DOCSLIB.ORG

Master Thesis Analysis and Optimization of Rigid Pipeline

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Master Thesis Analysis and Optimization of Rigid Pipeline Faculty of Science and Technology MASTER’S THESIS Study program/ Specialization: Spring Semester, 2013 Offshore Technology/ Subsea Technology Open / Restricted access Writer: Sankaranarayanan Subramanian ………………………………………… (Writer’s signature) Faculty Supervisor: Prof. Daniel Karunakaran, Ph.D (University of Stavanger, Subsea 7 Norway) External Supervisor(s): Dr. Qiang Chen, Ph.D (Subsea 7 Norway) Title of Thesis: Analysis and Optimization of Rigid Pipeline Installation with Inline Structures Credits (ECTS): 30 Key words: Pages: ………………… Inline Structures, End Structures, Buoyancy, Rigid pipeline, Pipeline Installation, Orcaflex, + enclosure: ………… Riflex. Stavanger, June 10, 2013 Date/year i ABSTRACT Advanced modern technologies and growing demand for oil and gas has led to the discovery and development of smaller and remote fields that were once considered uneconomical. They are made economically more viable by employing a subsea development scheme and directing the output to existing platform for production and processing instead of having their own platform. This has necessitated the introduction of inline structures in the pipelines with the possibility to connect these remote fields when they are developed for production. However the presence of these structures introduces many installation challenges including increased weight and additional environmental loading. In some cases this might drastically reduce the limiting sea state for installation. For the scope of the thesis work, any structure in the middle of the pipeline with stiffness and weight greater than the pipeline is considered as an inline structure. A riser and pipeline installation using J-Tube pull in method is considered as the case study for analysis in the thesis. Analysis and parametric study of the installation is made with emphasis on the initiation phase to determine the limiting sea state for the safe installation of the pipeline. The main focus of the thesis would be to analyze the possibilities to optimize the limiting sea state for the installation of the J-tube seal with the help of buoyancy units by creating a neutrally buoyant catenary during installation. An attempt to develop a generalized optimization procedure to determine the optimal buoyancy unit configuration for all inline structure installation is made although the results indicate that it might be very case specific and a general method might not exist. Analysis to understand the influence of the type of buoyancy unit, the position on the pipeline catenary, net buoyancy, number of buoyancy modules and various other parametric studies are made. In addition, challenges encountered during an inline structure installation and the modifications required to carry out the installation from the vessel is briefly discussed. The analysis reveals that geometry of the buoyancy does not have appreciable impact. A sensitivity study on the added mass of the buoyancy shows that an increased added mass reduces the buckling utilization by its out-of-phase dynamic response with that of the catenary. Sagbend buckling is the most critical concern for installation and it is at its maximum when the structure is at the sagbend. It also reveals that the best results are achieved when the net buoyancy of the module is equal to the excess weight in the catenary due to the structure. A buoyancy unit that is offset from the structure provides better result than a similar module connected over the structure and also better results than the use of multiple buoyancy modules although this might be very case specific. Key Words: Inline structures, Buoyancy, Rigid Pipeline, Pipeline Installation, Orcaflex, Riflex. Sankar Subramanian, University of Stavanger iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This thesis is the final work to fulfil the requirement for Master of Science degree in the Offshore Technology at the Department of Mechanical and Structural Engineering and Materials Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Norway. This thesis work is carried out at Subsea7 Norway, starting from February 2013 to June 2013. The Author would like to thank the following people for their support and help in completing this thesis. My professor and faculty supervisor Prof. Daniel Karunakaran, Ph.D. for providing me the opportunity to work on the thesis at Subsea7 under his supervision and for his constant support, guidance and advice with the thesis work. Dr.Qiang Chen, my internal supervisor at Subsea7, for his enthusiastic sharing of knowledge and experience on the thesis work and installation softwares. He was always open to questions and patient while clarifying my queries. Prof. Ove Gudmestad, Ph.D., for his guidance and support during the entire master studies and for his inspirational lectures and for sharing his vast industrial experience. His dedication to the cause of education and science is truly inspiring. Employees at Subsea7 - Dr. Dasharatha Achani, Tommy Andresen, Markus Cederfelt, Heidi Aasen, Tore Jacobsen for their willingness to share their knowledge and experience and numerous assistance rendered to me. Subsea7, Norway for providing me with an opportunity to do the thesis at their office and providing me with an office work space and other facilities. My fellow students and friends, Isaac Ifenna and Indra Permana, who did their thesis along with me at Subsea7, for their inputs and help with the thesis. My friends in Norway, especially Mats Kohlstrom & Tor Edvard Søfteland, for the good times and friendship. Stavanger, 14th June, 2013 Sankar Subramanian Sankar Subramanian, University of Stavanger v Sankar Subramanian, University of Stavanger vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................... V TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. VII LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. XI LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................ XIII SYMBOLS ......................................................................................................................................... XV Symbols – Latin Characters ........................................................................................................... xv Symbols – Greek characters .......................................................................................................... xvi ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................... XVII 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Thesis Purpose and Scope .............................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Thesis Organization ....................................................................................................................... 6 2. OFFSHORE PIPELINES .............................................................................................................. 7 2.1 Historical Background ................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Pipeline System Components ......................................................................................................... 7 Risers .............................................................................................................................................. 8 Valve Assemblies ............................................................................................................................ 8 Pig Launchers and Receivers ........................................................................................................... 8 Inline and End Structures ................................................................................................................. 9 Internal and External Coating and Anti-corrosion systems ................................................................ 9 2.3 Pipeline Types & Concepts ............................................................................................................ 9 Rigid pipe ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Flexibles .......................................................................................................................................... 9 Composite ..................................................................................................................................... 10 2.4 Steel Pipeline Materials and Grades ............................................................................................. 10 2.5 Major Pipeline Projects ................................................................................................................ 12 3. PIPELINE INSTALLATION METHODS ................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Ormen Lange and Nyhamna Expansion the Ormen Lange Story
    ORMEN LANGE AND NYHAMNA EXPANSION THE ORMEN LANGE STORY 2001 PHASE 1 – DEVELOPMENT OF ORMEN LANGE AND NYHAMNA 2002 Nyhamna is selected as the land facility for the Ormen Lange gas. 2003 Start up of development offshore and onshore 2004 - the bigges ever industry project in Norwegian history. 2005 West Navigator starts drilling the world’s largest gas wells. 2006 Shell takes over as operator of Ormen Lange. First gas. 2007 PHASE 2 – ORMEN LANGE IN OPERATION 2008 First full year of operation. More wells are drilled. Tuning of the facility optimises production. First hot tap and x-mas tree installation from vessel instead of rig. 2009 2010 A fourth well template is installed north 2011 on the field. Start-up of subsea compression test pilot. 2012 PHASE 3 – FURTHER DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION OF NYHAMNA 2013 Start of the Nyhamna expansion project. Further development of Ormen Lange includes drilling of more wells, exploration of near field opportunities and seismic 2014 surveys. Photo: Lars Øvrum IMPORTANT FOR EUROPE. Ormen Lange exports natural gas to Europe, and has covered about 20 per cent of the UK’s total gas consumption since 2009. 20% Stable and reliable gas supply from Norway is important for ORMEN LANGE SUPPLIES EU countries that want improved utilisation of nearby resources THE UK WITH UP TO 20 PER - thereby reducing their dependency on gas import from outside CENT OF THE COUNTRY’S Europe. GAS NEEDS When the expansion project at Nyhamna is completed, the facility will be able to deliver gas equivalent to the consumption of 22 million homes in the UK and continental Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • The Future of UK
    NEW CHALLENGES FOR UK NATURAL GAS Steve R Jackson, Adrian J Finn & Terry R Tomlinson Costain Oil, Gas & Process Limited Manchester, United Kingdom ABSTRACT The United Kingdom’s self-sufficiency in natural gas has rapidly declined and for the first time the UK has become a net importer of natural gas. Dependence on imported natural gas is set to increase significantly. Some forecasts show the UK may need to import up to 40% of supplies by 2010 and up to 90% by 2020. Winter gas prices are now a factor of 10 higher than 4 years ago and this is seriously impacting big industrial consumers such as ammonia producers and power generators. At present, the main projected increase in imported gas is from Norway, mainly via the Langeled pipeline which landfalls in north-east England (carrying gas from the giant Ormen-Lange development by 2007/8) and from Europe via the existing Zeebrugge-Bacton Interconnector and the Balgzand-Bacton pipeline (operational by 2007). The latter two lines will link the UK with the European gas grid and may open up potential supply sources from the Former Soviet Union (FSU). Several LNG import terminal projects have been undertaken. The first to be completed is on the Isle of Grain near London, which commenced LNG imports during 2005. Two further LNG import terminals, Dragon and South Hook, are under construction at Milford Haven in Wales but will not be fully operational form some years. A further potential development is the upgrade of the former LNG import terminal at Canvey Island, near London.
    [Show full text]
  • The Future of Uk Gas Supplies
    October 2004 Number 230 THE FUTURE OF UK GAS SUPPLIES The UK’s gas reserves are declining. Government and from self-sufficiency to import dependency on the industry analysts estimate that by around 2006 the UK security of UK energy supplies.5 This is because gas is will no longer be self-sufficient in gas production and also integral to the UK’s electricity generation industry, so will revert to being a net gas importer. Gas is the that security of gas supply cannot be decoupled from largest proportion of the UK’s primary energy supply, security of electricity supply. Gas is expected to continue and gas-fired power plants are the main method of to play a large role in future electricity generation power generation. The UK will increasingly depend on especially as nuclear facilities reach the end of their gas imported from Europe and further afield. This operational lives and carbon emission reductions force POSTnote examines the UK’s options for dealing with a the modernisation or closure of older coal-fired power diminishing domestic gas supply and for ensuring future plants. The 2003 Energy White Paper does not set gas security. specific targets for the share of gas in the total energy mix. Instead the Government prefers to create a market Background framework which encourages investment in a diversity of The UK relies on gas to provide energy for heating and energy sources. However, estimates suggest that the electricity more than any other primary energy source.1 minimum share of gas in electricity generation will rise to 39% of the UK’s primary energy comes from gas, 46% by 2012 and some analysts suggest this figure compared with 35% from oil, 15% from coal, 9% from could be as high as over 60%.
    [Show full text]
  • Nord Stream: Not Just a Pipeline
    FNI Report 15/2008 Nord Stream: Not Just a Pipeline An analysis of the political debates in the Baltic Sea region regarding the planned gas pipeline from Russia to Germany Bendik Solum Whist Nord Stream: Not Just a Pipeline An analysis of the political debates in the Baltic Sea Region regarding the planned gas pipeline from Russia to Germany Bendik Solum Whist [email protected] November 2008 Copyright © Fridtjof Nansen Institute 2008 Title: Nord Stream: Not Just a Pipeline. An analysis of the political debates in the Baltic Sea region regarding the planned gas pipeline from Russia to Germany Publication Type and Number Pages FNI Report 15/2008 79 Author ISBN Bendik Solum Whist 978-82-7613-546-6-print version 978-82-7613-547-3-online version Project ISSN 1504-9744 Abstract This report is an analysis of the planned gas pipeline from Russia to Germany through the Baltic Sea known as Nord Stream. Although not yet realised, the project has, since its birth, been the subject of harsh criticism and opposition by a significant number of states that consider themselves affected by the pipeline. Whereas the Baltic States and Poland have interpreted the pipeline as a political- ly motivated strategy that will increase Russia’s leverage on them and threaten their energy security, the debate in Sweden was at first mostly concerned with the prospect of increased Russian military presence in the Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone. The potential environmental impact of the pipeline has been, and continues to be, an overarching concern shared by all the littoral states of the Baltic Sea.
    [Show full text]
  • Download the PDF File
    DWCS RECORD (April 2020) Key data Summary Projects 1004 ROV assisted 423 Diver assisted 398 Surface 183 Platform removals 134 Platform Removals Back-up 6 Pipeline Removals 210 Pipeline Repairs 67 Contingency Projects 87 Number of Cuts 6929 Platforms 2124 Pipelines 1694 Multistrings/Casings 705 Chains/Shackles 238 Flexible and Special Pipelines 637 Drill strings 64 Risers/Guide posts 655 Wrecks & Various items 1453 Fat/Demo Tests 323 Cuts Offshore 6606 Cuts deeper than 1000m water depth 256 Cut surfaces and Time Steel (sqdm) 91066 Coating/Concrete (sqdm) 417693 Total cutting time (hours) 15633 Deepest EPRS Shell USA - 1,600m Deepest CUT Production Scorpion Subsea 6,5” Jumper GOM - 2,745m Deepest CUT Exploration Chevron Texaco 8" Drill pipe Nigeria - 2,434 m DWCS RECORD (April 2020) Projects details Year Assisted Water Customer Project by Depth m Location Details Petronas/Franklin 2020 ROV 68 Offshore/Kemaman/MMA Vigilant Mooring Chain Cutting 2020 ROV 300 Allseas/Norway Cutting of Stud Bolt and Clamp Body Contingency Vattenfall/Global Marine/Dan Tysk 2020 ROV 25 Germany/Global Symphony Dan Tysk Inter Array Cable Replacement Reliance Industries Ltd/McDermott SA/Krishna Godavari Basin, East 2020 ROV 2150 Coast India/DLV2000 and Audacia Reliance KG D6 Project - Contingency Dubai Petroleum- UAE/Boskalis/Offshore Dubai/DSV- 2020 Diver 30 Constructor Riser Cutting Project 2019 Surface --- Shell/PD&MS/North Sea/Brent Alpha Conductors Cuts in air Spirit Energy/Heerema/53FA 2019 ROV 38 Platform North Sea/SSCV THIALF Cutting Truss Frame - F3FA THIALF
    [Show full text]
  • The Evolution of the Gas Industry in the Uk
    THE EVOLUTION OF THE GAS INDUSTRY IN THE UK A case study prepared for the International Gas Union’s Gas Market Integration Task Force. 1 The objective of this paper is to use the gas The Evolution of the Gas market integration (GMI) model as a framework Industry in the UK to describe the evolution of the UK gas market. It provides a descriptive retrospective from the gas By Calliope Webber monopoly years to the fully liberated market today through three lenses of policy frameworks. It poses The rise of the United Kingdom’s gas market and the challenges and outlook for the future given the its regional integration within the north-western infrastructure and price linkages that are currently European gas market over the course of more in play. than a century is a gas market integration success story. It is characterised by important energy policy l The monopoly years: launching British Gas changes and changing market circumstances both Originally, gas used in the UK was synthetic gas in Europe generally as well as at an intra- manufactured from coal (or “town”) gas, and the regional level. market was run primarily by county councils and The world’s first commercial LNG delivery was made from Algeria to the UK by the Methane Princess with the shipment arriving at Canvey Island on October 12, 1964. 2 T he E volution of the G as I ndustry in the U K small private firms. After World War II that Up until 1986, the state-owned British Gas held changed with the Gas Act of 1948, which the monopoly for the sale and distribution of nat- nationalised the UK gas industry.
    [Show full text]
  • DONG ENERGY A/S A.9.4.1.1 (Incorporated As a Public Limited Company in Denmark with CVR Number 36213728) A.9.4.1.2
    Level: 2 – From: 2 – Friday, April 17, 2009 – 10:30 – eprint6 – 4093 Intro DONG ENERGY A/S A.9.4.1.1 (incorporated as a public limited company in Denmark with CVR number 36213728) A.9.4.1.2 €3,000,000,000 A.13.4.1 Debt Issuance Programme Under the Debt Issuance Programme described in this Prospectus (the “Programme”), DONG Energy A/S (the “Issuer”), subject to compliance with all relevant laws, regulations and directives, may from time to time issue debt securities (the “Notes”). Subject to compliance with all relevant laws, regulations and directives, the Notes may have no minimum maturity and no maximum maturity. The aggregate nominal amount of Notes outstanding will not at any time exceed €3,000,000,000 (or the equivalent in other currencies), subject to increase as provided in the Dealer Agreement (as defined on page 94). Application has been made to the Financial Services Authority in its capacity as competent authority under the Financial A.13.5.1 Services and Markets Act 2000 (the “FSMA”) (the “UK Listing Authority”) for Notes issued under the Programme during the period of 12 months from the date of this Prospectus to be admitted to the official list of the UK Listing Authority (the “Official List”) and to the London Stock Exchange plc (the “London Stock Exchange”) for such Notes to be admitted to trading on the London Stock Exchange’s EEA Regulated Market (the “Market”). References in this Prospectus to Notes being “listed” (and all related references) shall mean that such Notes have been admitted to trading on the Market and have been admitted to the Official List.
    [Show full text]
  • Framework Agreement
    Norway No. 1 (2006) Framework Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway concerning Cross-Boundary Petroleum Co-operation Oslo, 4 April 2005 [The Agreement is not in force] Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs by Command of Her Majesty May 2006 Cm 6792 £8.00 Norway No. 1 (2006) Framework Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway concerning Cross-Boundary Petroleum Co-operation Oslo, 4 April 2005 [The Agreement is not in force] Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs by Command of Her Majesty May 2006 Cm 6792 £8.00 © Crown copyright 2006 The text in this document (excluding the Royal Arms and departmental logos) may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium providing it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material must be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the document specified. Any enquiries relating to the copyright in this document should be addressed to the Licensing Division, HMSO, St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ. Fax 010603 723000 or e-mail: [email protected] I N D E X Page Preamble 4 Chapter 1 General Principles 6 Article 1.1 Scope 6 Article 1.2 Definitions 6 Article 1.3 Jurisdiction 9 Article 1.4 Authorisation 9 Article 1.5 Health, Safety and Environment:
    [Show full text]
  • UK Gas Supply/Demand Situation & Prospects Dr. Mostefa A. Ouki
    UK Gas Supply/Demand Situation & Prospects Dr. Mostefa A. Ouki Manager, Gas & Upstream Nexant Ltd London, United Kingdom 15th Session of the UN ECE Working Party on Gas Geneva, Switzerland 18th – 19th January 2005 Primary Energy Supply UK Current Primary Energy Supply (%) • Natural Gas – one of the main Others Nuclear sources of energy supply 2% 9% • Over 30% of electricity Oil Coal generated in UK is gas-fired 35% 15% • Space heating - major energy end use • Gas projected to account for about 40% of electricity generation mix in 2010+ Gas 39% -1- 2003 UK Gas Situation (Sources: Cedigaz & UK DTI) • Proven reserves: 950 billion cubic metres • Gross production: 108 billion cubic metres • Net production: 102 billion cubic metres • Imports: 8 billion cubic metres • Consumption: 95 billion cubic metres • Exports: 15 billion cubic metres -2- Projected Gas Supply/Demand • Projected UK gas demand estimated at ~ 110 to 115 bcm by 2010 • Decline of indigenous energy supplies • UK gas production projected to decline rapidly by end of this decade • Gas supply deficit projected to emerge in 2006/07 (concerns about winter peak requirements) • Projected shift from gas “self-sufficiency to import dependency” • Sources of gas imports: Europe, North Africa & Middle East + (Russia?) • Diversification of gas supplies and supply routes sought -3- Existing and Planned Gas Imports Projects for UK market Gas Pipelines • Imports through the expanded UK-Belgium Interconnector • Vesterled pipeline from Norway to UK (existing) • Balgzand (BBL) pipeline from the
    [Show full text]
  • Gas Ten Year Statement
    Gas Ten Year Statement UK gas transmission DECEMBER 2011 Gas Transportation Ten Year Statement 2011 Cover Picture Ship name - “Arctic Princess” - Phase 3 Commissioning cargo docking at the Isle of Grain LNG1 terminal 17th November 2010. When built, the Arctic Princess was the largest LNG ship ever built. It has 3 a capacity around 147,000 m of LNG. It is 288m long and 49m wide. LNG is natural gas cooled to -162OC and takes up approximately 600 times less space than when in a gaseous state. This equates to total capacity around 88mcm2 for this ship, which is approximately 1,000 GWh, the total annual demand3 of about 65,000 average UK households. 1 Liquefied Natural Gas 2 Million Cubic Metres 3 Weather corrected actual Page 2 Gas Transportation Ten Year Statement 2011 Foreword Statistics (DUKES2 categories Public Administration and Commercial), Industry and Transport and uses a bottom-up approach that starts at the finest level of detail practical. Welcome to the 2011 edition of the Gas In contrast to the bottom-up approach Ten Year Statement. I hope that you find it used in Gone Green, Slow an informative and useful document. As in Progression uses econometric previous years, the purpose of this modelling at a sector level for both gas document is to set out our assessment of and electricity projections. Demand is the future demand and supply position for related to a number of factors, natural gas in the United Kingdom, and the including fuel price, economic growth consequences for operation of the gas and number of houses.
    [Show full text]
  • The European Gas and Oil Market: the Role of Norway
    NoteNote dede l’Ifril’Ifri The European Gas and Oil Market: The Role of Norway Florentina Harbo October 2008 Gouvernance européenne et géopolitique de l’énergie The Institut Français des Relations Internationales (Ifri) is a research center and a forum for debate on major international political and economic issues. Headed by Thierry de Montbrial since its founding in 1979, Ifri is a non-governmental and a non-profit organization. As an independent think tank, Ifri sets its own research agenda, publishing its findings regularly for a global audience. Using an interdisciplinary approach, Ifri brings together political and economic decision-makers, researchers and internationally renowned experts to animate its debate and research activities. With offices in Paris and Brussels, Ifri stands out as one of the rare French think tanks to have positioned itself at the very heart of European debate. The opinions expressed in this text are the responsibility of the authors alone. ISBN : 978-2-86592-397-7 © All rights reserved, Ifri, 2008 IFRI IFRI-BRUSSELS 27 RUE DE LA PROCESSION RUE MARIE-THÉRÈSE, 21 75740 PARIS CEDEX 15 1000 - BRUSSELS, BELGIUM TÉL. : 33 (0)1 40 61 60 00 TEL: 00 (+32) 2 238 51 10 FAX: 33 (0)1 40 61 60 60 E-MAIL: [email protected] EMAIL : [email protected] WEBSITE: ifri.org Gouvernance européenne et géopolitique de l’énergie The original feature of this program is to integrate European governance and energy geopolitics. The program highlights emerging key issues and delivers insight and analysis in order to educate policy makers and influence public policy.
    [Show full text]
  • Langeled: Pipe Capacity Vs
    International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering (ISSN 1053-5381) Copyright© byThe International Societyof Offshore and Polar Engineers Vol. 18, No. 3, September 2008, pp. 188–195 Langeled: Pipe Capacity vs. Wall Thickness Selection R. Bruschi, L. Vitali, E. Torselletti and D. Zenobi Snamprogetti SpA, Dept., Fano (PU), Italy A. Johannessen and R. Holme Statoil ASA, Stavanger, Norway The Langeled Pipeline South (LPS) is characterized by a large diameter and thin steel wall, giving rise to an outer diameter-to-thickness ratio, D/t, larger than 45. The local buckling design equation in DNV OS F101 is explicitly defined as applicable to a pipe D/t ratio equal to or lower that 45. It was then necessary to investigate if DNV OS F101 could also be made applicable as a project guideline for D/t > 45. The scope of this paper is to present the results of a desk study carried out during the project development; the study aimed to verify the applicability of the local buckling design equations enclosed in DNV OS F101. In particular, the following aspects are discussed in the paper: Finite Element Modeling of the pipe section of the LPS, including weld misalignment and the specified geometric tolerances; 3-dimensional FE Models aiming to analyze the LPS under relevant load conditions; FE calculations and sensitivity analysis aiming to determine the nonlinear loading curve (moment vs. curvature under axial/pressure loads), and to identify the limit bending pipe capacity and the relevant deformations; comparison of the calculated limit bending capacity with the results from the application of the DNV OS F101 design format.
    [Show full text]