DOCSLIB.ORG

The Iranian Crisis and the Birth of the Cold War Benjamin F

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Iranian Crisis and the Birth of the Cold War Benjamin F Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2016 The Bridge to Victory: The Iranian Crisis and the Birth of the Cold War Benjamin F. (Benjamin Frederick) Harper Follow this and additional works at the DigiNole: FSU's Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected] FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES THE BRIDGE TO VICTORY: THE IRANIAN CRISIS AND THE BIRTH OF THE COLD WAR By BENJAMIN F. HARPER A Dissertation submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2016 © 2016 Benjamin F. Harper Benjamin. F. Harper defended this dissertation on November 8, 2016. The members of the supervisory committee were: Michael Creswell Professor Directing Dissertation Mark A. Souva University Representative Will Hanley Committee Member Nathan Stoltzfus Committee Member Andrew Frank Committee Member The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the dissertation has been approved in accordance with university requirements. ii This small work, along with everything else in my life, is dedicated to Emily Izetta. I know who I married. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted in more ways than one to Florida State University and Dartmouth College for fostering an environment conducive to academic research. Thank you to the Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (ASMEA) for support in the form of a 2014 international research grant, which provided me the opportunity to work in Moscow, Russian Federation, and Baku, Azerbaijan. I am much obliged to Dr. Michael Creswell for his steadfast guidance, his patience, and his seemingly inexhaustible reservoir of resources and scholarship. To the remainder of my committee – Dr. Will Hanley, Dr. Nathan Stoltzfus, Dr. Andrew Frank, and Dr. Mark Souva – your dedication to your crafts and your guidance has been greatly appreciated. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES……………..……………………………………………………..................vi ABSTRACT…...…...…………………………………………………………………...............viii CHAPTER ONE: SETTING THE STAGE………………….........................................................1 CHAPTER TWO: THE SABER AND THE STAR: THE U.S. PRESENCE IN IRAN, 1942- 1946................................................................................................................................................26 CHAPTER THREE: IRANIAN PLURALITY AND THE REEMERGENCE OF AHMAD QAVĀM........................................................................................................................................60 CHAPTER FOUR: CRISIS ENSUES: ATOMIC DIPLOMACY AND QAVĀM’S COLD WAR..............................................................................................................................................91 CHAPTER FIVE: A NEW WORLD ORDER: THE IRANIAN CRISIS AND THE LEGITIMACY OF THE UNITED NATIONS...........................................................................133 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION: ON STATESMANSHIP AND POWER…..........................159 WORKS CITED………………………………………………………………………..............173 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH……………………………………..…………………….............192 v LIST OF FIGURES 2-1: Iranian warship Babr, sunk by the HMAS Yarra, an Australian vessel servicing the Commonwealth and directed by British naval forces, on 25 August 1941.......................32 2-2: Soviet and British soldiers rendezvous near Qazvin..............................................................33 2-3: Soviet tankmen of the 6th Armoured Division drive through the streets of Tabriz on their T-26 battle tank .........................................................................................................33 2-4: Indian troops guarding the Abadan Refinery in Iran, 4 September 1941...............................34 2-5: A Persian Gulf Command service road bridges a gorge at Talehzang, north of Dezful..................................................................................................................................45 2-6: A group of U.S. senators inspects Iranian waterfront installations developed to speed the flow of American supplies to Russia, (Office of Technical Information)..............46 2-7: The Saber and Star Persian Gulf Command Insignia.............................................................52 2-8: This photo is of U.S. ships docked in the Persian Gulf port of Khorramshahr, unloading supplies and equipment for U.S. troops in the PGC as well as Lend Lease material destined for the Soviet Union....................................................................................52 2-9: Map of the PGC Railway and Highway, including Camps, Posts, and Stations....................53 3-1: Throngs of Constitutionalists seeking bast at the British embassy in Tehran,1906...............66 3-2: A Young Mohammed Mossadegh, likely in his 30s.............................................................84 3-3: Muzaffar al-Din Shah Qajar...................................................................................................85 3-4: Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (~18 years old at time of photograph) with his father Reza Shah, c. 1937..................................................................................................................85 3-5: Ahmad Qavām…………………………………………………...……….............................86 3-6: The Farman (royal proclamation of the Shah) of 1906 provides for the ushering in of a constitutional monarchy in Iran)…………………………………...………..............88 4-1: Winston Churchill, Harry Truman, and Joseph Stalin, Potsdam Conference, July/August, 1945..................................................................................................................96 4-2: Leaders of the Grand Alliance discuss matters at the Potsdam Conference, 1945................97 vi 4-3: George F. Kennan, c. 1947.........................................……………………………..............106 4-4: The first page of George Kennan’s famed telegram, sent from Moscow to the Secretary of State in Washington, D.C., 22 February 1946..................................................107 5-1: On 24 Oct 1945, Truman signs UN Charter. ..........................…….....................................142 5-2: From L to R: Ernest Bevin, Vyacheslav Molotov, and James Byrnes, Moscow Conference, December 1945………………..........................................................142 5-3: Edward Stettinius and Andrei Gromyko....................................…………..........................142 5-4: Sir Alexander Cadogan, UN, 1946……………………………….......................................143 5-5: Hossein Ala’, speaking with the British Pathé News at the height of the conflict in 1946....................................................................................................................……......143 5-6: UNSC 1st Session, January 1946.…………………………………................…................155 5-7: UNSC, January 1946.………………………………………………................…...............156 5-8: Hossein Ala’ addresses UN, March 1946…………………………….............……............156 5-9: Hossein Ala’ feeling triumphant after his address to the UN in March 1946 ….................157 vii ABSTRACT This work examines the Iranian Crisis of 1946 and its active role in shaping the Cold War that followed. It is intended to serve as a case study of how the United States was able to successfully flex its short-lived atomic monopoly and achieve its international objectives in the early postwar era by means of direct engagement with so-called “peripheral actors.” This writing engages with the robust academic field of U.S. foreign relations that over the past number of years revisited and reimagined the origins and driving forces of the Cold War. My own international archival research and comparative historiographical analysis supports the growing synthesis of the field, and it has led me to argue the importance of peripheral actors, and specifically Iran, in establishing the Cold War system. The claims that Soviet expansionism or American economic agendas were the sole agitants behind the emergence of the decades-long struggle no longer satisfies in lieu of the new materials and analytical approaches now available. While the Russians and the British jockeyed for positions of leadership within wartime- occupied Iran, the United States was welcomed into the region by many Iranians as a potential balancing force and check on European imperialism. The Soviet Union’s violation of a troop withdrawal agreement at the conclusion of the Second World War, coupled with its active support of Kurdish and Azeri separatist movements, aggressively tested the new and evolving international order. The primary objective of this work is to understand how the international community, in this case led by the United States, the Soviet Union, Iran, and the newly-formed United Nations, achieved a relatively peaceful withdrawal of Soviet forces from Iranian territory. I contend that: 1) Iran possessed, due to its wartime role and latent economic potential, a degree of leverage in negotiations with the United States and Russia that other nations did not; 2) that viii the Iranian prime minister, Ahmad Qavām, shrewdly manipulated both superpowers with his own brand of masterful statecraft while pursuing his own “Iran-centric” objectives; 3) that the United States used its preponderance of military, economic, and diplomatic might to effectively achieve its postwar aims; and 4) the primary actors in the crisis solidified
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Gainesville Iguana March 2003 the Anti-War Case Norman
    The Gainesville Iguana March 2003 The Anti-War Case Norman Balabanian The US Administration's case for war on Iraq is an utter failure; it is based not on fact but on innuendo and rhetoric. The US charges that Iraq "threw out" UN weapons inspectors in 1998 and is now concealing Weapons of Mass Destruction. The absurdity of all this is enormous, yet no well-informed voices opposing such claims can be found in the major news media. American citizens are, thus, ruled out from informed participation in making life-and-death decisions affecting them. What are the facts? The UN weapons inspectors were not "thrown out", as repeatedly claimed; rather - with just a few days notice - they were hastily withdrawn by the UN because the US and Britain warned that they planned to bomb Iraq! Which they did, and have continued ever since - an action not sanctioned by the UN and contrary to international law. Among the casualties of US mendacity in this regard are two courageous international public servants: Denis Haliday, former Asst Secy Gen of the UN and Humanitarian Coordinator in Iraq until 1998, who resigned following US bombing; and his successor, Hans von Sponeck, who resigned a year later under pressure from the US. Why would the US want a UN official who was acting in a humanitarian capacity removed? Was he perhaps taking his humanitarian concerns too seriously and complaining about the humanitarian disaster that US-supported UN sanctions were causing -- to that date more than half a million Iraqi children killed by the embargo imposed against Iraq? It is true that Saddam Hussein is a brutal dictator who has "gassed his own people" and "attacked his neighbors".
    [Show full text]
  • B-133258 Issues Related to U.S. Military Sales and Assistance to Iran
    J REPORT TO THE CONGRESS \ Issues Related To U. S. Military Sales And Assistance To Iran E -733258 Department of Defense Department of State BY THE COMPTROLLER GENERAL OF THE UNITED STATES ._ COMPTROLLER GENERAL OF THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON. n.c. 20~413 5-133 258 4 b a, To the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President pro tempore of the Senate This is our report on issues related to U.S. military sales and assistance to Iran. The review was made in compliance with the Budget and Accounting Act, 1921 (31 U.S.C. 53), and the Accountincj and Auditing Act of 1950 (31 U.S.C. 57). Copies of this report are being sent to the Director, Office of Management and Budget; the President and Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States; the Secretary of Defense; and the Secretary of State. the Comptroller General A__.of the United States - -- .~ -- .- .- CONTENTS -Page DIGEST i CHAPTER x 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Scope of review 2 *f 2 NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF ARMS SALES TO IRAN 3 Nature of Iran's military buildup Nature of U.S. arms sales to Iran 5 Makeup._ of U.S. sales 7 Evolution of the U.S. military role in Iran 7 U.S. economic assistance to Iran 11 3 SALE OF TECHNICAL ADVISORY SERVICES TO IRAN 12 EVOlUtiOn of TAFT 13 TAFT relationship to MAAG 15 some skills sold are in short supply in U.S. forces 17 Conclusions 17 GAO proposal . 18 Agency comments 18 4 RATIONALE FOR U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Us Military Assistance to Saudi Arabia, 1942-1964
    DANCE OF SWORDS: U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE TO SAUDI ARABIA, 1942-1964 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Bruce R. Nardulli, M.A. * * * * * The Ohio State University 2002 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Allan R. Millett, Adviser Professor Peter L. Hahn _______________________ Adviser Professor David Stebenne History Graduate Program UMI Number: 3081949 ________________________________________________________ UMI Microform 3081949 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ____________________________________________________________ ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road PO Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 ABSTRACT The United States and Saudi Arabia have a long and complex history of security relations. These relations evolved under conditions in which both countries understood and valued the need for cooperation, but also were aware of its limits and the dangers of too close a partnership. U.S. security dealings with Saudi Arabia are an extreme, perhaps unique, case of how security ties unfolded under conditions in which sensitivities to those ties were always a central —oftentimes dominating—consideration. This was especially true in the most delicate area of military assistance. Distinct patterns of behavior by the two countries emerged as a result, patterns that continue to this day. This dissertation examines the first twenty years of the U.S.-Saudi military assistance relationship. It seeks to identify the principal factors responsible for how and why the military assistance process evolved as it did, focusing on the objectives and constraints of both U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • YUGOSLAV-SOVIET RELATIONS, 1953- 1957: Normalization, Comradeship, Confrontation
    YUGOSLAV-SOVIET RELATIONS, 1953- 1957: Normalization, Comradeship, Confrontation Svetozar Rajak Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London School of Economics and Political Science University of London February 2004 UMI Number: U615474 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615474 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ” OF POUTICAL «, AN0 pi Th ^ s^ s £ £2^>3 ^7&2io 2 ABSTRACT The thesis chronologically presents the slow improvement of relations between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, starting with Stalin’s death on 5 March 1953, through their full normalization in 1955 and 1956, to the renewed ideological confrontation at the end of 1956. The normalization of Yugoslav-Soviet relations brought to an end a conflict between Yugoslavia and the Eastern Bloc, in existence since 1948, which threatened the status quo in Europe. The thesis represents the first effort at comprehensively presenting the reconciliation between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, between 1953 and 1957. It will also explain the motives that guided the leaderships of the two countries, in particular the two main protagonists, Josip Broz Tito and Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev, throughout this process.
    [Show full text]
  • Subtitling in the Iranian Mediascape: Towards a Culture-Specific Typology
    Subtitling in the Iranian Mediascape: Towards a Culture-Specific Typology Masood Khoshsaligheh1a, Saeed Ameri2a, Farzaneh Shokoohmand3a, Milad Mehdizadkhani4b Abstract Given the increasing pace of dissemination of cultural ARTICLE HISTORY: content across global borders, subtitling as a cost-effective Received May 2020 solution for rendering audiovisual programs is gaining more Received in revised form July 2020 popularity, even in societies, which have been traditionally Accepted July 2020 using dubbing as the dominant modality for foreign films and Available online August 2020 television series. Likewise, various types of subtitling practices have developed and are used in Iran both at official and non-official outlets. While official dubbing has failed in some aspect in addressing the growing interest of Iranian viewers of foreign content, a variety of non-professional subtitling has been filling the gap, and subtitling appears to be dominating the audiovisual media market. Despite such KEYWORDS: developments, the necessities of professional practice of Non-professional subtitling subtitling, including standardized guidelines, codes of ethics Amateur subtitling and practice, and training, have never been realized in Iran. Quasi-professional subtitling In the absence of a professional subtitling tradition, this Professional subtitling article presents the status quo of non-professional subtitling Subtitling for the d/Deaf and hard of into Persian and introduces the specific typology of this hearing practice in the Iranian mediascape. © 2020 IJSCL. All rights reserved. 1 Associate Professor, Email: [email protected] (Corresponding Author) Tel: +98-915-5012669 2 PhD, Email: [email protected] 3 Assistant Professor, Email: [email protected] 4 PhD Candidate, Email: [email protected] a Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran b University of Szeged, Hungary 56 Subtitling in the Iranian Mediascape: Towards a Culture-Specific Typology 1.
    [Show full text]
  • September 15, 1959 Mikihail Zimyanin's Background Report for Khrushchev on China (Excerpt)
    Digital Archive digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org International History Declassified September 15, 1959 Mikihail Zimyanin's Background Report for Khrushchev on China (Excerpt) Citation: “Mikihail Zimyanin's Background Report for Khrushchev on China (Excerpt),” September 15, 1959, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, TsKhSD Fond 5, Opis’ 30, Delo 307, Listy 49-79. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/117030 Summary: Mikhail Zimyanin, head of the Soviet Foreign Ministry’s Far Eastern department, reports to Khrushchev on the “new stage” in Sino-Soviet relations after the victory of the people’s revolution in China; China and the Soviet Union now share the common goal of developing socialist societies in their respective countries. Credits: This document was made possible with support from the Leon Levy Foundation. Original Language: Russian Contents: English Translation The victory of the people’s revolution in China and the establishment of the Chinese People’s Republic marked the start of a qualitatively new stage in relations between the peoples of the Soviet Union and China, based on a commonality of interests and a unity of goals in constructing a socialist and Communist society in both countries. … When discussing the overall success of the development of Soviet-Chinese relations during the first three years after the formation of the PRC, we must not overlook several negative features of these relations connected with the violation of the sovereign rights and interests of the Chinese People’s Republic, as reflected
    [Show full text]
  • Closed Groups, Messaging Apps & Online
    FIRST DRAFT'S ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO Closed Groups, Messaging Apps & Online Ads November 2019 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 5 CHAPTER 1 Understanding ad libraries 13 CHAPTER 2 Facebook groups 21 CHAPTER 3 Closed messaging apps 27 CHAPTER 4 Ethical considerations 37 Conclusion 43 3 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Carlotta Dotto is a research reporter at First Draft, specialising in data-led investigations into global information disorder and coordinated networks of amplification. She previously worked with The Times’ data team and La Repubblica’s Visual Lab, and written for a number of publications including The Guardian, the BBC and the New Internationalist. Rory Smith is a senior investigator at First Draft where he researches and writes about information disorder. Before joining First Draft, Rory worked for CNN, Vox, Vice and Introduction Truthout, covering various topics from immigration and food policy to politics and organized crime. Claire Wardle currently leads the strategic direction and research for First Draft. In 2017 she co-authored the seminal report, Information Disorder: An interdisciplinary Framework for Research and Policy, for the Council of Europe. Previous to that she was a Fellow at the Shorenstein Center for Media, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard's Kennedy School, the Research Director at the Tow Center for Digital Journalism at Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism and head of social media for the United Nations Refugee Agency. She was also the project lead for the BBC Academy in 2009, where she designed a comprehensive training program for social media verification for BBC News, that was rolled out across the organization.
    [Show full text]
  • Dynamics of Iranian-Saudi Relations in the Persian Gulf Regional Security Complex (1920-1979) Nima Baghdadi Florida International University, [email protected]
    Florida International University FIU Digital Commons FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations University Graduate School 3-22-2018 Dynamics of Iranian-Saudi Relations in the Persian Gulf Regional Security Complex (1920-1979) Nima Baghdadi Florida International University, [email protected] DOI: 10.25148/etd.FIDC006552 Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd Part of the International Relations Commons, and the Other Political Science Commons Recommended Citation Baghdadi, Nima, "Dynamics of Iranian-Saudi Relations in the Persian Gulf Regional Security Complex (1920-1979)" (2018). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 3652. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/3652 This work is brought to you for free and open access by the University Graduate School at FIU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of FIU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Miami, Florida DYNAMICS OF IRANIAN-SAU DI RELATIONS IN THE P ERSIAN GULF REGIONAL SECURITY COMPLEX (1920-1979) A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in POLITICAL SCIENCE by Nima Baghdadi 2018 To: Dean John F. Stack Steven J. Green School of International Relations and Public Affairs This dissertation, written by Nima Baghdadi, and entitled Dynamics of Iranian-Saudi Relations in the Persian Gulf Regional Security Complex (1920-1979), having been approved in respect to style and intellectual content, is referred to you for judgment. We have read this dissertation and recommend that it be approved. __________________________________ Ralph S. Clem __________________________________ Harry D.
    [Show full text]
  • Soviet-American Relations and the Origins of Containment 1941-1946: the Force of Tradition
    University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1988 Soviet-American relations and the origins of containment 1941-1946: The force of tradition Anita Louise Coryell The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Coryell, Anita Louise, "Soviet-American relations and the origins of containment 1941-1946: The force of tradition" (1988). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 5179. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/5179 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1976 Th i s is an unpublished m a n u s c r ip t in w h ic h c o p y r ig h t s u b s i s t s . Any f u r t h e r r e p r in t in g of i t s c o n t e n t s m u st be APPROVED BY THE AUTHOR. Ma n s f i e l d L ib r a r y U n i v e r s i t y of Mo n ta n a Da t e : , 1 , SOVIET-AMERICAN RELATIONS AND THE ORIGINS OF CONTAINMENT, 1941-1946: THE FORCE OF TRADITION By Anita Louise Coryell B.A., Rutgers, The State University, 1974 Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA 1988 Approved by: Chairman, Board of Examiners Dean, Graduate School lusrt/J Date UMI Number: EP40643 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
    [Show full text]
  • Soviet Wartime Management: the Role of Civil Defense in Leadership Continuity
    ,...- "'<;.' Ull C.:~Ul" U I .: ..2l. '\:: Central S GkJ ~ Intelligence ~~ Soviet Wartime Management: The Role of Civil Defense in Leadership Continuity Interagency Intelligence Memorandum Volume II-Analysis CIA HISTORiCAL REViEW PROGRAM RELEASE AS SANITIZED Tett Seeret Nll!M 8J-10005JX TCS J6tJI~J December 1983 rn"'' ~,... .._ Top Seuei Nl liM 83-10005JX SOVIET WARTIME MANAGEMENT: THE ROLE OF CIVIL DEF~NSE IN LEADERSHIP CONTINUITY VOLUME II-ANALYSIS Information available as of 25 October 1983 was used in the preparation of this Memorandum. TG& &GQl 8& TeF3 6cu et Tep Sec•o4 CONTENTS Page PURPOSE AND SCOPE....................................................................................... ix KEY JUDGMENTS ............................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER I. SOVIET STRATEGY FOR WARTIME MANAGEMENT...... I-1 A. Soviet Perceptions of Nuclear War ........................................................ I-1 B. Organizational Concepts.......................................................................... I-I CHAPTER II. WARTIME MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE........................... Il-l A. Influence of World War II ............................... :...................................... Il-l B. Peacetime Organizations and F~nctions ................................................ Il-l C. Organizations for the Transition to Wartime........................................ II-7 USSR Defense Council ........................................................................ II-7 Second Departments
    [Show full text]
  • Social Networking in Iran, P.4 , Download/1609
    Social Networking & Virtual Freedom of Association in Iran Research Report —March 2016 2 Contents Executive Summary 3 Introduction 5 The Iranian Context 7 The digital climate in Iran 8 Iran’s cyber defense 9 Digital policy under the Rouhani administration 10 Digital trends in Iran 12 Social Networking Sites (SNSs) and Messaging Apps (MAs) 13 The significance of SNSs & MAs 13 Civic activism via SNSs & MAs 14 The rise of SNSs in Iran 15 SNS popularity 16 MAs in Iran - A story of coercion and throttling 17 Providing homegrown alternatives for SNSs & MAs 19 Circumvention and Anti-Censorship Tools 21 Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) 22 Volunteer Activists Survey Report 24 Concluding Thoughts 32 Endnotes 34 Cover Photo: Ben Curtis / AP Volunteer Activists 3 Executive Summary Iran is a country that bans major international social media sites like Twitter or Facebook yet sees its highest state officials utilize the very social media channels it banned. This messaging applications (MAs) does not contradiction is the embodiment of make an exception for Iran. Rather the Iran’s relationship towards social media. opposite has been the case. In 2012, On one hand, conservative forces 29% percent used to spend at least 1 describe international social media tools hour a day on social media whereas as a ploy of Iran’s enemies (most notable now that figure has now skyrocketed the US and Israel) to spy on Iranians. On to 62%, of which 22% spend more than the other hand, Iranian companies are three hours a day on social media. Also trying to build parallel homegrown tools posting photos at least once or twice a for the Iranian market or convincing day has multiplied threefold, from 7% international social media companies to in 2012 to 25% in 2016.
    [Show full text]
  • ENCYCLOPEDIA of RUSSIAN HISTORY EDITOR in CHIEF James R
    GetPedia : Get How Stuff Works! Works! Welcome To GetPedia.com The Online Information Resource Providing You the Most Unique Content and Genuine Articles in the most Widest range categories. Browse and discover Information in each and every category. There are currently more than 500,000 articles to browse for. Business Communications Health & Fitness Advertising Broadband Internet Acne Branding Mobile & Cell Phone Aerobics & Cardio Business Management VOIP Alternative Medicine Business Ethics Video Conferencing Beauty Tips Careers, Jobs & Employment Satellite TV Depression Customer Service Diabetes Reference & Education Marketing Exercise & Fitness Networking Book Reviews Fitness Equipment Network Marketing College & University Hair Loss Pay-Per-Click Advertising Psychology Medicine Presentation Science Articles Meditation Public Relations Food & Drinks Muscle Building & Sales Bodybuilding Sales Management Coffee Nutrition Sales Telemarketing Cooking Tips Nutritional Supplements Sales Training Recipes & Food and Drink Weight Loss Small Business Wine & Spirits Yoga Strategic Planning Home & Family Entrepreneur Recreation and Sport Negotiation Tips Crafts & Hobbies Fishing Team Building Elder Care Golf Top Quick Tips Holiday Martial Arts Home Improvement Internet & Businesses Online Motorcycle Home Security Affiliate Revenue Interior Design & Decorating Self Improvement & Motivation Blogging, RSS & Feeds Landscaping & Gardening Attraction Domain Name Babies & Toddler Coaching E-Book Pets Creativity E-commerce Parenting Dealing with Grief
    [Show full text]