1. Nom, fonction dans l’église, langue maternelle? Parlez-vous E/Yo/I? Nom et Fonction Lg mat ______E: Y N / Yo: Y N: I: Y N ______E: Y N / Yo: Y N: I: Y N ______E: Y N / Yo: Y N: I: Y N ______E: Y N / Yo: Y N: I: Y N ______E: Y N / Yo: Y N: I: Y N 2. INFORMATION GENERALE 2.1. La majorité au village est de quelle religion? Musl Chr Anim 2.2. Il y a quelles églises au village? ______2.3. Quelles sont les plus grandes églises? ______

3. L’USAGE DE LA LANGUE A L’EGLISE 3.1. Quelles sont les langues utilisées pendant le culte/la messe pour: lire les Ecritures E Yo I F _ prières (leaders) E Yo I F _ prêcher E Yo I F _ prières (congrégation) E Yo I F _ les annonces E Yo I F _ leçons du baptême E Yo I F _ l’Eucharistie E Yo I F _ les mariages E Yo I F _ chanter E Yo I F _ les funérailles E Yo I F _

3.2. Quelles sont les langues utilisées pour: la réunion des femmes E Yo I F _ la réunion des jeunes E Yo I F _ les drames ou la dramatisation des jeux E Yo I F _ les témoignages E Yo I F _ les prières pendant des études bibliques E Yo I F _

3.3. Si “prêcher” et “lecture” ne sont faits en E: Faites-vous une traduction en E? lecture des Ecritures: Y N; spontané préparé; traduction F->Yo: Y N prêcher: Y N; spontané préparé; traduction F->Yo: Y N 3.4. Si “lecture” et “prêcher” sont faits en Yo: Tous les membres comprennent-ils lecture des Ecritures: Y N / Qui ne comprend pas? Y – O / M – F prêcher: Y N / Qui ne comprend pas? Y – O / M – F 3.5. Il y a une classe de dimanche destinée aux enfants? Y N Quelle langue est utilisée? E Yo I F Les enfants, comprennent-ils tout? Yo: Y N / I: Y N / F: Y N

4. DISTRIBUTION DE LA BIBLE OU D’AUTRES MATERIELS ECRITS 4.1. Dans votre congrégation combien de personnes possèdent leur propres Bible en Yo? Quelques uns / La moitié / La majorité 4.2. Quelle Bible est utilisée à l’église? F Yo __

Pour la Bible en Yo: Quelle version est utilisée? ______4.3. Pour l’ancien version en Yo: Pensez-vous que tout le monde comprend ce qui est lu? Y N Qui ne comprend pas? Y – O / M – F 4.4. Savez-vous qu’il y a une version du NT en Yo courant? Y N L’avez-vous vue? Y N 4.5. Connaissez-vous des églises qui l’utilisent? Y N 4.6. (Show the photocopies) Pensez-vous qu’elle serait mieux comprise que les autres? Y N 4.7. S’intéresseriez-vous à l’utiliser? Y N Pourquoi? 4.8. Il y a du matériel en Yo dans cette région? Y N Lesquels (livres de prières, de chansons, journaux, syllabaires, etc.)

______4.9. Où se trouve l’endroit le plus proche pour acheter du matériel en Yo? 4.10. Le véhicule de l’Alliance Biblique passe-t-il par ici pour vous vendre du matériel en Yo? Y N

5. LA TRADUCTION DE LA BIBLE ET ENGAGEMENT POTENTIEL DE L’EGLISE 5.1. Selon vous, la congrégation préfère quelle langue pendant le culte/la messe? E Yo I F Pourquoi?

5.2. L’usage de E est-il encouragé par les responsables de cette église: pour le service? Y N pour les réunions différentes? Y N Lesquels? ______5.3. Avez-vous une raison qui vous fait croire que l’usage de E serait impropre pendant le culte/la messe? ______5.4. Il y a du matériel en E écrits par la congrégation pour leur usage? Y N Lesquels? 5.5. Les membres de votre église ont-ils exprimé leur intérêt de lire et écrire en E? Y N d’avoir la Bible en E Y N 5.6. Pensez-vous que la traduction de la Bible en E serait utile pour la congrégation? Y N Pourquoi? 5.7. Pensez-vous que la congrégation entière serait intéressée à avoir une traduction de la Bible en E? Y N Pourquoi? 5.8. Votre église a-t-elle déjà demandé à quelqu’un de venir faire une traduction de la Bible Y N Quand? ____ un programme d’alphabétisation? Y N Quand? ____ 5.9. Si vous aviez l’accord de vos supérieurs, seriez-vous intéressés de faire partie d’un programme multi-dénominationnel de la traduction de la Bible? Y N 5.10. Connaissez-vous quelqu’un qui présentement est engagé dans la traduction de la Bible? Y N la production du matériel en E? Y N

Appendix F. RTT text preparation

F.1. Rationale

The purpose of the Recorded Text Test (RTT) was to assess comprehension levels of narratives in both Yoruba and Ifè, as well as of Yoruba Bible passages during the third stage of the survey. The RTT is an indirect measure of comprehension as described by Casad (1974). Based on the evaluation of the subjects’ answers to comprehension questions inserted into a recorded text, two inferences can be made—one regarding the subjects’ general comprehension of the whole text, and one regarding the subjects’ general comprehension of the tested speech form.

F.2. Test preparation

F.2.1. Test texts

Personal narratives in both Yoruba and Ifè, as well as two Yoruba Bible passages, were recorded which were to be tested in various villages of the surveyed Ede communities. The Yoruba narrative was given by an L1 speaker of Yoruba from Porto-Novo, the variety regarded as the standard form of Yoruba for Benin. The speaker was C. Salou, head of the literacy department in Porto-Novo; the Bible passages were recorded by a female member of his family. The Ifè narrative was given by a member of the SIL Ifè language development team in Atakpamé, an L1 speaker of Tchetti, the variety chosen for Ifè language development. In order to compare comprehension results across translations, passages were chosen both from the revised 1987 New Testament in modern Yoruba, and from the 1960 Bible translation: Acts 10:1–23 was chosen from the 1987 translation, and Luke 19:11–27 from the 1960 translation (Bible Society of Nigeria 1960, 1987). The text preparation for the Yoruba texts was done by the Beninese research assistant, R. Aguidi, L1 speaker of Ica, while the Ifè narrative was prepared by the narrator from the Ifè language team. A word-for-word transcription was made for each narrative followed by a back translation of the narrative into French; for the Bible passages a French Bible translation (La Sainte Bible , Société Biblique de Genève 1979) was sufficient. Based on this translation, comprehension questions were devised covering a wide range of semantic areas. 22 These questions were translated into Yoruba or Ifè and then recorded by an L1 speaker of the speech variety of each text. The questions were interpolated into the texts at an appropriate point directly following the relevant information regarding the question. Each question was followed by a pause to allow subjects time to respond to the question. In order to ensure that the test was properly designed, the texts were pre-tested on four L1 Yoruba and five L1 Ifè speakers, respectively. The subjects were asked to answer the inserted questions in their own speech variety. These answers were translated into French by an interpreter and written down by one of the researchers. After the pre-testing the answers were

22 Yoruba narrative: 19 questions; Acts 10:1–23 and Luke 19:11–27: 15 questions each; Ifè narrative: 16 questions.

49 evaluated, and of the original questions 11–12 were chosen for the final test tape. 23 In addition, a base-line scoring system was devised for future scoring based on the responses given by L1 speakers. (See Appendix G for a complete transcription and interlinear translation of the texts, including comprehension questions and baseline answers.)

F.2.2. Practice texts

Before the actual RTT testing, subjects were given a practice text with inserted comprehension questions. The text and questions were in their L1. During the Cabe, Ica and Idaca surveys, subjects were given two texts in their L1 for practice purposes. These texts were as follows: 1. A short narrative, 1–2 minutes long, with five inserted comprehension questions, serving as a practice text in order to train people in how to take the test; and 2. A longer narrative, 3–4 minutes long, with ten inserted questions (hereafter referred to as the “hometown text”). The hometown text was used to screen all subjects in order to ensure their understanding of the testing method. Low scores ( ≤80%) on this hometown text indicated that the subjects had not mastered the test procedures and that other RTTs would, therefore, be invalid for those subjects. Consequently, these subjects were not tested with texts from other varieties. During the Kura and Northern Nago survey, it was decided to modify this methodology by using one narrative which was recorded and prepared with 15 final comprehension questions: the first 5 sections served as a practice and the final 10 sections were the hometown test. In order to qualify for the actual RTT testing, subjects had to score at least 80% of the final 10 questions.

F.2.3. Final test tapes

For the actual testing, five tapes were prepared. The first tape was comprised of an introduction statement in the language of the surveyed variety, 24 followed by the practice text(s). The remaining four tapes were comprised of the three Yoruba texts and the Ifè narrative with all questions having been translated into the surveyed variety. The four texts were rotated so that they were not presented in the same order to all subjects in order to guard against skewed results due to test fatigue or maturation effect.

23 Yoruba texts: 11 questions; Ifè narrative: 12 questions. 24 “We are studying your language. … We would like to know how well you understand the following stories. There are some stories easy to understand and some which are more difficult. In each story there are questions. The questions are about things which take place in the story. Listen carefully in order to be able to answer the questions correctly. Here is the first story.” (Nous sommes en train d’étudier votre langue. … Nous voudrions savoir si vous comprenez bien les histoires qui suivent. Il y a quelques histoires facile à comprendre et quelques-unes qui sont plus difficiles. Dans chaque histoire il y a des questions. Les questions concernent les choses qui se passent dans l’histoire. Ecoutez bien afin de répondre correctement aux questions. Voici une histoire!)

F.3. Scoring procedure

Based on the compilation of responses given by L1 Yoruba and Ifè speakers during the pre- testing of the texts, a base-line scoring system was devised for future scoring. Each response was first compared to the original text, and then compared to the other responses to determine the level of exactness which could be expected from an L1 speaker of the particular text. Therefore, if a portion of the original passage was not included in the responses given by L1 speakers it was not included in the baseline answer. These model answers served as the standard to which all future responses of subjects were to be compared. Each correct response was worth 1 point. All answers given during the actual RTT testing were compared to the final baseline answers. Each response that exactly matched the baseline answer was automatically given full credit. Any variation from the baseline was written down, evaluated separately in comparison with answers given by other subjects, and assigned either partial or no credit. (See Appendix G for baseline answers and Appendix H for the RTT baseline scoring system.) Before the final scoring of each subject, each script was re-checked by a second surveyor to insure scoring reliability. 51

Appendix G. Ede RTT texts: Transcription, interlinear translation, comprehension questions, and baseline answers

G.1. Yoruba

G.1.1. Narrative

1. dans anné e huitiè me dernier et je ré veiller dans matin, je vouloir de partir au village un Cela fait huit ans déjà, je me suis réveillé un matin, je voulais partir dans un village.

QST 1. [1 25 ] Qu’est-ce que le narrateur voulait faire? − aller dans un village

2. femme ma dire pour moi que ne pas non moi partir. je dire il faire obliger pour moi de partir Ma femme m’a dit de ne pas partir. Je lui ai dit que c’est obliger pour moi de partir.

quand la femme moi voir comme ça, femme moi avoir appeler les amies elle venir ne pas Quand ma femme a vu ça, ma femme (est allée) appeler les amies de venir pour

elles venir gongonner dire clairement pour moi que ne pas je partir. qu’elles viennent me dire clairement que je ne parte pas.

QST2. [2] Pourquoi sa femme est partie appeler ses amies? − pour lui refuser de ne pas partir

3. quand elles venir dire dire dire je dire je déjà é couter je moi ne plus partir non. aprè s, quand Quand elles sont venues me l’interdire, j’ai dit, j’ai entendu; je ne vais plus partir. Après tout cela

commencer dé but je rester dans là je moi avec lui, dans ensemble faire bruit et nous faire je suis resté là, elle et moi; nous faisons du bruit

amusement et nous nous amusons,

25 During the text preparation the question was originally designed as QST 1.

QST 3. [3] Ils sont fait quoi? − bruit / amusement

4. et pè re moi envoyer vers il que de je venir de venir rattraper lui regarder quelque chose. je et mon père a envoyé commission que je vienne, qu’il faut venir lui regarder quelque chose.

venir prendre vé lo je partir vers chez pè re moi quand je arriver chez lui il venir J’ai pris le vélo, je suis parti chez mon père; quand je suis arrivé chez lui

faire explication pour moi parole que je vouloir partir village à cause pour aussi être lui il m’a informé que, ce pourquoi je veux partir dans ce village, c’est à cause de cela qu’il m’a

aussi appeler moi pour. pour quoi? argent un en train je de chercher partir. appelé aussi. Pourquoi? Je suis en train de chercher une somme d’argent.

QST 4. [5] Il part dans le village pour faire quoi? − chercher une somme d’argent

5. quand je venir voir la je dire il bon, donc être courir être je partir vers village en question être Quand je l’ai vu là, j’ai dit: “C’est bon”; donc il faut que je cours pour partir dans le village en question; qu’il

partir chercher argent là venir. quand je prendre vé lo pour que mettre partir vers village faut que j’aille chercher l’argent là. Quand j’ai pris le vélo pour partir dans le village en question, mon vélo

en question vé lo moi ne pas travailler ne pas travailler. n’a pas travaillé, il n’a pas travaillé.

QST 5. [6] Qu’est-ce qui est arrivé a son vélo? − cela n’a plus travaillé

6. je venir partir vers chez les eux ré parer vé lo faire, quand je arriver là -bas ils rattraper moi Je suis partir chez les réparateurs (mécaniciens). Quand je suis arrivé là-bas ils ont réparé ce vélo, ce vélo a

faire vé lo ceci vé lo ceci travailler, de je vouloir prendre vé lo être je partir je voir que si je travaillé; je veux prendre le vélo pour partir, mais j’ai vu que si je n’ai pas un autre réparateur devant (en cours

rattraper avoir celui ré parer vé lo faire un dans derriè re ré pondre problè me pour moi si vé lo de route) ce serait un problème pour moi si mon vélo

moi venir gâter. je venir dire pour petit frè re moi un de il suivre moi petit frè re moi se gâte. Je suis venu dire à un de mes petits frères de me suivre (accompagner). Mon petit frère en question

en question dire lui il non pas suivre moi il refuser. a dit non, qu’il refuse de me suivre.

QST 6. [8] Qu’est-ce que son petit frère a fait? − refuser de le suivre

7. et venir dire pour dire que aprè s si nous partir si arriver je aller donner dans bouteille biè re Et je lui ai dit que si on va, à notre arrivé, je vais lui donner une bouteille de bière.

un. il aprè s prendre/accepter donc nous sortir sur route, ne pas arriver route tout de suite et Il a accepté et nous nous sommes mis en route, tout de suite là en partant et un camion est venu doucement là

nous rattraper partir doucement là et voiture/camion un venir rencontrer avec nous il venir en même temps pour nous

cogner nous. cogner ensemble.

QST 7. [9] Qu’est-ce qui leur est arrivé en route? − un camion les a cogné

26 During RTT testing in the Cabe area, an additional question was inserted here: “Qu’est-ce qui serait un problème pour lui?”

8. je attraper avant voir corps moi dans terre terre, petit frè re moi en question rien lui pas Je me suis retrouvé par terre; mon petit frère en question rien ne lui est arrivé.

faire. mais je moi proprié taire corps vrai pied moi être déjà rester dans ailleurs ailleurs. donc Mais moi-même, j’ai vu mes pieds de côté de côte (ailleurs, ailleurs).

tout os moi être déjà casser dans ventre/dedans pied là . Tout les os de mon pied étaient cassés dedans (à l’intérieur).

QST 8. [12] Qu’est-ce qui est arrivé à son pied? − les os sont cassés

9. ja voir celui ré parer voiture/camion moi faire être rattraper nous je dire de laisser/pardonner C’est mon réparateur que j’ai vu et je lui ai dit de pardonner,

de rattraper moi prendre voiture de ils prendre moi partir vers hôpital. quand ils prendre moi de prendre une voiture pour me prendre et partir à l’hôpital. Quand ils m’ont pris

je dire nous aller chez pè re moi dans maison en question avant de partir dans hôpital parce que j’ai dit nous allons aller chez mon père avant de partir `a l’hôpital parce que

argent un être pas dans main moi. je n’ai plus d’argent sur moi.

QST 9. [13] Il fallait faire quoi avant de partir à l’hôpital? − aller chez son père pour d’argent

10. mè re moi commencer par crier vous prendre moi oh! vous prendre moi oh ha! ils venir Ma mère a commencé par crier, au secours (sauve moi) oh! au secours oh! Ils sont venus

prendre moi arriver hôpital. quand je arriver hôpital là bas que je suis déjà envoyer appeler me prendre pour aller à l’hôpital. Quand je suis arrivé là-bas à l’hôpital j’ai envoyé une commission à ma femme

femme moi que je déjà mettre pied casser je rester dans maison hôpital. femme moi dire que j’ai (déjà) cassé le pied. Je suis à l’hôpital. Ma femme a dit

message faux que je non partir village là non plus. que c’est faux, que je ne suis plus parti au village.

QST 10. [15] Qu’est-ce que sa femme a dit? − que c’est faux / qu’il n’est pas allé

11. je dire les hommes rattraper dire pour que je déjà partir donc elle venir rattraper moi dans J’ai dit aux gens (hommes) d’aller lui dire que je suis déjà parti. Donc elle est venu me voir à l’hôpital.

hôpital. dans hôpital là je rester là jusque pour mois trois déjà eux déjà dire et que je C’est dans cet hôpital là que je suis resté pendant trois mois et puis ils m’ont dit de partir

partir maison déjà pied moi il dur un terre. à la maison, mon pied n’est pas dur (rétabli).

QST 11. [17] Le pied était comment? − pas dur / pas toucher le sol

G.1.2. Luke 19:11–27

(11) Ils écoutaient ces choses, et Jésus ajouta une parabole, parce qu’il était près de Jérusalem, et qu’on croyait qu’à l’instant le royaume de Dieu allait paraître. (12) Il dit donc: Un homme de haute naissance s’en alla dans un pays lointain, pour se faire investir de l’autorité royale, et revenir ensuite. 28 QST 1. [2] Pourquoi l’homme est parti dans un pays éloigné? − pour devenir roi

(13) Il appela dix de ses serviteurs, leur donna dix mines, et leur dit: Faites-les valoir jusqu’à ce que je revienne. QST 2. [3] Qu’est-ce qu’il a dit à ses esclaves? − faites-les valoir / faites du commerce

(14) Mais ses concitoyens le haïssaient, et ils envoyèrent une ambassade après lui, pour dire: Nous ne voulons pas que cet homme règne sur nous. QST 3. [4] Les gens ne voulaient pas quoi? − qu’il devient roi

(15) Lorsqu’il fut de retour, après avoir été investi de l’autorité royale, il fit appeler auprès de lui les serviteurs auxquels il avait donné l’argent, afin de connaître comment chacun l’avait fait valoir. QST 4. [5] Pourquoi a-t-il fait appeler ces serviteurs? − pour savoir ce qu’ils avaient gagné / pour savoir comment ils ont rouler l’argent: avec ou sans bénéfice

27 Bible verse number. 28 Translation from La Sainte Bible (Société Biblique de Genève 1979).

(16) Le premier vint, et dit: Seigneur, ta mine a rapporté dix mines. (17) Il lui dit: C’est bien, bon serviteur; parce que tu as été fidèle en peu de chose, reçois le gouvernement de dix villes. (18) Le second vit, et dit: Seigneur, ta mine a produit cinq mines. (19) Il lui dit: Toi aussi, sois établi sur cinq villes. (20) Un autre vint, et dit: Seigneur, voici ta mine, que j’ai gardée dans un linge; QST 5. [8] Le dernier serviteur a gardé (fait avec) son pièce d’or où? − foulard

(21) car j’avais peur de toi, parce que tu es un homme sévère; QST 6. [9] Pourquoi il craint son patron? − il est sévère

(21) tu prends ce que tu n’as pas déposé, et tu moissonnes ce que tu n’as pas semé. QST 7. [10] Où est-ce que le roi moissonne? − là où il n’a pas semé

(22) Il lui dit: Je te juge sur tes paroles, méchant serviteur; QST 8. [11] Le roi va juger le serviteur comment − sur ce qu’il a dit

(22) tu savais que je suis un homme sévère, prenant ce que je n’ai pas déposé, et moissonnant ce que je n’ai pas semé; (23) pourquoi donc n’as-tu pas mis mon argent dans une banque,

QST 9. [12] Qu’est-ce que le roi demande a son serviteur − pourquoi il ne l’a pas roulé à la banque

(23) afin qu’à mon retour je le retire avec un intérêt? (24) Puis il dit à ceux qui étaient là: Otez-lui la mine, et donnez-la à celui, qui a les dix mines. QST 10. A qui le roi a dit de remettre la pièce d’or? − celui qui a fait de bon commerce / qui a déjà 10 mines

(25) Ils lui dirent: Seigneur, il a dix mines. (26) Je vous le dis, on donnera à celui qui a, mais à celui qui n’a pas on ôtera même ce qu’il a. (27) Au reste, amenez ici mes ennemis, qui n’ont pas voulu que je règne sur eux, QST 11. [15] Qui sont les ennemis du roi? − les gens qui ne voulaient pas qu’il soit roi

(27) et tuez-les en ma présence.

G.1.3. Acts 10:1–23

(1) Il y avait à Césarée un homme nommé Corneille, centenier dans la cohorte dite italienne. (2) Cet homme était pieux et craignait Dieu, avec toute sa maison; il faisait beaucoup d’aumônes au peuple, QST 1. [2] Qu’est-ce qu’il a l’habitude de faire au gens? − il a pitié

(2) et priait Dieu continuellement. (3) Vers la neuvième heure du jour, il vit clairement dans une vision un ange de Dieu QST 2. [3] Quand est-ce qu’il a eu la vision? − 15h

(3) qui entra chez lui, et qui lui dit: “Corneille!” QST 3. [4] Qu’est-ce que l’ange de Dieu a fait? − il est rentré, il a appelé Corneille

(4) Les regards fixés sur lui, et saisi d’effroi, QST 4. [5] En regardant l’ange de Dieu, comment il se sentit? − il a eu peur

(5) il répondit: Qu’est-ce, Seigneur? Et l’ange lui dit: Tes prières et tes aumônes sont montées devant Dieu, et il s’en est souvenu. (5) Envoie maintenant des hommes à Joppé, et fais venir Simon, surnommé Pierre;

QST 5. [6] Qu’est-ce que l’ange de Dieu lui a dit de faire? − pour appeler Simon

(6) il est logé chez un certain Simon, corroyeur, dont la maison est près de la mer. QST 6. [7] La maison de Simon se trouve où? − vers la mer

Dès que l’ange qui lui avait parlé fut parti, Corneille appela deux de ses serviteurs, et un soldat pieux d’entre ceux qui étaient attachés à sa personne; (8) et, après leur avoir tout raconté, il les envoya à Joppé. (9) Le lendemain, comme ils étaient en route, et qu’ils approchaient de la ville, Pierre monta sur le toit, vers la sixième heure, pour prier. (10) Il eut faim, et il voulut manger. Pendant qu’on lui préparait à manger, il tomba en extase. (11) Il vit le ciel ouvert, et un objet semblable à une grande nappe attachée par les quatre coins, qui descendait et s’abaissait vers la terre, (12) et où se trouvaient tous les quadrupèdes et les reptiles de la terre et les oiseaux du ciel. (13) Et une voix lui dit: Lève-toi, Pierre, tue et mange. QST 7. [10] Qu’est-ce que la voix lui dit? − lever, tuer, manger

(14) Mais Pierre dit: Non, Seigneur, car je n’ai jamais rien mangé de souillé ni d’impur. QST 8. [11] Qu’est-ce qu’il n’a jamais mangé? − viande impur/interdit / n’importe quelle viande

(15) Et pour la deuxième fois la voix se fit encore entendre à lui: Ce que Dieu a déclaré pur, ne le regarde pas comme souillé. (16) Cela arriva jusqu’à trois fois; et aussitôt après, l’objet fut retiré dans le ciel. QST 9. [12] Où est-ce que l’objet est allé? − ciel

(17) Tandis que Pierre ne savait en lui-même que penser du sens de la vision qu’il avait eue, QST 10. [13] Qu’est-ce que Pierre se demandait? − il voulait voir l’explication de ce qu’il a vu

(17) voici, les hommes envoyés par Corneille, s’étant mis en quête de la maison de Simon, se présentèrent à la porte, (18) et demandèrent à haute voix si c’était là que logeait Simon, surnommé Pierre. QST 11. [14] Qu’est-ce qu’ils ont demandé? − si Simon est arrivé là / si c’est là où Simon loge

(19) Et comme Pierre réfléchissait à la vision, l’Esprit lui dit: Voici, trois hommes te demandent; (20) lève-toi, descends, et pars avec eux sans hésiter, car c’est moi qui les ai envoyés. (21) Pierre donc descendait, et il dit à ces hommes: Voici, je suis celui que vous cherchez; quel est le motif qui vous amène? (22) Ils répondirent: Corneille, centenier, homme juste et craignant Dieu, et de qui toute la nation des Juifs rend un bon témoignage, a été divinement averti par un saint ange de te faire venir dans sa maison et d’entendre tes paroles. (23) Pierre donc les fit entrer, et les logea. Le lendemain, il se leva, et partit avec eu. Quelques-uns des frères de Joppé l’accompagnèrent.

G.2. Ifè narrative

1. Une personne était à Akparé, on l’appela Kossiwa. C’était une femme très grosse,

QST 1. [1 29 ] Comment était la femme? − grosse

2. et elle était paresseuse. Elle ne faisait rien du tout. Mais son mari a fait beaucoup de champs.

Dans le village, elle était la seule qui était celle qui ne travaille pas. Quel travail faisait-elle?

Quand ses camarades sont allés sécher les choses, elle s’en allait pour enlever dedans, ou elle est allée voler dedans.

QST 2. [2] Elle s’en allait pour faire quoi? − pour enlever dedans / pour voler dedans

3. C’est le travaille qu’elle faisait. Si c’est le maïs, le manioc séché, le piment qu’on a séché,

elle est allée les enlever derrière elles quand elles sont tous parties au champ.

QST 3. [3] Quand est-ce qu’elle était allé enlever les choses? − quand elles sont toutes parties au champ

4. Alors il y a un jour et elle était repartie à la pierre de séchage et était partie ramasser le maïs d’une de ses camarades.

Cette pierre est loin de la maison comme deux kilomètres comme ça. Alors les arbres “anyi”

et “orokpo” encerclaient la pierre et si une personne arrive on ne peut pas la voir.

29 During the text preparation the question was originally designed as QST 1.

QST 4. [5] Pourquoi on ne pouvait pas voir les personnes qui arrivent? − parce que les arbres encerclaient la pierre

5. Alors, une femme, on l’appelait Adzo, elle était la soeur de son (Kossiwa) mari et elle est allée pour regarder son maïs sur la pierre.

QST 5. [6] Adzo était allée pour faire quoi? − pour regarder son maïs sur la pierre

6. Et elle est partie surprendre la femme en train de ramasser le maïs. Quand elle (Kossiwa) s’est tournée et l’a vu,

elle a pris la fuite, et elle a laissé son pagne.

QST 6. [7] Qu’est-ce qu’elle a laissé? − son pagne

7. Ce pagne, c’est elle seule qui porte ce pagne dans le village. Le pagne, personne ne l’a dans

ce village. Alors Adzo n’a rien dit. Elle a pris le pagne seulement, et elle est rentrée à la maison seulement. Le soir,

elle a pris le pagne et l’a emmené chez le chef pour le dire que: C’est ainsi qu’elle a séché le maïs,

et Kossiwa est allée ramasser le maïs. Quand elle l’a vu, elle (Kossiwa) a fuit mais elle a laissé son pagne. Voici le pagne.

Alors le chef a invité les siens. Le chef avait trois femmes.

QST 7. [8] Le chef avait combien de femmes? − trois

8. La femme qui avait volé aussi, elle avait trois enfants. Ce n’était que des filles.

Alors le chef a appelé ses conseillers, et ils se sont réunis. Beaucoup de gens se sont réunis.

Et ils l’ont demandé concernant l’affaire. On l’a demandé: Qui est allé ramasser du maïs sur la pierre aujourd’hui?

QST 8. [10] Qu’est-ce qu’on l’a demandé? − “qui est allé ramassé du maïs sur la pierre?”

9. Et elle dit que ce n’est pas elle. Ce n’est pas elle? Elle dit non. C’est bien. Ce qui va montrer que c’est elle immédiatement, elle va le voir.

Alors le chef a fait sortir le pagne, et l’a pris et l’a montré que c’est le pagne de qui? Et elle a dit que c’est son pagne.

Et qui a emmené le pagne à la pierre? Elle s’est tu. Alors le fait d’avoir ramassé le maïs est attribué à elle,

et on a su que c’est elle qui a ramassé le maïs. Et on a demandé à Adzo ce qu’il faut faire à elle (Kossiwa).

Maintenant, elle (Kossiwa) était la femme de son frère,

QST 9. [13] Qui était Kossiwa? − la femme de son frère

10. mais elle (Adzo) a dit qu’elle (Kossiwa) a volé du maïs d’elle depuis longtemps déjà, alors elle doit le rembourser à elle.

QST 10. [14] Qu’est-ce qu’elle doit faire? − le rembourser à elle

11. Les autres qui étaient là et les ont regardé chacun a dit: j’ai séché le piment. On l’a ramassé. C’est elle. QST 11. [15] Qu’est-ce que une personne a dit qu’elle a fait avec son piment? − elle l’a ramassé

12. Celle-ci a dit: J’ai séché les graines de courge, on les a ramassé. C’est elle.

Alors ceci a fait honte a son mari. Son mari n’a plus pu rester parmi eux.

QST 12. [16] Son mari a fait quoi? − il n’a plus pu rester parmi eux

Ceux qui étaient là, ils ont tous crié sur lui. Et chacun savait que c’est toi qui a volé mes choses,

c’est toi qui a volé mes choses. Alors mes frères, vous-mêmes, voyez que être voleur, ce que cela

entraîne, chacun doit le savoir. Mon histoire s’arrête là.

Appendix H. RTT baseline scoring system

Any response that exactly matched the baseline answer (see Appendix G) was given full credit. Any variation from the baseline was compared to responses previously evaluated during other Ede surveys and was assigned either partial or no credit according to those scoring criteria. New responses were assessed and added with their assigned credit value to the previous response list; the complete list is shown below.

H.1. Yoruba

H.1.1. Narrative

QST 1. Qu’est-ce que le narrateur voulait faire?

QST 2. Pourquoi sa femme est partie appeler ses amies?

QST 3. Ils sont fait quoi? 1 causer et s’amuser 0.5 causer

QST 4. Il part dans le village pour faire quoi? 1 il est parti en ville chercher de l’argent

QST 5. Qu’est-ce qui est arrivé a son vélo?

QST 6. Qu’est-ce que son petit frère a fait?

QST 7. Qu’est-ce qui leur est arrivé en route? 1 accident avec le camion 1 il fait accident

QST 8. Qu’est-ce qui est arrivé à son pied? 1 le pied est gâté 0 problème à son pied 0 il y a un différence de pieds 0 quelque chose avec son pied 0 il a un plaie

QST 9. Il fallait faire quoi avant de partir à l’hôpital? 0.5 pour prendre de l’argent 0.5 chercher de l’argent pour aller à hôpital

QST 10. Qu’est-ce que sa femme a dit?

QST 11. Le pied était comment? 1 il n’est pas encore guéri 1 le pied était déformé, il ne pouvait plus marché 0.5 on lui a dit que son pied ne peut pas touché le sol 0.5 son pied ne pouvait plus marcher 0 on lui a dit de ne pas marcher 0 il a touché le sol avec son pied

H.1.2. Luke 19:11–27

QST 1. Pourquoi l’homme est parti dans un pays éloigné? 0.5 il est parti prendre le pouvoir

QST 2. Qu’est-ce qu’il a dit à ses esclaves? 1 de travailler avec 10 choses qu’il leur a remis (subject did not know “mina”) 0 de le garder, de tenir l’argent 0 de ne pas toucher / monnayer l’argent 0 de ne pas monnayer l’argent 0 de ne pas faire l’argent là n’importe comment; de ne pas bouffer / déplacer 0 il demande aux gens d’amener au plus la somme qu’il leur a donné

QST 3. Les gens ne voulaient pas quoi? 1 de tourner / rouler l’argent 1 de multiplier l’argent 1 s’occuper de l’argent / fructification 1 faire le commerce 0 de ne pas monnayer / changer l’argent 0 dépenser l’argent 0 faire l’argent 0 faire la monnaie 0 faire le travail

QST 4. Pourquoi a-t-il fait appeler ces serviteurs? 1 il les demande le bénéfice de chacun 1 pour savoir ce qu’ils avaient gagné 0 pour savoir ce que les gens ont dépensé 0 pour savoir la dépense effectué par chacun 0 pour savoir ce qu’ils ont pris pour faire le commerce 0 comment chacun a travaillé avec l’argent là

QST 5. Le dernier serviteur a gardé (fait avec) son pièce d’or où?

QST 6. Pourquoi il craint son patron?

QST 7. Où est-ce que le roi moissonne? 1 au champ là où il n’a pas semé

QST 8. Le roi va juger le serviteur comment 1 parce que le serviteur a dit …

QST 9. Qu’est-ce que le roi demande a son serviteur 1 confier l’argent pour le retirer avec bénéfice dans une maison 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas mis l’argent dans la chambre là 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas mis l’argent là où on cache l’argent 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas mis l’argent là où on cache le bénéfice 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas mis l’argent là où on met l’argent 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas mis l’argent là où on met le bénéfice 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas donné l’argent à celui qui garde l’argent ou ceux qui veulent travailler avec l’argent 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas roulé son argent pour que ça aie / donne de bénéfice 0.5 pourquoi l’argent n’a pas augmenté 0.5 là où on met le bénéfice de l’argent 0.5 pourquoi il a laissé l’argent et n’a pas fait commerce avec l’argent pour avoir le bénéfice 0.5 pourquoi l’argent n’a pas augmenté 0.5 comment il a fait l’argent et n’a pas eu de bénéfice 0.5 pourquoi pas mis l’argent dans “ile-elé” (“bénéfice”) 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas multiplié / augmenté l’argent 0.5 pourquoi il n’a pas fait le commerce avec 0 pourquoi il a laissé l’argent et n’a pas faire commerce avec l’argent pour avoir le bénéfice 0 il demande l’argent 0 il demande le bénéfice 0 il demande comment il a trouvé l’argent 0 le bénéfice de l’argent; pour qu’il sache comment faire le commerce 0 pourquoi il ne lui a pas remis l’argent 0 pourquoi il n’a pas eu de bénéfice 0 il demande aux gens d’amener au plus la somme qu’il leur a donné 0 il a gardé son argent dans la maison 0 il n’a plus rien fait avec son argent

QST 10. A qui le roi a dit de remettre la pièce d’or? 0.5 tenir ça à celui qui a travaillé 0 prendre et donner à celui qui a beaucoup

QST 11. Qui sont les ennemis du roi?

H.1.3. Acts 10:1–23

QST 1. Qu’est-ce qu’il a l’habitude de faire au gens? 1 il fait beaucoup de bien / de bonnes choses

QST 2. Quand est-ce qu’il a eu la vision?

QST 3. Qu’est-ce que l’ange de Dieu a fait? 1 entré et appelé (subject forgot the name) 0 il a appelé l’ange

QST 4. En regardant l’ange de Dieu, comment il se sentit?

QST 5. Qu’est-ce que l’ange de Dieu lui a dit de faire? 1 d’aller appeler quelqu’un 1 d’aller appeler une personne 0.5 envoyer commission pour appeler Simon et Pierre 0.5 aller à Joppé pour voir quelqu’un qu’on appelle Pierre 0 de charger commission à Simon et Joppé 0 qu’on appel Joppé et Simon 0 qu’on appel Joppé et Pierre 0 envoyer commission à Simon et Pierre de devenir l’ange

QST 6. La maison de Simon se trouve où? 0.5 au bord du marigot

QST 7. Qu’est-ce que la voix lui dit? 0.5 tuer, manger

QST 8. Qu’est-ce qu’il n’a jamais mangé? 0.5 la viande 0.5 la viande sauvage

QST 9. Où est-ce que l’objet est allé?

QST 10. Qu’est-ce que Pierre se demandait? 1 il se demande ce qu’il a vu 1 ce qu’il a vu là 1 ce qu’il a vu et que ça lui a étonné 1 qu’est-ce qu’il a vu 1 ce qu’est-ce qui se passé 1 qu’est-ce qu’il a vu 1 il connaît pas le sens de ce qu’il a vu 1 il est étonné, il se demande “qu’est-ce que j’ai vu?” 0.5 il n’a pas compris ce qu’il a vu

QST 11. Qu’est-ce qu’ils ont demandé? 1 si Simon est là 1 est-ce qu’il est là 0 où se trouve la maison de Simon 0 ils demandent là où se trouve la maison de Simon 0 ils demandent là où se trouve Pierre 0 ils demandent là où se trouve Pierre; ils cherchent là où il habite

H.2. Ifè narrative

QST 1. Comment était la femme?

QST 2. Elle s’en allait pour faire quoi? 1 elle va voler 0.5 voler au champ

QST 3. Quand est-ce qu’elle était allée enlever les choses? 0.5 quand elles sont parties

QST 4. Pourquoi on ne pouvait pas voir les personnes qui arrivent? 0.5 à cause des arbres 0.5 il y a deux grands arbres tout prêt du roche 0.5 les arbres sont à côté de la pierre 0.5 il y a des arbres 0.5 il y a beaucoup d’arbres

QST 5. Adzo était allée pour faire quoi? 0.5 elle est partie ramasses son maïs sur la pierre 0.5 pour ramasser son maïs sur la pierre 0.5 parti pour voir à la pierre 0 pour battre le maïs 0 elle est partie chez son maïs

QST 6. Qu’est-ce qu’elle a laissé?

QST 7. Le chef avait combien de femmes?

QST 8. Qu’est-ce qu’on lui a demandé? 1 qui est parti voler sur la pierre 0.5 qu’est-ce qu’elle était aller chercher / regarder là où il y a le maïs

QST 9. Qui était Kossiwa? 1 la femme du grand frère 0.5 la femme d’un parent

QST 10. Qu’est-ce qu’elle doit faire? 1 elle va reprendre le (maïs) à Adzo 0.5 elle doit faire tout ce qu’on lui demande de faire; si on lui demande de rembourser la chose qu’elle a volé ou une somme 0 elle doit travailler

QST 11. Qu’est-ce que une personne a dit qu’elle a fait avec son piment? 0.5 rembourser le piment

QST 12. Son mari a fait quoi? 1 le mari s’est énervé et a quitté 0 son mari a eu honte

Appendix I. Ede word and phrase lists: Background information

I.1. Elicitation points

1. Benin Ede variety Elicitation points Original lists Double-checked wordlists Cabe (Savè) Savè Challa-Ogoyi Cabe (Tchaourou) Tchaourou Tchaourou Ica Banté Idaca Dassa Dassa Ifè (Tchetti) Tchetti Atakpamé Ije Sakété Issaba Kura 30 Alédjo Partago and Awotébi Mokole Angaradébou Nago (Northern –Manigri) 30 Manigri Manigri Nago (Southern –Kétou) 31 Kétou Kétou Nago (Southern –Pobè) 30 Pobè Pobè Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Porto-Novo Porto-Novo

2. Nigeria Ede variety Elicitation points Egba Abeokuta Ekiti Akure Ijebu Ijebu-Ode Ijesha Ilesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (from Ibadan) Ibadan

30 Neither listed in the Ethnologue (Grimes 1996) nor mentioned by Capo (1989). 31 Not listed in the Ethnologue (Grimes 1996).

3. Togo Ede variety Elicitation points Original lists Double-checked wordlists Ana 32 Sokodé Boko 30 Boko Ifè (Akparè) Atakpamé Ifè (Atakpamé) Atakpamé Moretan 30 Morétan Nago (Northern – Kambolé) Kambolé Kambolé

32 Listed in the Ethnologue (Grimes 1996:420) as an alternative name for Ifè; mentioned by Capo (1989:279). However, neither Ethnologue nor Capo mention Sokodé as a center for the language.

I.2. Details on elicited lists

I.2.1. Benin

1. Cabe (from Savè) Location: Savè Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: April 8, 1992 Location: Challa-Ogoyi Informant: Daudu, E.; male; 50 Researcher: Fisher, D. Date: February 3, 1993 Informant: Biaore, V.; male

2. Cabe (from Tchaourou) Location: Tchaourou Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: April 10, 1992 Location: Tchaourou Informant: Shafa, A.; male; 80 Researcher: Fisher, D. Date: January 29, 1993 Informant: Dakpano, P.; male

3. Ica Location: Bantè Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: March 23, 1992 Informant: Otchounda, M.; male; 49

4. Idaca Location: Glazoué Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: April 8, 1992 Location: Dassa Informant: Balogu, P.; male; 34 Researcher: Kluge, A. Date: April 19, 1993 Informant: Okoumossou; male; 40

5. Ifè (from Tchetti) Location: Tchetti Double-checked wordlist:33 Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: March 23, 1992 Location: Atakpamé (Togo) Informant: Lokossu, J.; male; 32 Researcher: Klaver, M. Date: June 16, 1997 Informant: Assogba, A. B.; male; 36

33 Double-checked by the SIL Ifè Bible translation team in Atakpamé.33 Double-checked by the SIL Ife Bible translation team in Atakpamé.

6. Ije Location: Sakété Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: May 1, 1992 Location: Issaba Informant: Affison, A.; male; 25 Researcher: Schmidt, J. H. Date: October 9, 1997 Informant: Adgibode, A.; male; 50 Deshamou, D.; male Olukosi, L.; male; 46

7. Kura (from Partago) Location: Alédjo-Koura Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: March 24, 1992 Location: Partago Informant: Toure, M.; male; 32 Researcher: Durieux, J.A Durieux-Boon, E. I. K. Date: July 17, 1997 Informant: Mahmar, K.; male

8. Kura (from Awotébi) 9. Mokole Location: Awotébi Location: Angaradebu Researcher: Durieux, J. A Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Durieux-Boon, E. I. K Date: April 9, 1992 Plunkett, G. Informant: Bankeduro, U. K.; male; 34 Date: July 18, 1997 Informant: Musa, M.; male; 44

10. Nago (Northern – from Manigri) Location: Manigri Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Odoun, K. D. (CENALA) Date: March 23, 1992 Location: Manigri Informant: Okpee, M.; male; 47 Researcher: Durieux-Boon, E. I. K. Schmidt, J. H. Date: May 7, 1997 Informant: Tjimba, B.; male; 54 11. Nago (Southern – from Kétou) Location: Kétou Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Location: Kétou Informant: Bakary, S.; female; 26 Researcher: McHenry, M. M. Date: October 10, 1997 Informant: Idohou, G.; male; 31 El-Hadja Sedikath; male

12. Nago (Southern – from Pobè) Location: Pobè Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: May 30, 1992 Location: Pobè Informant: Koussiwede; female; 35 Researcher: Kluge, A. Date: October 6, 1997 Informant: Olekou, I.; male Iwole, B.; male Adeoti, B.; male Adedra, A.; male

13. Yoruba (from Porto-Novo) Location: Porto-Novo Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Location: Porto-Novo Informant: Igué, M. A.; male; 30+ Researcher: Schmidt, J.H. Date: September 18, 1997 Informant: Peters, O.; male; 44

I.2.2. Nigeria

1. Egba 2. Ekiti Location: Abèokuta Location: Akure Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Informant: Latif, T.; male Informant: Ayedun, E.; male; 20

3. Ijebu 4. Ijesha Location: Ijebu-Ode Location: Ilesha Researcher: Igué, M. A. Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: March 29, 1992 Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Informant: Osundeko, T.; male; 24 Informant: Sukulubo, T.; male; 53

5. Ile-Ife 6. Ondo Location: Ile-Ife Location: Ondo Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: March 29, 1992 Date: March 29, 1992 Informant: Oladikpo, A.; male Informant: Idjadunnola, F.; male; 32

7. Owo 8. Oyo Location: Owo Location: Oyo Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: March 29, 1992 Date: March 19, 1992 Informant: Omosunyi, E.; male; 22 Informant: El Hadj A. Y.; male; 48

9. Yoruba (from Ibadan) Location: Ibadan Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Informant: Kareen, A.; female; 22

I.2.3. Togo

1. Ana (from Sokodé) 2. Boko Location: Sokodé Location: Boko Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Informant: Allandon, R.; female Informant: Affo, K.; male; 60

3. Ifè (from Akparè) 4. Ifè (from Atakpamé) Location: Atakpamé Location: Atakpamé Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Date: March 23, 1992 Informant: Akakpo, E.; female Informant: Kukom, D.; female

5. Moretan Location: Morétan Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: no date given (spring of 1992) Informant: Alokpenu, Ayebojè Agbo, K.

6. Nago (Northern – from Kambolé) Location: Kambolé Double-checked wordlist: Researcher: Igué, M. A. (CENALA) Date: March 24, 1992 Location: Kambolé Informant: Alassani, S.; male; 38 Researcher: Durieux-Boon, E. I. K. Schmidt, J. H. Date: May 8, 1997 Informant: Ibge, A.; male; 55

Appendix J. Ede wordlist: French glosses

(Swadesh adapted) Language (dialect) name: Alternative name: Place: Researcher: Informant(s): (Age: ) Native village

1. bouche 41. vent 2. oeil 42. nuage 3. tête 43. rosée 4. poil 44. pluie 5. dent 45. terre (non pas souillure) 6. langue 46. sable 7. nez 47. semence 8. oreille 48. chemin 9. cou 49. eau 10. sein (de la femme) 50. cours d’eau 11. main (bras) 51. montagne 12. griffe (ongle) 52. pierre 13. pied 53. maison 14. fesse 54. feu 15. ventre 55. bois (à brûler) 16. nombril 56. fumée 17. intestins 57. cendre 18. cordon (du ventre) 58. couteau (petit coupe coupe) 19. sang 59. corde 20. urine 60. lance 21. os 61. guerre 22. peau 62. lait (de vache) 23. coeur 63. viande 24. genou 64. chien 25. foie 65. éléphant 26. aile 66. chèvre 27. plume 67. oiseau 28. corne (de vache) 68. tortue 29. queue (de chien) 69. serpent 30. homme (homo) 70. poisson 31. homme (vir) 71. poulet 32. femme 72. pou de tête 33. mari, époux 73. oeuf (d’oiseau) 34. enfant 74. arbre 35. nom 75. l’écorce (peau de l’arbre) 36. ciel 76. feuille (d’arbre) 37. nuit 77. racine 38. lune 78. sel 39. soleil 79. graisse d’animal 40. étoile 80. faim

81. fer, métal 129. savoir 82. pot 130. connaître 83. ficelle (pour attacher) 131. compter 84. un/une 132. tousser 85. deux 133. siffler (par la bouche) 86. trois 134. parler 87. quatre 135. aboyer (chien) 88. cinq 136. sentir (la nourriture) 89. six 137. écouter 90. sept 138. jeter 91. huit 139. battre (avec bâton) 92. neuf 140. gratter (avec ongle) 93. dix 141. nager 94. envoyer 142. venir 95. marcher 143. assis 96. tomber 144. couché 97. partir 145. se mettre debout 98. voler 146. grand taille (homme grand) 99. verser (liquide) 147. petit taille (homme petit) 100. frapper 148. tous 101. mordre 149. plein 102. laver (un pot) 150. beaucoup 103. fendre 151. nouveau 104. donner 152. long (horizontal) 105. voler (dérober) 153. blanc 106. presser 154. noir 107. cultiver 155. rouge 108. enterrer 156. bon 109. brûler 157. rond 110. manger 158. sec 111. boire 159. chaud (il fait chaud) 112. vomir 160. froid (il fait froid) 113. sucer (le doigt) 161. qui? 114. cracher 162. quoi? 115. souffler 163. sommeil 116. enfler 117. engendrer 118. mourir 119. tuer 120. pousser 121. tirer 122. chanter 123. jouer 124. avoir peur 125. vouloir 126. dire 127. voir 128. montrer

Appendix K. Ede wordlists: Categories for similarity groupings

In the following, the criteria for decisions about similarity groupings of lexical items of the Ede wordlists are described. Allowing for a few modifications, the lexical similarity decisions were based on the principles provided by Blair (1990:31ff). Following these guidelines, two lexical items are considered phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same or very similar 34 and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar. 35 These guidelines do not consider the morphemic structure of lexical items, and therefore the question arose of how to deal with the polymorphemic word-structure for a fair number of the elicited items. 36 In a paper reviewing various methods of handling multimorphemic words in lexicostatistics, Probst (1992) draws special attention to two approaches. The first one requires a thorough morphophonemic analysis, which proves rather unfeasible in the context of sociolinguistic language surveys limited in scope and time. The second method, suggested by Schooling (1981), does not require a morphological analysis. In a survey of French Polynesia, Schooling compared lexical items as a whole and discarded reduplication and additional morphemes that occur in the same position. Given that a fair number of the elicited Ede data are marked by reduplication and additional morphemes and also given the limited scope of the lexicostatistical part of the larger Ede study, Schooling’s (1981) approach was chosen as the basis for the similarity judgments. Thus, a set of similarity judgment criteria (Criteria Set 1) was established that, following Schooling’s guidelines, disregarded differences in the morphological structure of the elicited items: 1. Additional morphemes were disregarded if they occur in the same position. 2. Reduplication, regardless of the nasalization of the vowel, was disregarded. 3. Class prefixes on nouns were disregarded. To explore how different similarity judgment criteria affect the lexicostatistical comparison of polymorphemic words, Probst (1992) proposed that a second, more rigorous criteria set be applied to the same data set. Thus, a second criteria set (Criteria Set II) was established that, following Probst’s suggestions, does not disregard differences in the morphological structure: 1. Pairs of complete words were compared. 2. Additional morphemes were included in the analysis. 3. Reduplication was included in the analysis. 4. Class prefixes on nouns were disregarded.

34 Nonvocalic segments are either exact matches or else they differ by only one phonological feature and this difference is attested in three pairs, and vowels differ by only one phonological feature. 35 Nonvocalic segments differ by only one phonological feature but are not attested in three pairs; vowels differ by two or more phonological features. 36 Tone markings were transcribed but were not included in the analysis due to ambiguities in proper weighting.

Appendix L. Ede wordlists: Elicited data sorted by gloss

1. bouche 2. oeil

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

3. tête 4. poil

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

5. dent 6. langue

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

7. nez 8. oreille

9. cou 10. sein (de la femme)

11. main (bras) 12. griffe (ongle)

13. pied 14. fesse

15. ventre 16. nombril

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

17. intestins 18. cordon (du ventre)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

19. sang 20. urine

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

21. os 22. peau

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

23. coeur 24. genou

25. foie 26. aile

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo ak ͡pá j Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

27. plume 28. corne (de vache)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

29. queue (de chien) 30. homme (homo)

31. homme (vir) 32. femme

33. mari, époux 34. enfant

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Nago (N) (Manigri) Owo Nago (S) (Kétou) Oyo Nago (S) (Pobè) Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

35. nom 36. ciel

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

37. nuit 38. lune

100

39. soleil 40. étoile

101

41. vent 42. nuage

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

102

43. rosée 44. pluie

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

103

45. terre (non pas souillure) 46. sable

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

104

47. semence 48. chemin

105

49. eau 50. cours d’eau

106

51. montagne 52. pierre

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) ø Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

107

53. maison 54. feu

108

55. bois (à brûler) 56. fumée

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) ø Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

109

57. cendre 58. couteau (petit coupe coupe)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ijebu Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijesha Ifè (Tchetti) Ile-Ife Ije Kura (Awotébi) Ijebu Kura (Partago) Ijesha Mokole Ile-Ife Moretan Kura (Awotébi) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Manigri) Mokole Nago (S) (Kétou) Moretan Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Ondo Nago (N) (Manigri) Owo Oyo Nago (S) (Kétou) Yoruba (Ibadan) Nago (S) (Pobè) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

110

59. corde 60. lance

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

111

61. guerre 62. lait (de vache)

112

63. viande 64. chien

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

113

65. éléphant 66. chêvre

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

114

67. oiseau 68. tortue

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Cabe (Tchaourou) Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

115

69. serpent 70. poisson

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

116

71. poulet 72. pou de tête

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

117

73. oeuf d’oiseau 74. arbre

118

75. l’écorce (peau d’arbre) 76. feuille (d’arbre)

119

77. racine 78. sel

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

120

79. graisse d’animal 80. faim

121

81. fer, métal 82. pot

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) (calabasse) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) (calabasse) Egba Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

122

83. ficelle (pour attacher) 84. un/une

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Moretan Kura (Awotébi) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Manigri) Mokole Nago (S) (Kétou) Moretan Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Ondo Nago (N) (Manigri) Owo Nago (S) (Kétou) Oyo Nago (S) (Pobè) Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

123

85. deux 86. trois

124

87. quatre 88. cinq

125

89. six 90. sept

126

91. huit 92. neuf

127

93. dix 94. envoyer

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ifè (Akparè) Ijebu Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijesha Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

128

95. marcher 96. tomber

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Cabe (Tchaourou) Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Idaca Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Mokole Ile-Ife Moretan Kura (Awotébi) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Manigri) Mokole Nago (S) (Kétou) Moretan Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Ondo Nago (N) (Manigri) Owo Nago (S) (Kétou) Oyo Nago (S) (Pobè) Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

129

97. partir 98. voler

130

99. verser (liquid) 100. frapper

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

131

101. mordre 102. laver (un pot)

132

103. fendre 104. donner

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Egba Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

133

105. voler (derober) 106. presser

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

134

107. cultiver 108. enterrer

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

135

109. brûler 110. manger

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

136

111. boire 112. vomir

137

113. sucer (le doigt) 114. cracher

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Cabe (Tchaourou) Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

138

115. souffler 116. enfler

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

139

117. engendrer 118. mourir

140

119. tuer 120. pousser

141

121. tirer 122. chanter

142

123. jouer 124. avoir peur

143

125. vouloir 126. dire

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

144

127. voir 128. montrer

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ifè (Tchetti) Ijesha Ije Ile-Ife Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

145

129. savoir 130. connaître

146

131. compter 132. tousser

147

133. siffler (par la bouche) 134. parler

148

135. aboyer (chien) 136. sentir (la nourriture)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

149

137. écouter 138. jeter

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijebu Ijesha Ifè (Tchetti) Ile-Ife Ije Kura (Awotébi) Ijebu Kura (Partago) Ijesha Mokole Ile-Ife Moretan Kura (Awotébi) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Manigri) Mokole Nago (S) (Kétou) Moretan Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Ondo Nago (N) (Manigri) Owo Nago (S) (Kétou) Oyo Nago (S) (Pobè) Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

150

139. battre (avec bƒton) 140. gratter (avec ongle)

151

141. nager 142. venir

152

143. assis 144. coucher

153

145. se mettre debout 146. grand taille(homme grand)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

154

147. petit taille(homme petit) 148. tous

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

155

149. plein 150. beaucoup

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Manigri) Ondo Nago (S) (Kétou) Owo Nago (S) (Pobè) Oyo Ondo Yoruba (Ibadan) Owo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

156

151. nouveau 152. long (horizontal)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) ø Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Ondo Owo Owo Oyo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

157

153. blanc 154. noir

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ije Ifè (Tchetti) Ijebu Ije Ijesha Ijebu Ile-Ife Ijesha Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

158

155. rouge 156. bon

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Savè) Egba Cabe (Tchaourou) Ekiti Egba Ica Ekiti Idaca Ica Ifè (Akparè) Idaca Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Akparè) Ije Ijebu Ifè (Atakpamé) Ijesha Ifè (Tchetti) Ile-Ife Ije Ijebu Kura (Awotébi) Ijesha Kura (Partago) Ile-Ife Mokole Kura (Awotébi) Moretan Kura (Partago) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Mokole Nago (N) (Manigri) Moretan Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Ondo Nago (N) (Manigri) Owo Nago (S) (Kétou) Oyo Nago (S) (Pobè) Yoruba (Ibadan) Ondo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

159

157. rond 158. sec

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Ile-Ife Kura (Partago) Kura (Awotébi) Mokole Kura (Partago) Moretan Mokole Nago (N) (Kambolé) Moretan Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

160

159. chaud (il faid chaud) 160. froid (il faid froid)

Ana (Sokodé) Ana (Sokodé) Boko Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Egba Ekiti Ekiti Ica Ica Idaca Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ije Ijebu Ijebu Ijesha Ijesha Ile-Ife Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Kura (Partago) Mokole Mokole Moretan Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Pobè) Nago (S) (Kétou) Ondo Nago (S) (Pobè) Owo Ondo Oyo Owo Yoruba (Ibadan) Oyo Yoruba (Porto-Novo) Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

161

161. qui? 162. quoi?

162

163. sommeil

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Awotébi) Kura (Partago) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

163

Appendix M. Ede wordlists: Percentage and variance matrices for lexical similarity

The following percentage and variance matrices for lexical similarity were computed by the computer program WordSurv (Version 2b.5d – Wimbish 1989; JAARS 1994). The program does not apply a linguistic comparative method to the data, and thus does not determine cognates based on historical analysis. Instead, WordSurv performs a count of the similarity decisions previously made and presents this count in a percentage similarity matrices (Wimbish p. 31). The application of two previously mentioned different sets of similarity judgment criteria resulted in the computation of two different similarity matrices: Computation I is based on Criteria Set 1 that disregards differences in the morphological structure of the elicited items, and Computation II is based on Criteria Set 1I that does not disregard differences in the morphological structure. (For more details regarding both criteria sets see Appendix K.)

164

M.1. Computation I

For this computation, differences in the morphological structure of the elicited items are discarded 1. Percentage Matrix

Ifè (Akparè) 94 Boko 92 91 Ifè (Atakpamé) 92 90 92 Morétan 92 88 89 88 Ifè (Tchetti) 86 85 88 89 88 Idaca 81 81 80 82 77 83 Ica 82 79 85 79 76 76 73 Ana (Sokodé) 74 72 75 74 73 75 79 68 Nago (N) (Kambolé) 66 66 67 68 67 72 73 64 83 Nago (N) (Manigri) 70 68 70 69 64 72 80 68 75 77 Cabe (Tchaourou) 68 65 67 65 60 69 75 65 69 71 93 Cabe (Savè) 72 71 74 72 69 72 72 68 63 60 72 71 Ijesha 70 70 72 72 69 72 74 67 67 63 75 75 90 Yoruba (Porto-Novo) 68 66 67 68 64 69 68 64 63 60 70 69 87 88 Ijebu 72 70 73 73 68 72 74 69 65 58 70 69 90 87 87 Ekiti 69 67 70 69 64 69 72 66 66 56 68 68 88 85 84 90 Ile-Ife 68 67 69 70 63 66 71 66 63 57 69 70 86 85 84 87 84 Yoruba (Ibadan) 69 66 70 68 65 67 69 69 63 55 69 69 83 86 80 84 81 85 Oyo 65 63 66 63 62 64 71 61 62 55 74 73 83 83 80 86 82 84 83 Egba 63 61 67 64 63 65 63 62 59 52 61 60 75 73 75 81 77 75 71 69 Ondo 67 67 67 67 64 66 65 61 57 52 59 60 80 78 78 80 79 77 72 71 74 Owo 70 67 69 70 67 74 77 64 64 63 75 74 83 87 80 82 78 81 78 78 69 69 Nago (S) (Kétou) 72 69 72 72 69 71 70 66 64 61 74 71 79 80 75 78 73 74 75 73 69 65 85 Nago (S) (Pobè) 72 69 72 71 69 73 71 67 66 64 70 67 74 79 71 75 70 69 71 68 65 64 82 86 Ije 62 58 59 60 65 62 57 58 64 63 60 56 57 57 57 57 53 54 49 55 52 52 58 59 59 Kura (Awotébi) 60 58 59 60 64 64 59 58 61 60 58 54 56 60 58 59 54 55 54 57 53 52 57 58 56 88 Kura (Partago) 48 46 47 46 44 48 47 46 49 49 50 45 47 47 45 46 44 45 45 42 46 39 42 47 44 48 47 Mokole

165

2. Variance matrix

Ifè (Akparè) 3.7 Boko 4.2 4.5 Ifè (Atakpamé) 4.2 4.6 4.2 Morétan 3.8 4.6 4.5 4.6 Ifè (Tchetti) 4.9 5.0 4.6 4.4 4.2 Idaca 6.0 6.0 6.2 5.9 5.9 5.3 Ica 6.1 6.4 5.7 6.4 6.2 6.2 7.0 Ana (Sokodé) 6.2 6.3 6.2 6.2 5.7 5.6 5.7 6.7 Nago (N) (Kambolé) 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.6 6.1 5.8 6.2 6.9 4.8 Nago (N) (Manigri) 6.5 6.6 6.5 6.5 6.2 5.8 5.6 6.7 5.6 5.4 Cabe (Tchaourou) 6.6 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.3 6.0 6.1 6.9 6.0 5.8 3.3 Cabe (Savè) 7.1 7.1 7.0 7.0 6.7 6.5 7.0 7.5 6.9 7.0 6.5 6.5 Ijesha 6.5 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.0 5.8 6.2 6.8 6.1 6.2 5.6 5.6 4.3 Yoruba (Porto-Novo) 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.2 6.8 6.5 7.2 7.6 6.8 6.9 6.5 6.5 5.3 4.6 Ijebu 7.0 7.1 7.0 6.9 6.7 6.4 6.8 7.4 6.8 7.0 6.5 6.6 4.8 4.8 5.2 Ekiti 7.2 7.3 7.2 7.2 6.8 6.6 7.0 7.6 6.7 7.0 6.6 6.6 5.1 5.1 5.7 4.7 Ile-Ife 7.2 7.3 7.2 7.1 6.9 6.7 7.0 7.5 6.8 7.0 6.5 6.5 5.5 5.1 5.7 5.3 5.7 Yoruba (Ibadan) 7.3 7.4 7.3 7.3 6.9 6.7 7.2 7.4 6.9 7.1 6.6 6.6 6.0 5.0 6.3 5.8 6.2 5.6 Oyo 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 6.9 6.8 7.0 7.7 6.8 7.0 6.2 6.3 5.9 5.3 6.2 5.4 6.0 5.7 5.9 Egba 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.4 6.9 6.7 7.5 7.7 7.0 7.1 6.9 6.9 6.8 6.3 6.7 6.1 6.6 6.7 7.1 7.2 Ondo 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.3 6.8 6.7 7.4 7.8 7.0 7.1 7.0 6.9 6.3 5.9 6.4 6.2 6.3 6.5 7.1 7.0 6.8 Owo 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.4 6.1 5.7 5.9 6.9 6.2 6.2 5.6 5.7 5.4 4.3 5.7 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.9 5.8 6.5 6.5 Nago (S) (Kétou) 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.0 5.8 6.4 6.9 6.2 6.3 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.2 6.1 5.9 6.3 6.2 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.7 4.6 Nago (S) (Pobè) 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.4 6.0 5.7 6.4 6.8 6.1 6.2 5.9 6.1 6.3 5.2 6.4 6.2 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 5.0 4.5 Ije 6.9 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.2 6.3 7.0 7.2 6.2 6.2 6.3 6.4 7.1 6.4 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.0 7.1 7.1 6.4 6.4 6.4 Kura (Awotébi) 6.9 6.9 7.0 6.9 6.2 6.2 6.9 7.1 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4 7.1 6.3 7.0 7.0 7.1 7.0 7.1 7.0 7.1 7.1 6.4 6.4 6.4 4.2 Kura (Partago) 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.0 7.0 7.7 7.9 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.8 7.0 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.6 7.7 7.5 6.9 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 Mokole

166

M.2. Computation II

For this computation, differences in the morphological structure are not not disregarded 1. Percentage matrix

Ifè (Akparè) 90 Boko 87 88 Ifè (Atakpamé) 86 85 89 Morétan 83 82 84 81 Ifè (Tchetti) 76 75 80 80 79 Idaca 77 78 78 77 71 75 Ica 77 76 79 74 70 68 68 Ana (Sokodé) 65 64 66 64 63 65 71 60 Nago (N) (Kambolé) 59 58 59 57 56 58 63 56 72 Nago (N) (Manigri) 59 56 59 57 52 59 69 54 61 67 Cabe (Tchaourou) 54 52 54 51 47 55 63 50 58 64 87 Cabe (Savè) 63 62 63 60 58 65 65 59 56 52 60 56 Ijesha 58 58 61 60 56 63 66 55 54 51 63 60 80 Yoruba (Porto-Novo) 53 52 54 51 49 55 55 49 48 51 60 57 76 76 Ijebu 63 63 64 61 59 65 65 60 57 53 58 55 86 82 76 Ekiti 60 60 63 58 56 63 63 57 57 51 54 54 80 79 70 89 Ile-Ife 51 53 54 53 47 52 60 50 50 51 61 59 75 76 78 78 75 Yoruba (Ibadan) 58 55 59 57 55 59 61 58 50 48 56 54 76 78 70 79 73 72 Oyo 52 52 54 49 46 53 58 50 49 46 56 56 72 71 66 77 72 71 74 Egba 54 52 56 53 51 55 57 53 51 46 53 50 68 68 60 77 72 67 63 63 Ondo 55 56 55 52 49 57 57 51 46 42 50 50 71 71 65 75 73 65 66 63 69 Owo 59 59 58 58 55 62 67 56 55 52 61 59 72 79 67 75 69 66 70 69 61 61 Nago (S) (Kétou) 59 56 61 60 58 62 60 54 50 50 60 53 70 71 58 68 63 59 66 63 61 55 75 Nago (S) (Pobè) 59 60 60 59 57 67 63 55 56 54 60 55 65 71 58 67 64 58 62 60 58 58 75 75 Ije 45 41 42 41 46 44 43 42 48 51 48 45 41 40 46 43 38 45 36 40 38 37 42 42 43 Kura (Awotébi) 51 47 48 47 52 50 48 47 48 47 44 42 49 48 43 50 46 43 45 44 44 43 48 47 45 77 Kura (Partago) 40 37 40 37 36 37 37 36 36 36 33 31 35 35 26 38 35 29 34 29 37 30 31 34 33 32 36 Mokole

167

2. Variance matrix

Ifè (Akparè) 4.6 Boko 5.3 5.1 Ifè (Atakpamé) 5.3 5.5 4.9 Morétan 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.5 Ifè (Tchetti) 6.0 6.1 5.7 5.6 5.3 Idaca 6.5 6.4 6.5 6.5 6.4 6.1 Ica 6.7 6.7 6.5 6.9 6.7 6.7 7.4 Ana (Sokodé) 6.7 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.2 6.1 6.4 7.1 Nago (N) (Kambolé) 6.9 6.9 7.0 7.0 6.4 6.4 6.8 7.2 5.8 Nago (N) (Manigri) 6.9 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.3 6.5 7.2 6.3 6.1 Cabe (Tchaourou) 7.0 7.0 7.1 7.0 6.5 6.4 6.8 7.2 6.4 6.2 4.3 Cabe (Savè) 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.7 7.1 6.9 7.5 7.9 7.1 7.2 7.0 7.1 Ijesha 7.0 6.9 7.0 6.9 6.4 6.2 6.7 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.2 6.3 5.8 Yoruba (Porto-Novo) 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.1 7.0 7.7 7.9 7.1 7.1 6.9 7.0 6.7 6.0 Ijebu 7.5 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.0 6.8 7.4 7.8 7.1 7.1 7.0 7.1 5.5 5.5 6.7 Ekiti 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.1 6.9 7.5 7.9 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.1 6.3 5.8 7.1 4.9 Ile-Ife 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.1 7.1 7.6 7.9 7.1 7.1 6.9 7.0 6.8 6.0 6.4 6.5 6.8 Yoruba (Ibadan) 7.7 7.8 7.8 7.7 7.2 7.0 7.6 7.9 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.1 6.8 5.9 7.2 6.4 7.0 7.1 Oyo 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.1 7.0 7.6 7.9 7.1 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.1 6.4 7.3 6.5 7.0 7.0 6.9 Egba 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.1 7.0 7.6 7.9 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.3 6.6 7.6 6.6 7.0 7.3 7.6 7.5 Ondo 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.1 7.0 7.6 7.9 7.1 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.2 6.4 7.4 6.8 6.9 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.2 Owo 6.9 6.9 7.1 6.9 6.4 6.3 6.6 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.5 5.2 6.7 6.2 6.6 6.7 6.6 6.5 6.9 6.9 Nago (S) (Kétou) 6.9 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.4 6.3 6.9 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.6 5.8 7.0 6.6 6.9 7.0 6.8 6.8 6.9 7.0 5.6 Nago (S) (Pobè) 6.9 6.9 7.0 6.9 6.4 6.1 6.8 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.4 6.9 5.8 7.0 6.7 6.8 7.0 7.0 6.9 7.0 7.0 5.6 5.6 Ije 7.0 6.9 7.1 6.9 6.5 6.4 7.0 7.2 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.4 7.1 6.3 7.1 7.1 6.9 7.1 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.4 6.4 6.4 Kura (Awotébi) 7.1 7.0 7.1 7.0 6.5 6.4 7.0 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 7.2 6.4 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.0 7.1 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.4 6.4 6.4 5.4 Kura (Partago) 7.5 7.4 7.6 7.4 6.8 6.8 7.4 7.6 6.8 6.8 6.6 6.5 7.5 6.7 6.8 7.5 7.4 7.0 7.4 7.0 7.5 7.1 6.5 6.7 6.6 6.6 6.8 Mokole

168

Appendix N. Ede phrase list: French phrases

Language (dialect) name: Alternative name: Place: Researcher: Informant(s): (Age: ) Native village

1. Il tomba (hier). 2. L’enfant tomba. 3. Il est en train de tomber. 4. Il tombera (va tomber). 5. Qui va tomber? L’enfant va tomber. 6. Est qu’il est tombé? Non, il n’est pas tombé. 7. Si (quand) il tombe, dis-le-moi. 8. S’il était tombé, il serait blessé (mais il n’est pas tombé). 9. Ne tombe pas! 10. Il a mangé (quelque nourriture) (hier). 11. Il est en train de manger (quelque nourriture). 12. Il mangera (va manger) (quelque nourriture). 13. Est ce qu’il est en train de manger? Non il n’est pas en train de manger. 14. Est ce qu’il est en train de manger? Il est en train de manger le poisson. 15. Si (quand) il mange le poisson, dis-le-moi. 16. S’il avait mangé le poisson, ça aurait été bon (mais il ne l’a pas fait). 17. Mange le poisson! 18. Mange ce poisson-ci! 19. Ne mange pas la viande! 20. Ne mange pas cette viande là! 21. Ne mange pas la viande en question! 22. Cet enfant-ci veut manger le poisson. 23. Il va manger les poissons. 24. Cet enfant-là (l’autre enfant) va manger la viande. 25. Il va manger toute la viande (tous les morceaux). 26. Qui est tombé? L’enfant en question est tombé. 27. Qui est tombé? Plusieurs enfants sont tombés. 28. Voici une maison. 29. Voici la maison de l’enfant en question. 30. Voici une marmite de fer. 31. Voici quelques marmites. 32. Voici quelques marmites de fer. 33. C’est ma marmite. 34. C’est la marmite de ma mère. 35. Il a cassé la marmite. 36. La marmite est cassée. 37. Voici la marmite cassée.

169

Appendix O Ede phrase lists: Elicited data sorted by gloss

Phrase 1: Il tomba (hier).

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

170

Phrase 2: L’enfant tomba.

171

Phrase 3: Il est en train de tomber.

172

Phrases 4: Il tombera (va tomber).

173

Phrase 5: Qui va tomber? L’enfant va tomber.

174

Phrase 6: Est qu’il est tombé? Non, il n’est pas tombé.

175

Phrase 7: Si (quand) il tombe, dis-le-moi.

176

Phrase 8: S’il était tombé, il serait blessé (mais il n’est pas tombé).

177

Phrase 9: Ne tombe pas!

178

Phrase 10: Il a mangé (quelque nourriture) (hier).

Ana (Sokodé) ε Boko ε Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) ε Ifè (Atakpamé) ε ε Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan ε Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

179

Phrase 11: Il est en train de manger (quelque nourriture).

180

Phrase 12: Il mangera (va manger) (quelque nourriture).

181

Phrase 13: Est ce qu’il est en train de manger? Non il n’est pas en train de manger.

Ana (Sokodé) ε ε ε Boko ε ε ε Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) ε ε ε Ifè (Atakpamé) ε εε Ifè (Tchetti) Ije ε ε Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan ε ε ε Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

182

Phrase 14: Est ce qu’il est en train de manger? Il est en train de manger le poisson.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole ε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

183

Phrase 15: Si (quand) il mange le poisson, dis-le-moi.

184

Phrase 16: S’il avait mangé le poisson, ça aurait été bon (mais il ne l’a pas fait).

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole ε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) ε Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

185

Phrase 17: Mange le poisson!

186

Phrase 18: Mange ce poisson-ci!

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole εε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

187

Phrase 19: Ne mange pas la viande!

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) ε Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

188

Phrase 20: Ne mange pas cette viande là!

Ana (Sokodé) ε Boko Cabe (Savè) ε ε Cabe (Tchaourou) ε Egba ε Ekiti ε Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) ε ε Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha ε Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole ε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) ε Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) ε

189

Phrase 21: Ne mange pas la viande en question!

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) ε Egba Ekiti ε Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife ε Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

190

Phrase 22: Cet enfant-ci veut manger le poisson.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu ε Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole εε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

191

Phrase 23: Il va manger les poissons.

192

Phrase 24: Cet enfant-là (l’autre enfant) va manger la viande.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko ε Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) ε Egba ε Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) ε Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu ε Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole ε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) ε Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo) ε

193

Phrase 25: Il va manger toute la viande (tous les morceaux).

194

Phrase 26: Qui est tombé? L’enfant en question est tombé.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti ε Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu ε Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo ε Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

195

Phrase 27: Qui est tombé? Plusieurs enfants sont tombés.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti ε Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu ε Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) ε Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

196

Phrase 28: Voici une maison.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) ε Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole ε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

197

Phrase 29: Voici la maison de l’enfant en question.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba ε Ekiti ε Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu ε Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole ε Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

198

Phrase 30: Voici une marmite de fer.

Ana (Sokodé) ε Boko Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) ε Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) ε Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) ε Mokole Moretan ε Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) ε Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo ε Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

199

Phrase 31: Voici quelques marmites.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

200

Phrase 32: Voici quelques marmites de fer.

Ana (Sokodé) ε Boko Cabe (Savè) ε Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) ε Ije Ijebu Ijesha Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) ε Mokole Moretan ε Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) ε Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo ε Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

201

Phrase 33: C’est ma marmite.

202

Phrase 34: C’est la marmite de ma mère.

203

Phrase 35: Il a cassé la marmite.

204

Phrase 36: La marmite est cassée.

Ana (Sokodé) Boko Cabe (Savè) Cabe (Tchaourou) Egba Ekiti Ica Idaca Ifè (Akparè) Ifè (Atakpamé) Ifè (Tchetti) Ije Ijebu Ijesha ε Ile-Ife Kura (Alédjo-Koura) Mokole Moretan Nago (N) (Kambolé) Nago (N) (Manigri) Nago (S) (Kétou) Nago (S) (Pobè) Ondo Owo Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan) Yoruba (Porto-Novo)

205

Phrase 37: Voici la marmite cassée.

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References

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