Project Manager: Assistant Project Manager: Amy Comeau Ricardo Gomez PROJECT FUTURE MARS SCOPE

“Define the essential needs of a Martian society that will be truly self-sustaining—in other words, a colony that can live on to the distant future without any assistance from Earth.”

Our Mars city houses 10,000 people in a

lava tube. Artist’s rendition of O’Neil’s cylinders. Credit: NASA Ames Research Center Many great thinkers have envisioned grander projects • Gerard O’Neil, Thomas Heppenheimer, Wernher von Braun, Isaac Asimov, Robert Zubrin, and Elon Musk

Rendering of SpaceX’s plan for a colony on Mars. Credit: SpaceX 2 LIVING IN A LAVA TUBE ON MARS

• Protects from radiation, dust storms, micrometeoroid impacts etc.

Regolith

17 km Collapsed Skylight trench entrance Basalt

Basalt

Our lava tube is identified with collapsed sections. Image created using JMARS. 3 WHERE IS THE CITY LOCATED?

Image created with FreeFlyer

Water Extraction City Farthest extraction site

8000+ km

City South Pole

Alaina Glidden 4 WHAT DOES OUR CITY LOOK LIKE?

Rock bolts

50 m Food Hospital Distribution

Aeroponics Tube Lining Building Housing 100 m

Gym Truss

Rail 300Line m

5 AEROPONICS FOOD PRODUCTION

6 WHERE DO OUR RESOURCES COME FROM?

1 - Iron Oxide, 2 - Copper, 3 - Water Ice, 4 - Hematite, 5 - Plagioclase Deposits, 6 - Thorium, 7 - Nitrates/Germanium, 8 - Hydrated Minerals/ Phyllosilicate Clays, 9 - Rocket Support, 4/6/2018 10 - Science telescopes 7 HOW DO WE EXTRACT CRITICAL RESOURCES TO SUSTAIN OUR CITY?

Dragline excavator

Regolith being transferred to resource railcar

Rail system Resource railcar Dragline excavator scooping regolith

Maintenance 7 m rover Personnel railcar WATER AND ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSING SYSTEMS MANUFACTURING FACILITY

10 LAUNCH VEHICLES

66 m

Taxi vehicle rolling out of Vehicle Assembly Building Taxi vehicle on launch pad

4/6/2018 11 INTERPLANETARY TRANSPORT SYSTEM Design Trajectory 72 m diameter rotating ring provides Low thrust powered trajectory repeats artificial gravity and living space every two synodic periods (4.29 years)

x108 Mars 2 Cycler 1.5 Earth 1 0.5 0

-0.5 Inertia y (km) y Inertia -1 -1.5 -2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 x108 Inertia x (km)

4/10/2018 12 HOW DO MARTIANS ENSURE CONSTANT HD-STREAMING TO EARTH? The Mars-Earth High Data Link constellation: HOW DO MARTIANS COMMUNICATE AROUND THE GLOBE? The Mars Communication Network constellation

4/9/2018 14 HOW ARE SCIENTISTS ADDRESSING KEY QUESTIONS ABOUT MARS?

2.9 m

4.5 m

0.7 m

2.4 m

Phobos and Deimos lander Science rovers with core sampling capabilities

0.85 m

90 m

X-ray and optical telescopesAlaina Glidden Seismographs across Mars’ surface 15 LESSONS LEARNED

The easy ones The hard ones • Water is easy to find and • Heating the city is not the get. problem, cooling is. • Silicon is everywhere. • Molybdenum is rare and • Lava tubes provide “free” necessary. shelter. • Nitrogen extraction is vital. • Rail system is best for • Radiation mitigation transport. needed on surface.

16 TEAM MEMBERS

CAD Communications & Control Power and Thermal Propulsion **Logan Kirsch **Mitchell Hoffmann **Syed Feroz **Diego Martinez Adit Khajuria Alex Blankenberger Aleksander Garnder Ana Paula Pineda Bosque Anand Iyer *Islam Nazmy Duncan Harris Annie Ping Samuel Zemlicka-Retzlaff Nicholas Dwyer Johnathan Bensman Christopher Hunnewell Sean Thompson Noah Gordon *Stephen Kubicki Connor Lynch Subhiksha Raman Samuel Albert William Chlopan Tyler Duncan

Human Factors Mission Design Science Structures **Kyle Tincup **Richard Viveros **Matthew Prymek **Halen Blair Andrew Pharazyn Andrew Blaskovich Alaina Glidden *Christopher Johnson Connor Foley Eliot Toumey *Brandon Smith *Eric Thurston Johnathan Rohwer Henry Heim Daniel McGahan Jacob Roe *Kelsey Delehanty *John Cleveland Megan Harwell Stuart McCrorie Lucas Moyer Michael Rose Nicholas Jancich Swapneel Kulkarni Nicole Futch *Ryan Duong Trevor Waldman William Adams

*Indicates Vehicle & System Lead **Indicates Discipline Lead 18 CITY INFRASTRUCTURE APPENDIX

19 TOTAL LAVA TUBE INFRASTRUCTURE

Manufacturing Modules

Living Modules 900 m

Tunnel

Reactor Buildings 600 m

20 APPENDIX: CITY INFRASTRUCTURE

Requirements: Shape Semi-elliptical Semi-major axis 150 m 1. The city must be a joy to live in. Semi-minor axis 100 m Roof thickness 50 m 2. The city must be located inside a Number of lava tubes 2 Martian lava tube. Length of first lava tube 1.5 km Length of second lava tube 1.6 km 3. The city must house 10,000 colonists. Distance between lava tubes 1 km

Material Mass Totals (Mg)

Sulfur Concrete 2,190,000 Key Components: A36 Structural Steel 533,500 • The city is nuclear powered. Polyethylene 441,600

• The city housing rests atop the food production buildings. • The city is split into modules of 300 m by 300 m.

21 APPENDIX: THE SYSTEMS AND MASSES INVOLVED • Lava tube support • ECLSS • Pressure Bulkheads • Transportation between the two lava tubes • Rail lines for large goods • Tunnel for smaller goods • Entertainment • Aeroponics buildings • Housing

22 APPENDIX: APARTMENT LAYOUT

• Number of apartment floors: 13, 18, 20, 21, 22 • 4 apartments/floor, 2 people/apartment • Can have maximum of 3 people/apt if needed • Apartment floor area: 80 m2 (Volume: 220 m3) • Interior wall: 0.165 m, Exterior: 0.3 m • Hallway: 1 m • Freight Elevator: 1.5 m x 3 m • Kitchen: 12 m2 • Living and dining: ~28 m2 • Master Bedroom: 16 m2 • Guest Bedroom: 15 m2 • Bathroom: 7.5 m2 • Includes toilet, sink, bathtub and/or shower

S. Raman 23 APPENDIX: FOOD DISTRIBUTION BUILDING LAYOUT

• Four food distribution buildings in each module • Each building will have two floors. Grocery Store: • Residents have a set quantity of food to eat every day • Total food distributed daily: 37 m3 • Each building will have 9 or 10 piles of food each day • 1 pile supports ~270 people Restaurants: • Takes up most of the space in the building • ¾ of first floor, all of second floor • Adds another level of comfort while living in the city

S. Raman 24 APPENDIX: COMPUTER BUILDING LAYOUT

Computer Stairs • Each city module contains 200 computers • All are in one 13-floor building • Only 3 floors are being used for computer lab space • Each floor contains 66 or 67 computers • Each floor contains 5 printers Bookcase • Each computer unit includes one monitor, one keyboard, one mouse, one CPU tower

Printer

Trashcan

S. Raman 25 APPENDIX: MOVIE THEATER BUILDING

Stairs Stairs

• There are two movie theater buildings in each module • Each building has 13 floors • Only 6 floors are 0.3 used as theaters higher than floor Stairs Stairs

0.1 m 0.2 m higher than higher than floor floor

S. Raman 26 APPENDIX: GYM BUILDING LAYOUT

Key: Treadmills Spin Bikes Power Cages

• There are three gyms • Each building will contain two floors • Each floor will contain: • 75 treadmills • 75 spin bikes Stairs • 75 power cages • Open space can be used as area for stretching or other activities Second floor of building is shown above

S. Raman 27 APPENDIX: HOSPITAL BUILDING LAYOUT

• City contains two hospitals • Each building has two floors • A clinic style layout • Primarily used for checkups, regular appointments, etc. • Sick patients are separated from healthy patients • Floor plan shows the first floor Vaccine Vaccine Area Area • Second floor contains only examination rooms

S. Raman 28 APPENDIX: CITY LAYOUT

An apartment

Movie Theater Building

Hospital

Computer Building Hospital

Gym

S. Raman 29 APPENDIX: REACTOR DESIGN

• Power Requirements: 312 MW • 3 Reactors with 333 MW of Power each, for 1 GW total • Scheduled maintenance every two years, 3% chance of mechanical failure • If two reactors are down for maintenance, the entire city can be powered off of 1 • Thorium - Uranium Molten Salt Breeder reactors • Thorium is more prevalent than Uranium, no Uranium enrichment facilities required either as all extra needed Uranium produced by reactors

Food Source Manufacturing City Ground Resource Science Space Production Transport Extraction transport

Power 5 166 34 44 50 5 8 (MW)

A. Gardner 30 APPENDIX: REACTOR DESIGN

20 Year Lifespan, could last longer depending on embrittlement of the core Total Mass: 108000 Mg for 3 reactors

Material Concrete Hastelloy-N LiF Water Steel Thorium Uranium

Mass 16000 11 357 10 1500 17033 87 0.25 (Mg) 00

Replacement 800 16 54.7 1.6 228 300 16 0 Rate (Mg)/year 5

A. Gardner 31 APPENDIX: POWER OPTION TRADE STUDY

• Other options judged inferior • Difficult to produce enough material or not enough information about Mars • Reactors are low mass, high complexity, at 108000 Mg for 1 GW

Power Summary Source Mass (Mg) (MW) of Issues

In space Solar 3.22x106 1000 Rockets needed to repair

Ground Based 6.6x106 1000 Difficult to Solar keep up with city growth

Geothermal 1.7x104-8.3x106 1000 Unknown until test holes are drilled

A. Gardner 32 APPENDIX: REACTOR IMAGES

Below: Reactor Building;

Image Credits: Subhiksha Raman Right: Reactor Compared to People

A. Gardner 33 SOURCES

[1] P. Kasten, E. Bettis, and R. Robertson, “Design Studies of 1000-Mw(e) Molten-Salt Breeder Reactors,” Cent. Res. Libr., 1966. [2] N. Slater-Thompson, “U.S. nuclear outages were less than 3% of capacity this summer.” [3] International Association of Drilling Contractors, “IADC Drilling Manual,” p. 1463, 2000. [4] D. Duchane and D. Brown, “Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy Development in the USA,” Cint.Lanl.Gov, no. House 1987, pp. 1–20, 1994. [5] T. Bazilevskii et al., “Evaluation of the thorium and uranium contents of Martian surface rock - A new interpretation of Mars-5 gamma- spectroscopy measurements.” . [6] C. Paper, S. Lule, P. Z. Lule, and T. Lule, “Convective Heat Transfer Measurements at the Martian Surface,” no. November, 2015. [7] J. Appelbaum and D. J. Flood, “Solar Radiation on Mars,” NASA Tech. Memo., 1989. [8] M. Ragheb, “Nuclear marine propulsion ©,” 2018.

A. Gardner 34 APPENDIX: INTRA-CITY COMMUNICATION

Needs/Requirements: • Provide communication and data to end users within the city • 600 access points shall be provided to each module • System shall interface with remote communication systems and satellite communication systems • System shall be capable of voice, video, and data transmission

The system: • Network hub (Central Office) located as close as possible to centroid of access points • Each Module divided into 4 sections or “routes” ensuring direct routing of cables • Fiber optics routed between each access point and the Central Office Transmit Data.

Bottom Line (Total for city and manufacturing): Module Network Plan Diagram Power draw: 72 kW Route 1 SIO2 mass: 172 kg Route 2 4.3 kg/yr GeO2 mass: 86 g Central 2.2 g/yr Office Cable length: 5,400 km 135 km/yr Route 4

Central Office Size: 9 m^3 Route 3

M. Hoffman 35 APPENDIX: MEAN DISTANCE TO ACCESS POINT

Assumptions • Fiber lines must be laid out in a perpendicular grid (i.e. along rule lines of paper shown below) • Access points are evenly distributed across the area of the town Average cable Module Routing Diagram defines distance to a dimensions that determine the mean point on line L length of fiber per access point: 퐿 is: 퐷′ = 푟 + 푎 4

2푟 1 퐿 = ⇒ 퐷′ = 푟 1 + 푡푎푛휃 푎 2푡푎푛휃

M. Hoffman 36 APPENDIX: MEAN DISTANCE TO ACCESS POINT

Mean distance from Central Office to Access Point: Da

M. Hoffman 37 APPENDIX: MPV CALCULATIONS

• Power Consumption: ~14 kW/module • 24 W laser transmitter per access point. • Based on Gebrit Electronics 2-output laser transmitter. • 600 access points • Length of Fiber: 1080 km/module • 600 access points • Average of 900m of fiber from CO to access point • 2 strands per access point (1 transmit, 1 receive) • Fiber mass: 34.5 kg/module • Mass per length: 0.032 kg/km for cable core (structural shielding is waste HDPE from other systems.) • Required length of 2-strand cable: 1,080 km/module

M. Hoffman 38 APPENDIX: WATER RECYCLER INFORMATION

Assumptions • A person needs 1.6 kg of water per day to survive [1].

Constraints: • Each module must process 88.3 Mg per day (primary design parameter) • Maximum 10,000 people in the city • 5,000 people per module

N. Futch 39 APPENDIX: CITY WATER RECLAMATION SYSTEM

Specifications Mass (Mg) 1520 Power 5.06 (MW) Volume 1840 (m3) Computers 2

Manufacturing Yearly replenishment Steel (Mg) (2%) 3.181 CAD images courtesy of Sean Polyethylene (Mg) 2.272 Thompson. (5%) Activated Carbon 2.272 (Mg) (1%)

N. Futch 40 APPENDIX: CITY WATER RECYCLER CARBON SCRUBBING*

Frequency: Once every ~3 months

CO2 production: 152 Mg per scrub

Energy Required: 8.82 MW per scrub

* Carbon revitalization is not a steady state process; this information was calculated strictly to provide supplementation for an important aspect of living in the city.

N. Futch 41 SOURCES

[1] “Closing the Loop: Recycling Water and Air in Space”. Nasa.gov. https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/146558main_RecyclingEDA(final)%204_10_06.pdf (page 4)

[2] Carter, D. L. “Status of the Regenerative ECLSS Water Recovery System” 2009-01-2352. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160014804.pdf

[3] “Environmental Control and Life Support System”, NASA G-281237, 23 Aug 2017. https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/g-281237_eclss_0.pdf

[4] “Water Recycle Treatment System”, JTOP Co., Ltd, 2015. Osaka, Japan. Accessed 4 Mar 2018, http://www.kankeiren.or.jp/kankyou/en/pdf/en026.pdf

[5] “Interview with Layne Carter”, Feb 2018. Interview conducted by Nicole Futch.

N. Futch 42 APPENDIX: ROCK BOLTS

• Rock bolts serve to reduce pressure in the surrounding rock by expanding the natural pressure arch around the tube

H. Blair 43 APPENDIX: ROCK BOLTS

• Rock bolts are cylindrical A36 steel rods, 5 m long, 25 mm diameter • Bolts sunk into wall and ceiling of lava tube, one into center of every 2 m by 2 m area • 149,000 rock bolts required for each of the five city modules • Total required mass of rock bolts for entire city of 14,700 Mg of A36 steel

H. Blair 44 APPENDIX: ROCK BOLTS

Visual representation of rock bolts protruding from tunnel wall into surrounding rock.

H. Blair 45 APPENDIX: PRESSURE BULKHEADS

• 7 total pressure bulkheads serve to separate city into independent pressurized modules, span entire tunnel cross section, 300 m wide, 150 m tall • Steel bulkheads separate internal sections, aluminum bulkheads separate interior and exterior of tube due to radiation interaction with steel • 5 bulkheads of A36 structural steel, 2.34 cm thick, with a total mass of 21,500 Mg, volume of 2,760 m3 • 2 bulkheads of aluminum, 6.79 cm thick, with a total mass of 26,000 Mg, volume of 9,630 m3

H. Blair 46 APPENDIX: PRESSURE BULKHEADS

H. Blair 47 APPENDIX: HOUSING BUILDING STRUCTURES • Each housing module consists of apartments, hospitals, gyms, restaurants/grocers • Buildings designed to have safety factor of 5 and consist of square beams with a minimum side length sized accordingly • Building exteriors covered in very thin sheets of A36 steel and have glass windows

H. Blair 48 APPENDIX: HOUSING BUILDING STRUCTURES

H. Blair 49 APPENDIX: REACTOR BUILDINGS

• Three nuclear reactors located in separate buildings off of tunnel connecting housing and manufacturing lava tubes • Structurally modeled as one floor square building 114 m long, 54 m wide, 46 m tall with 30 support columns • Must support a ground pressure from above of 10,600 Pa due to mass of soil and rock above

H. Blair 50 APPENDIX: REACTOR BUILDING IMAGE

H. Blair 51 RECREATION EQUIPMENT

Outdoor Recreation (Per Module):

Size of Space # of Areas Use for Space

20 m x 20 m 4 Unassigned

40 m x 40 m 2 Sand Volleyball/wallyball

20 m x 60 m 2 Basketball

20 m x 40 m 2 Basketball

TOTAL: 10 Image created by Subhiksha Raman. Indoor Recreation (Per Module):

Earth size (m) Mars size (m)

Dimension: l x w x h l x w x h Size of Space # of Areas Use for Space Basketball hoop height 3.05 3.88 Basketball court 25.6 x 15.2 25.6 x 15.2 20 m x 40 m 2 Movie Theater/Unassigned Volleyball/Wallyball net 2.43 3.27 height 20 m x 20 m 1 Computer Lab/Unassigned Wallyball court 12 x 6 x 6 23.80 x 11.90 x 11.90

Volleyball court 18 x 15.2 35.70 x 30.14 TOTAL: 3

L. Moyer 52 RECREATION EQUIPMENT

L. Moyer 53 APPENDIX: ENTERTAINMENT

• Movie theaters – Continuously add to their libraries by downloading new movies from Earth. • Computer labs - Citizens can download things such as news, TV, movies, music, eBooks, etc. • One floor in each apartment building is a designated “lounge area.” • There are enough computers for 1 out of every 25 people to use at any given time (200 per module). (Manufacturing) • Each indoor recreation building has a total of 13 floors. Movie theaters take up the bottom 6 floors in their buildings, with the 7 leftover floors unassigned. Computer labs take up the bottom 3 floors in their buildings, with the 10 leftover floors unassigned. Comms Data Limits (per person): • 1 hr news broadcast each day • 5 hrs of tv or movies/month • 10 Gb of internet/month

L. Moyer 54 APPENDIX: ENTERTAINMENT

• A total workforce of 20 people are needed for general upkeep of outdoor recreation areas in the city. • A total workforce of between 234 to 780 people are needed for all indoor recreation buildings in the city. • Between 500 kW and 1 MW total is needed to power all indoor recreation buildings. • Basketball and wallyball courts have a concrete base. • Volleyball courts need a total of 1.49*103 Mg of sand.

L. Moyer 55 APPENDIX: CITY ATMOSPHERE

• Composition: 21% O2, 79% N2 • Temperature: 294.15 K (room temperature)

Table: Shows mass required for each gas in Mg.

Gas Mass Required (Mg)

3 O2 4.74*10

4 N2 1.56*10

TOTAL: 2.03*104

L. Moyer 56 APPENDIX: CITY HEAT REQUIREMENTS

Table: Shows initial heat needed and heat total for each gas in MJ.

Heat Total Gas Heat Needed (MJ) (MJ)

5 9 O2 3.29*10 1.28*10

6 9 N2 1.23*10 4.78*10

TOTAL: 1.56*106 6.06*109

L. Moyer 57 APPENDIX: HEAT LOSSES IN THE LAVA TUBE

Table: Shows lava tube sections, their surface areas, and the heat loss to the surroundings for each section.

Surface Area Heat Loss Section (m2) (MW) Living modules wall and 1.42 6.49*105 ceiling Living modules floor 1.80*105 0.39 Tunnel wall and ceiling 4.88*104 0.34 Tunnel floor 1.00*104 0.07 Manufacturing wall and 2.10 9.60*105 ceiling Manufacturing floor 2.70*105 0.59 Rock bolts 3.96*104 0.60 TOTAL: 2.16*106 5.53

L. Moyer 58 PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS

2 Mission Number of People Area (m ) Number of Floors

Rover Operation 140 (70 max) 634 1.585

Moon Missions 53 556 1.390

Maintenance/Resource 183 1657 4.143

Search for Life 133 1506 3.765

Geologic History 133 1506 3.765

Impact Craters 53 556 1.390

Methane 103 1008 2.520

X-ray Operation 53 480 1.200

Future Mission Design 53 480 1.200

GMO 133 1451 3.628

Martian Radiometric 13 518 2.295 Dating Lab (MRDL)

Health Effects 7 913 2.283

Seismology on Mars 10 91 0.2275

Total 1000 11356 29.39

M. Rose 59 REFERENCES

• [1] Cardona, V.J., “Next Generation Laboratories,” Lab Manager [online], http://www.labmanager.com/lab-design-and- furnishings/2009/02/next-generation- laboratories#.Wq-yuMAwiih [retrieved 19, Mar. 2018] • [2] Carbasho, T., “Industry Trends Reshaping Design and Costs of Lab Buildings,” Tradeline [online], https://www.tradelineinc.com/reports/2007- 9/industry-trends-reshaping-design-and-costs-lab- buildings [retrieved 19, Mar. 2018] • [3] Walls, E., “How to Plan a Lab Building,” TheScientist [online], https://www.the- scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/8244/title/How -to-Plan-a-Lab-Building/ [retrieved 19, Mar. 2018]

M. Rose 60 APPENDIX: POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• Requirements: • Solution: • Must reliably deliver power • Install a power grid for Mars that to all areas of need. will stretch from the reactor in the city out to every site that • Assumptions: needs constant power. • Power lines will follow the ground • Building density of the city transportation’s rail system is comparable to New York underground out to all the sites City to transport power over long distances • Large metal structures • Overhead power lines will be provide a sufficient source used within the city limits where for a ground an artificial atmosphere is being used.

J. Bensman 61 APPENDIX: POWER LINES

• Specifications: • 250 AWG copper wire [2] • Location: • Max amperage of 530 Amps • Long distance power lines follow the rail system and • 3mm layer of polyethylene are buried underground plastic • Power lines within the city limits are overhead lines • 2 mm thick layer of steel

Displaying the different layers of a single power An example of how the power line would be line situated underground.

J. Bensman 62 APPENDIX: POWER LINES CONT.

• The following equations show how to calculate the cross sectional area of each component of the wire.

퐷 2 퐴 = 퐶푢 휋 퐶푢 4 퐷 퐷 2 퐴 = 푝표푙푦 − 퐶푢 휋 푃표푙푦 4 4 퐷 퐷 퐷 2 퐴 = 푆푡푒푒푙 − 푝표푙푦 − 퐶푢 휋 푆푡푒푒푙 4 4 4 • By Multiplying these by their respective densities the mass of the power line per km can be found as shown.

Component Mass [kg per km] Copper 1,500 Polyethylene 54.9 Steel 2,000

J. Bensman 63 APPENDIX: TRANSFORMERS [4], [5]

• In order to efficiently transport power long distances the voltage much be stepped up and down going between destinations. • Several different transformers were used to account for this and their mass power and volumes are shown below: Transformer Mass [Mg] Volume [m3] Amount Rating 150 kV – 18 kV 154 401 2

18 kV – 5 kV 27.9 92 150

5 kV – 240 V 0.45 1.4 100

J. Bensman 64 APPENDIX: POWER LINES IN THE CITY [6]

• The city has a comparable building density to that of New York City on Earth. Knowing that the surface area of NYC is about 789 km2 and has about 32,690 km of power lines the following ratio can be used to determine the length of power line needed for our city. 퐿 퐿퐶푖푡푦 푁푌퐶 = 푆퐴푁푌퐶 푆퐴퐶푖푡푦

This ratio give about 124 km of power lines.

J. Bensman 65 APPENDIX: POWER TO EACH SITE

Route Power [MW] Amperage [Amps] Waypoint 1 45.72 305 Waypoint 2 21.8 185 Waypoint 3 17.93 120 Waypoint 4 19.45 130 Iron 4.71 31.4 Water Ice 23.08 154 Nitrates 9.03 60.2 Germanium 8.9 60 Launch 7.92 52.8 Hydrated Minerals 3.44 23 Hermatite 7.5 50 Thorium 9.28 62 Copper 10.17 68

J. Bensman 66 APPENDIX: WHY HIGH VOLTAGE? [8]

• Stepping up the voltage in power lines that are traveling long distances can greatly lower the power loss. The equation below shows the relationship between power loss and voltage. 2 푃 푃 = 푅 푙표푠푠 푉 The table below shows the difference in power loss between two different voltage levels: Power Loss [W/m] Voltage [kV]

663 18

9 150

J. Bensman 67 APPENDIX: TOTALS

• The total replenishment rate for the materials for the power distribution system are found in the table below:

Component Power Lines Transformers Copper [Mg/yr] 115 32 A36 Steel [Mg/yr] 207 14 Polyethylene [Mg/yr] 4 N/A

J. Bensman 68 REFERENCES:

[1] “Anixter – Wire and Cable, Networking, Security and Utility Power Solutions,” Anixter. [Online]. Available: https://www.anixter.com/en_us/resources/literature/wire-wisdom/copper- vs-aluminum-conductors.html. [Accessed: 15-Feb-2018]. [2] “Bare Copper.” [Online]. Available: http://www.buyawg.com/pdf/AWG-Catalog.pdf. [Accessed: 05-Feb-2018]. [3] Xcel Energy, “Overhead vs. Underground,” 2014. [Online]. Available: https://www.xcelenergy.com/staticfiles/xe/Corporate/Corporate PDFs/OverheadVsUnderground_FactSheet.pdf. [Accessed: 20-Feb-2018]. [4] “Small Transformer.” [Online]. Available: http://new.abb.com/docs/librariesprovider95/energy-efficiency-library/ecodesign_dtr-30-06- 2015.pdf?sfvrsn=9. [Accessed: 21-Feb-2018]. [5] Choi and Tiffany, “Large Power Transformers and the U.S. Electric Grid,” 2012. [Online]. Available: https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/Large Power Transformer Study - June 2012_0.pdf. [Accessed: 21-Feb-2018]. [6] “Utilization of Underground and Overhead Power Lines in the City of New York.” [Online]. Available: http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/power_lines_study_2013.pdf. [Accessed: 03-Mar-2018]. [7] W. Casino, K. Sorensen, and C. A. Whitener, “A Small Mobile Molten Salt Reactor (SM- MSR) For Underdeveloped Countries and Remote Locations,” Matrix, no. Ilm, pp. 907–908, 2007. [8] F. Hwang, “Why do we need High Voltage Transmission Lines?” .

J. Bensman 69 APPENDIX: CITY ECLSS

Water Processing Assembly Mass Processing: 132 Mg/day Power: 2.53 MW Volume: 1842 m3

Urine Processing Assembly Mass Processing: 8 Mg/day Power: 0.25 MW Volume: 37.1 m3

Air Temperature, Humidity, and Pressure Control Mass Processing: 3.4 Mg/day Power: 11.5 MW Volume: 3000 m3

Waste Processing Assembly Mass Processing: 2.25 Mg/day Power: 0.032 MW Volume: 8 m3

C. Foley 70 APPENDIX: EXERCISE

1. Treadmill – 500 per module Mass: 40 Mg Power: 300 kW Volume: 2563 m3

2. Spin-Bike – 500 per module Mass: 37.5 Mg Power: 0 W Volume: 875 m3

3. Power Cage – 500 per module Mass: 593 Mg Power: 0 W Volume: 2810 m3

C. Foley 71 APPENDIX: CITY ECLSS INTERACTION WITH MAPS*

• To MAPS:

10.4 CO2 Mg/day

• From MAPS:

0.146 O2 Mg/day

0.341 N2 Mg/day 30.96 Mg water/day

*MAPS = Mars Atmospheric Processing System

C. Foley 72 APPENDIX: ECLSS AIR TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, AND PRESSURE CONTROL

• Connects to HVAC system to route air throughout city module

• Zeolite tablets filter and remove H2O and CO2 • Removes heat from humans, lighting, machinery and food production (each nuclear reactor has its own heat removal system) • Per Module Mass: 2830 Mg Power: 11.5 MW Volume: 3000 m3 • 800 Mg of oxygen per module • 2600 Mg of nitrogen per module

C. Foley 73 APPENDIX: CITY HVAC

Per city module: Mass: 1000.7 Mg Power: 0.158 MW Volume: 3400 m3

60 m length duct needed per building on average 3400 m length duct needed per module Cross-section: Steel: 0.1164 m2 HDPE: 0.0372 m2

C. Foley 74 APPENDIX: PRESSURIZATION TRADE STUDY

Pressurization Survivability Productivity Power Mass Total

60% 2 2 5 5 3.5 70% 4 3 4 4 3.75 80% 5 5 3 3 4 90% 5 5 2 2 3.5 100% 5 5 1 1 3

• Trade study shows that 80% of Earth’s sea-level pressure is ideal • Non-dimensional value, 1 (least favorable)  5 (most favorable), based on papers of human health • We pressurize city air to 81.1 kPa • Oxygen: Mg per module • Nitrogen: Mg per module

C. Foley 75 APPENDIX: OXYGEN AND NITROGEN NEEDS

C. Foley 76 APPENDIX: AIR LEAKAGE RATE PER MODULE

• Module defined as 300 m x 300 m • Fick’s First Law:

Ni = - Di ∇ci

2 Ni: Molar Flux [mol/m /s] 2 Di: Diffusion Coefficient [m /s] 3 ci: Concentration [mol/m ] -9 2 • Di,HDPE = 5.1*10 cm /s • Thickness of HDPE lining in city: 1 cm • Air loss: 0.442 kg/day • HDPE needed: 2.02*103 Mg

C. Foley 77 APPENDIX: INITIAL SIZING OF THE LAVA TUBE

C. Foley 78 APPENDIX: SOLID WASTE PYROLYSIS [1-3]

Heating of organic matter in absence of oxygen to break down compounds into more simple molecules and hydrocarbons by slowly heating fecal matter to 400o over 1 hour. From input fecal mass, produces: ● 79% reclaimed water, recycled back into water supply. ● 10.5% charcoal, leach nutrients with water, recycle as carbon source ● 10.5% hydrocarbon gas, tar, and ash, disposed of as waste.

Nutrient Recovery from Charcoal Leaching with Water

Nutrient Na K P Cl S

% of Fecal Mass 0.287% 0.359% 0.51% 0.06% 0.87%

% Recovered 85.0% 50.0% 30.0% 10.0% 10.0% Leaching

Mass Recovered [kg] 10.7 4.94 3.29 0.154 2.23

79 APPENDIX: SOLID WASTE PYROLYSIS (2) [4]

Oven - Per Module ● Mass: 740 kg (725 kg A36 steel, 15 kg A90 cupronickel heating wire) ● Power: 376 kW at peak ● Volume: 4 m3, 1.56 m square each side ● Replacement: 7.25 kg/yr A36 steel, 1.5 kg/yr A90 cupronickel per module

image credit: [Subhiksha Raman] 80 APPENDIX: URINE NUTRIENT PROCESSING (1) [5]

Nitrogen and phosphorus recovery takes place in each module before urine is passed to boiler system for recycling back into the water supply.

Daily Mineral Input/Output per 8 Mg Urine

Aeration CaO2 H2SO4 N P (m3/min) [kg] (IN) [kg] (IN) [kg] (OUT) [kg] (OUT) 24.1 477 242 53.5 4.23 Including 50% safety factor for calcium hydroxide, sulfuric acid 81 APPENDIX: URINE NUTRIENT PROCESSING (2) [6]

Urine Processing Tanks per module • Mass: 946 kg • Power: 162 kW • Volume: 18.6 m3 • Replacement: 94.6 kg/yr A36 steel, 0.762 kg/yr polyethylene 82 APPENDIX: CITY LIGHTING SYSTEM (1) [7-9] Sulfur Plasma Lamps • Sulfur, argon bulb placed in waveguide is excited with microwave radiation, emitting bright light with pleasant, sun-like spectra. • Scarcity of rare-earth metals, mercury, gallium make other forms of lighting (fluorescent, metal-halide, incandescent) unfeasible.

Power Brightnes Model Volume Mass Use (Watts s System (cm3) [kg] ) [Lumens] Ceravisio Small, n residenti 400 4,400 1.9 26,000 ionCORE al Plasma-i Large, 1360 8,300 9 27,200 AS1300 high-bay image credit: [9] (no author)

83 APPENDIX: CITY LIGHTING SYSTEM (2) [10]

Residential Lighting: Light Pipes • One small lamp provides 200 - 400 Lux to apartment • Light pipes: plastic tubing that internally reflects light, carrying it several meters • Assume 1 mm thick textured polyethylene, rolled into 4 cm diameter tubes. • 18 meters of light piping necessary for each apartment (2.17 kg), assume ~ 50% efficiency provides ~ 200 Lux throughout apartment. • Additional small lamp, 18 meters of piping for hallway, laundry

84 APPENDIX: CITY LIGHTING SYSTEM (3) [7,8,11] Public and Residential Lighting - All Modules Illumination Power (peak) Volume Area # Lamps Mass [Mg] (Lux) [MW] [m3] Residential 200 6,150 Small 11.7 2.46 27.1 General 500 1,710 Small 3.25 0.684 7.52 Purpose Public 100 - 700 506 Large 4.55 0.344 2.10 Manufacture, 750 - 1,500 2,904 Large 26.1 3.99 24.3 VAB 7,860 Small Total ~ 45.6 7.48 61.0 3,410 Large

Public outdoor lighting system simulates daytime - from 100 Lux at night, the minimum for walking safely, to 700 Lux during the day, comparable to an overcast day.

85 APPENDIX: CITY LIGHTING SYSTEM (4) [7,8,12,13]

Material Replacement Rates (Estimated) Small sulfur lamp: ● Bulb, system lifetime: 25,000 hours ● Magnetron lifetime: 50,000 hours Large sulfur lamp: ● Bulb, system lifetime: 99,000 hours ● Magnetron lifetime: 20,000 hours

Al Cu CaO2 SiO2 S Ar [Mg/yr] [kg/yr] [kg/yr] [kg/yr] [g/yr] [g/yr]

11.4 786 2.26 18.9 51.0 5.46

86 APPENDIX: CITY LIGHTING SYSTEM (5) [11]

Area Lux Area Lux Public areas with dark Normal drawing work, detailed 20 - 50 surroundings mechanical workshops, 750 operation theatres Simple orientation for short 50 - 100 Detailed drawing work, very visits 1,000 Working areas where detailed mechanical works 100 - visual tasks are only 150 Performance of visual tasks of occasionally performed low contrast and very small size 1,500 - Warehouses, homes, for 2,000 150 theaters, archives prolonged periods of time

Easy office work, classes 250 Performance of very prolonged 2,000 - and exacting visual tasks 5,000 Normal office work, PC Performance of very special work, study library, visual tasks of extremely low 10,000 - groceries, show rooms, 500 contrast 20,000 laboratories and small size

87 [1] H. Wu et al., “Removal and Recycling of Inherent Inorganic Nutrient Species in Mallee Biomass and Derived Biochars by Water Leaching,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 50, no. 21, pp. 12143–12151, Nov. 2011. [2] M. Tripathi, J. N. Sahu, and P. Ganesan, “Effect of process parameters on production of biochar from biomass waste through pyrolysis: A review,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 55, pp. 467–481, 2016. [3] C. Rose, A. Parker, B. Jefferson, and E. Cartmell, “The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology.,” Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 45, no. 17, pp. 1827–1879, Sep. 2015. [4] “Resistance Wire for Low Temp Heating or Resistors Nickel - Copper Alloy - A90,” 2017. [5] S. K. Pradhan, A. Mikola, and R. Vahala, “Nitrogen and Phosphorus Harvesting from Human Urine Using a Stripping, Absorption, and Precipitation Process,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 51, no. 9, pp. 5165– 5171, May 2017. [6] “Horsepower required to Compress Air,” Engineering Toolbox, 2008. [Online]. Available: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/horsepower-compressed-air-d_1363.html. [Accessed: 25-Mar-2018]. [7] “ionCORE Plasma Light.” Ceravision Limited, 2016. [8] “Plasma-i AS1300 Light Engine,” Plasma International. [Online]. Available: http://www.plasma- i.com/sulphur-plasma-light.htm. [Accessed: 15-Mar-2018]. [9] A. J. Both, L. D. Albright, C. A. Chou, and R. W. Langhans, “A Microwave Powered Light Source For Plant Irradiation,” in III International Symposium on Artificial Lighting in Horticulture, 1997, pp. 189–194.

88 [10] F. A. (Smithsonian I. Florentine, “The Next Generation of Lights: Electrodeless,” Western Association for Art Conservation Newsletter, Sep-1995. [11] “Recommended Light Levels (Illuminance) for Outdoor and Indoor Venues,” National Optical Astronomy Organization. [Online]. Available: https://www.noao.edu/education/QLTkit/ACTIVITY_Documents/Safety/LightLevels_outdoor+indoor.pdf. [12] “Electrodeless Microwave-Driven Sulphur Lamp.” [Online]. Available: http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Spec Sheets/D ED Sulphur.htm. [Accessed: 15-Mar-2018]. [13] “870 Watt CW Magnetron - 2.45 GHz.” National Electronics, LaFox, IL, 1992.

89 FOOD PRODUCTION APPENDIX

90 WHERE DO WE GROW OUR FOOD?

One City Module: contains half of the Modules are crops identical

Water Tanks

For both modules: Power Volume Mass [Mg] [MW] [m3] Nine Farming Floors 35,800 83.5 4,310,000 91 KEY FEATURES OF FOOD PRODUCTION

NUTRIENT Nutrients RECYCLING

ECLSS Food Refuse PEOPLE Water Crops GLACIER ECLSS MINING

Nutrients O2 CO2

RESOURCES STORAGE Water + VENT Nutrients Farming by Aeroponics

92 FOOD PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS

1. The crop yield a. Shall be sufficient to provide 10,000 people with food b. Shall produce a surplus to allow for a factor of safety c. Shall produce food for 310 day missions to Earth and 5 day Mars surface missions 2. The nutrients and minerals a. Shall be sufficient to sustain healthy plant growth b. Shall be sufficient to provide humans with necessary amounts to live healthily 3. The farming structure a. Shall enclose the necessary volume for crop growth b. Shall support the city above it: 25,000 Mg c. Shall support the internal weight of the crops: 716 Mg d. Shall support the weight of the water and tanks: 4,710 Mg 4. The Food Production system a. Shall aim for simplicity in manufacturing b. Shall be able to expand to allow for a Placement of the Farming Buildings growing population within One City Module Kelsey Delehanty 93 KEY FEATURES

INPUTS SYSTEM OUTPUTS • Nutrients from • Nine floors of crops per City • Fresh food delivered to Resource Extraction module, with 4.3 million m3 total City grocery stores and (sulfates, phosphates, (kale, potatoes, oats, restaurants etc.) mushrooms, etc.) • Freeze dried food for long • Water from ECLSS • Aeroponics farming methods term storage and and iceberg mining • Supported by four large trusses interplanetary missions • CO2 to supplement and smaller steel beams • Protein bars for surface plant growth throughout (35,800 Mg) missions • Power from City • Sulfur plasma lights with sunlike • Excess O2to vent Waterreactors (83.5Nutrients MW) spectra • ~ 200 workers, 8 hr a day (harvesting, inspecting, etc.) Crops

Kelsey Delehanty 94 Workers

Worker Breakdown By 1. Harvester – Pick crops, place them in carts, Job [12] bring them to the elevators/preparation stations. 2. Planter – Move behind harvests, tend to the plants, adjusting or replanting when necessary. 3. Water tank inspector – Check the conductivity of the water tanks, nutrient adjustment. 4. Food distributor - Bring the food carts from the agricultural space up to to the grocery stores. 5. Grocery stores attendant – Work at the food distribution centers and make sure people get the correct daily food allotment.

6. Milk and bar processer – Make soymilk and protein bars from the raw ingredients. 7. Mushroom prepper – Slice the mushrooms, lay them out, and load and work the flatbed that moves them. 8. Freeze dryer worker/storage prepper - Arrange the food in the freeze dryer, operate it, and seal and store the food once it has been processed. 9. Waste management worker –Work the fecal furnace that retrieves some of the nutrients from human waste. 10. Plant nutrient recoverer – Work with the tanks that recycle nutrients from plant waste. Kelsey Delehanty 95 AEROPONIC STRUCTURE

• Number of Buildings: 2 • Floors per Building: 9 • Floor height: 2.75 m • Material: Sulfur Concrete • Area available for plantation: 8.5 x 105 m2 • Dimensions of each Building: 300m x 280m x 27m • Total weight on building (City + tanks + crops + freeze-dryers): 92,010 Mg • Structural Life of each Building: 100 years • Rate of production of Sulfur Concrete: 533 Mg / 100 years

Swapneel Kulkarni 96 CROP LAYOUT

● We broke down the agricultural Space Occupied By the Crops at Any space into 20 m by 20 m modules One Time ● Each module contains only one crop ○ Easy to incrementally add sections of a specific crop in order to expand the city. ● The number of modules for each crop is based on: ○ The total amount of food eaten a day ○ The approximate growing time for that crop ● TOTAL: 3,232 modules contain crops. Kelsey Delehanty 97 CROP LAYOUT

LOWER LOWER LOWER LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

LOWER LOWER LOWER LEVEL 4 LEVEL 5 LEVEL 6

● Each floor spans both a width and a length of 280 m ● There is a strip of unused space LOWER along the same wall on each LOWER LOWER floor for elevators for food and LEVEL 7 LEVEL 8 LEVEL 9 human transport ● The agricultural space is 1.3 million m2 ○ Includes space for walking and harvesting as well 98 Kelsey Delehanty 98 Kelsey Delehanty WATER TANKS

• Variable number of tanks per crop • Total number of Water Tanks: 64 • Design: Cylindrical; open on top • Material: Sulfur Concrete • Height of Tanks: 4 m • Inner radius of Tanks: 2.2 m • Life of Water Tank: 100 years • Required nutrients mixed in the tanks • Plastic layer applied on inner wall to avoid corrosion • Rate of Production of Sulfur Concrete: 179.2 Mg / 100 years

Swapneel Kulkarni 99 WATER TANK LAYOUT

Water tanks are placed on with their bases on Lower Level 2. There is a hole cut in the floor of Lower Level 1 to allow the tanks to come through.

Kelsey Delehanty 100 CROP MODULE

One Module, which Contains Just • An individual module that has 13 rows of One Crop at a Time crops and seven rows for walking • Each row is 1 m wide and 20 m long • There is one pipe for the module • It has 14 nozzles attached to it at even increments • The nozzles spray that row for three seconds, take 12 seconds to move to the next row, spray that row, etc. • One pipe can cover the entire module in 3.25 mins • This cycle repeats every 30 min

Kelsey Delehanty 101 PIPES

• One pipe per Farming Module (total 3232 pipes) • Mass of Water to be transported: 9.114 Mg/floor/day • Pressure of Flow: 551.6 kPa to 689.5 kPa • Design: Small Pipes • Diameter to Thickness ratio: greater than 6 and less than 10 • Length: 20 m • Inner Radius: 0.05 m • Thickness: 0.006 m • Material: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) • Life of each Pipe: 60 years • Rate of Production of PVC: 94.1 Mg / 60 years

Swapneel Kulkarni 102 SUPPORT BEAMS

• Number of Beams per Building: 500 • 2 beams per farming module towards sides • 3 beams per farming module towards center • Factor of Safety: 10 • Cross-sectional Area of Beam: 0.3156 m2 • Height of Beam: 27 m • Material: A36 Structural Steel • Total volume of Structural Steel: 8,522 m3 • Life of each Steel Beam: 50 years • Rate of Production of Structural Steel: 33,020 Mg / 50 years

Swapneel Kulkarni 103 Calories Based on Demographics [3]

Men Women Average Weighted Average Weighted Age Total Weighted Pop % Caloric Caloric Caloric Caloric Range Caloric Averages: Intake Average Intake Average 0.05 11-13 2400 120 2130 106.5 0.1 14-18 3080 308 2400 240 Men: 0.2 19-31 3000 600 2400 480 2800 cals 0.2 32-44 2870 574 2200 440 Women: 0.15 45-54 2800 420 2200 330 2200 cals 0.15 55-64 2600 390 2100 315 0.15 65+ 2600 390 2000 300

Kelsey Delehanty 104 DIET

Food Daily Amount [cups] Strawberries 2.25 Blueberries 1.5 Kale 2 Spinach 1.5 Broccoli 2.25 Sweet Potato 1.25 White Potato 2.5 Whole grain wheat flour 0.5 Oats 0.75 Brown Rice 0.5 Soybeans 0.5 Shiitake Mushrooms 0.125 Soy Milk 4 Protein Bars 0.75 [batches]

105 Kelsey Delehanty 105 CALORIES AND MACRONUTRIENTS [4-7]

Energy Food Carbs [g] Protein [g] Fat [g] Water [g] Fiber [g] Sugar [g] Omega-3 [g] [kcal]

Strawberries 15.2 27.7 2.41 1.08 327.6 7.20 17.64 0.225

Blueberries 133.4 33.9 1.73 0.77 197.0 5.62 23.40 0.143 Kale 16.7 3.0 1.46 0.32 28.6 1.22 0.77 0.034 Spinach 11.0 1.7 1.37 0.19 43.9 1.06 0.20 0.045

Broccoli 73.4 14.3 6.09 0.80 192.9 5.62 3.67 0.264

Sweet Potato 151.6 35.4 2.82 0.09 136.2 5.29 7.40 0.009

Russet Potato 272.6 62.0 6.72 0.40 322.3 9.48 4.54 0.040 Whole grain 215.9 45.7 8.38 1.59 6.8 6.79 0.26 0.003 wheat flour

Oats 481.4 82.0 20.91 8.54 10.1 13.12 0 0.126

Brown Rice 353.0 74.3 7.31 2.63 12.1 3.32 0 0.031

Soybeans 54.4 4.1 4.81 2.52 25.0 1.55 0 0.218

Protein Bars 566.4 97.0 25.00 10.33 180.7 15.93 9.07 0 Shiitake 5.1 0.0 0.72 0.08 21.6 0.23 0.46 0 Mushrooms Soy Milk 60.1 4.5 5.32 2.78 1060.6 1.72 0 0

TOTAL 2510 486 95 32 2565 78 67 1.138

Recommended 2500 281-406 63-219 55-97 ~ 35 ~ 0.25 Kelsey Delehanty 106 WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS [4,5]

Energy Food Carbs [g] Protein [g] Fat [g] Water [g] Fiber [g] Sugar [g] Omega-3 [g] [kcal]

Strawberries 115.2 27.7 2.41 1.08 327.6 7.20 17.64 0.225

Blueberries 133.4 33.9 1.73 0.77 197.0 5.62 23.40 0.143 Kale 16.7 3.0 1.46 0.32 28.6 1.22 0.77 0.034 Spinach 11.0 1.7 1.37 0.19 43.9 1.06 0.20 0.045

Broccoli 73.4 14.3 6.09 0.80 192.9 5.62 3.67 0.264

Sweet Potato 151.6 35.4 2.82 0.09 136.2 5.29 7.40 0.009

Russet Potato 272.6 62.0 6.72 0.40 322.3 9.48 4.54 0.040 Whole grain 215.9 45.7 8.38 1.59 6.8 6.79 0.26 0.003 wheat flour

Oats 481.4 82.0 20.91 8.54 10.1 13.12 0 0.126

Brown Rice 353.0 74.3 7.31 2.63 12.1 3.32 0 0.031

Soybeans 54.4 4.1 4.81 2.52 25.0 1.55 0 0.218

Protein Bars 566.4 97.0 25.00 10.33 180.7 15.93 9.07 0 Shiitake 5.1 0.0 0.72 0.08 21.6 0.23 0.46 0 Mushrooms Soy Milk 60.1 4.5 5.32 2.78 1060.6 1.72 0 0

TOTAL 2510 486 95 32 2565 78 67 1.138

Recommended 2500 281-406 63-219 55-97 ~ 35 ~ 0.25

Kelsey Delehanty 107 FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS [4-5,8]

Food Vit A [mg] Vit D [mg] Vit E [mg] Vit K [mg]

Strawberries 0.0036 0 1.044 0.0079

Blueberries 0.0070 0 1.334 0.0445 Kale 0.1700 0 0.510 0.2380 Spinach 0.2256 0 0.960 0.2304

Broccoli 0.0648 0 1.685 0.2160

Sweet Potato 1.2514 0 0.458 0.0035

Russet Potato 0 0 0.040 0.0079 Whole grain wheat flour 0 0 0.451 0.0013

Oats 0 0 0 0

Brown Rice 0 0 0 0

Soybeans 0.0033 0 0.129 0.0069

Protein Bars 0.0030 0 0.524 0.0128

Shiitake Mushrooms 0 0.014 0.002 0

Soy Milk 0.0037 0 0 0

TOTAL 1.73 0.014 7.136 0.7691

Recommended 0.8 0.015 15 0.1 Upper Limit 3.0 0.5 1000 ~

Kelsey Delehanty 108 MINERALS (1) [4-5,9]

Chromium Magnesium Food Calcium [mg] Copper [mg] Fluoride [mg] Iodine [mg] Iron [mg] [mg] [mg]

Strawberries 57.60 0 0.173 0.0158 0.0266 1.48 46.8

Blueberries 14.04 0 0.133 0 0 0.66 14.0

Kale 51.00 0 0.510 0 0 0.50 16.0 Spinach 47.52 0 0.062 0.0187 0.0010 1.30 37.9 Broccoli 101.52 0.0495 0.106 0.0138 0.0043 1.58 45.4

Sweet Potato 52.88 0 0.266 0 0.0053 1.08 44.1

Russet Potato 35.55 0.0075 0.458 0 0 2.05 83.0 Whole grain 21.59 0.0045 0.302 0 0 2.29 87.0 wheat flour Oats 66.83 0.0170 0.775 0 0.0078 5.82 219.0

Brown Rice 32.18 0.0004 0.294 0 0 1.76 139.4

Soybeans 72.89 0 0.047 0 0 1.31 24.1

Protein Bars 102.57 0 0 0 0 8.47 232.6 Shiitake 0.70 0 0.074 0 0 0.12 2.1 Mushrooms Soy Milk 80.55 0 0 0 0 1.45 26.6

TOTAL 737 0.0788 3.2 0.0483 0.0450 29.84 1017.9 Recommended 1000 0.03 0.9 3.5 0.15 13 370 Upper Limit 2500 ~ 10 ~ 1.1 ~ ~ Kelsey Delehanty 109 MINERALS (2) [4-5,10]

Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Potassium [ Selenium Food Sodium [mg] Zinc [mg] [mg] [mg] [mg] mg] [mg]

Strawberries 1.390 0 86.4 550.8 0.0014 3.60 0.50

Blueberries 0.786 0 28.1 180.2 0.0002 2.34 0.37

Kale 0.224 0 31.3 166.6 0.0003 12.92 0.19 Spinach 0.431 0 23.5 267.8 0.0005 37.92 0.25 Broccoli 0.454 0 142.6 682.6 0.0054 71.28 0.89

Sweet Potato 0.455 0 82.8 594.0 0.0011 96.94 0.53

Russet Potato 0.573 0 244.9 1607.7 0.0012 63.20 1.15

Whole grain 2.158 0 226.7 230.5 0.0081 1.27 1.65 wheat flour Oats 6.084 0.0887 647.2 530.9 0 2.48 4.95

Brown Rice 2.782 0 257.4 261.3 0.0167 3.90 1.95

Soybeans 0.202 0.0236 71.8 229.4 0.0006 5.55 0.37

Protein Bars 0 0 716.3 691.1 0 4.07 5.16

Shiitake 0.0011 0 20.1 74.4 0.0022 1.17 0.12 Mushrooms

Soy Milk 0 0 79.3 253.5 0 6.13 0.40

TOTAL 15.5 0.112 2658 6321 0.038 313 18.5 Recommende 2 0.045 700 4700 0.055 150-500 10 d Upper Limit ~11 2 4000 ~ 0.4 1500 40 Kelsey Delehanty 110 FEEDING CRICKETS AND MUSHROOMS

• Crickets live on food refuse, like peels and leaves • One cricket needs to eat 0.034 g of food a day [13] • One cricket is about 0.26 g [14] • Crickets have a 90 days lifespan [15] • The population needs to at a total of 15 kg of crickets a day • The crickets eat 176 kg of food a day • We need 1 kg of wheat straw for every kg of mushrooms [16] • To feed all of our mushrooms, we need 390 kg/day of refuse (6% of the total refuse)

Kelsey Delehanty 111 SOY MILK AND PROTEIN BARS

We use soybeans to make other foods, most commonly soy milk (top table) and protein bars (bottom table), which are both part of the daily diet.

Ingredient Quantity [cups] [1] Soy beans 0.5 Water 4 • A batch of bars is ~830 calories Soy milk 4.5 • Each person would need three a day Ingredient Quantity [cups] [2] • 3 batches = 0.00708 m3 • A four person rover for 5 Soy milk 0.75 days = 0.1416 m3 Oats 1 • ~(0.52 m)3 Protein (cricket) • Can be unrefrigerated for 90 [grams] powder several weeks Dried strawberries 0.5 Dried blueberries 0.5 1 batch 2.75

Kelsey Delehanty 112 LONG TERM FOOD STORAGE

• 1620 modules per section • 400 m2 each • 22.8 Mg total to be harvested a day • 20.2 Mg to be eaten that day • Extra food per Earth year: 943 Mg • Will accumulate more than 46 extra days of food every Earth year (1,724 m3 extra food a year) • Will fill storage pillars in 46 Earth years (2.9 years worth of food) Freeze Dryer, one of two • 1.9% of food collected during (Image Credit: Cuddon Freeze cycler trip will go to next cycler trip Dry) [11] • 50 people for 310 days • 31.31 Mg of food which is 58 m3 Mass Power Volume • Adding 25% for safety: 39.14 Mg [Mg] [MW] [m3] at 72.5 m3 20.4 0.23 50

Kelsey Delehanty 113 COMFORTS: HERBS AND PAINTS

Herbs Paints Harvest: Basil, mint, oregano, rosemary Hues: Red (strawberries), green (kale, spinach), Rationale: fastest growth time [17] blue (blueberries), black (charcoal) [18] Uses: tea, seasonings, medicinal Ingredients: 1 cup of paint = 1 cup fruit + 1 cup Growing method: hydroponics [17] water + 0.25 tsp flour Herb consumption: ½ tsp per week of each of the four herbs Extra food used for paint production: 0.5% Red: 14.63 cups/day Water: 61 kg water/day [17] Green: 22.75 cups/day Agricultural space: 1,356 m2 Blue: 9.75 cups/day Power for lights: 138 kW Wheat: 11.8 tsp/day (0.04% daily extra) Water: 13 kg/day

Image Credit: left - VerMints Inc [18], right - Mann, H [19] Kelsey Delehanty 114 PLANT NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

• Nutrients were based on Element ppm [g/Mg] [20] approximate concentrations of elements in dry matter as seen in Nitrogen (N) 14,000 the table Potassium (K) 10,000 • Our dry matter was based on Calcium (Ca) 5,000 moisture content in edible and inedible parts of the plant Magnesium (Mg) 2,000 • Total Dry Mass = 6.467 Mg/day Phosphorus (P) 2,000 • Nutrient recovery from plant refuse Sulfur (S) 1,000 was subtracted from needs Chlorine (Cl) 100 • 60 percent from dry matter refuse [2] Boron (B) 20 • Refuse Dry Mass = 0.637 Iron (Fe) 100 Mg/day Manganese (Mn) 50 Zinc (Zn) 20 Copper (Cu) 6 Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1 Jonathan Rohwer 115 MOISTURE CONTENT AND REFUSE

Crop Edible Moisture Inedible Refuse % [22] % [22] Moisture % [23] Strawberries 91 90 6 Blueberries 84.2 90 5 Kale 84 90 28 Spinach 91.4 90 28 Broccoli 89.3 90 39 Sweet Potato 77.3 90 28 White Potato 81.6 90 25 Wheat 10.7 90 6 Oats 8.2 90 12 Brown Rice 12.4 90 22 Soybeans 67.5 90 47 Shiitake 92.5 90 3 Mushrooms

Jonathan Rohwer 116 PLANT MASSES (PER DAY)

Crop Edible Edible Dry Inedible Inedible Dry Total Dry Mass [Mg] Mass [Mg] Mass [Mg] Mass [Mg] Mass [Mg] Strawberries 4.037 0.3633 0.2577 0.02577 0.3891 Blueberries 2.73 0.4313 0.1953 0.01953 0.4508 Kale 0.34 0.0544 0.1322 0.01322 0.06762 Spinach 0.48 0.04128 0.1867 0.01867 0.05995 Broccoli 2.16 0.2311 1.381 0.1381 0.3692 Sweet Potato 1.763 0.4001 0.6854 0.06854 0.4686 White Potato 3.95 0.7238 1.317 0.1317 0.8555 Wheat 0.635 0.5971 0.9525 0.09525 0.6924 Oats 2.062 1.893 0.2811 0.02811 1.921 Brown Rice 0.975 0.8541 0.275 0.0275 0.8816 Soybeans 0.7947 0.2583 0.7047 0.07047 0.3288 Shiitake 0.1263 0.009532 0.00390 0.000390 0.009922 Mushrooms

Jonathan Rohwer 117 NUTRIENT RECOVERY

• Using a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), we can recovery up to 60% of soluble nutrients from plant refuse [21] • Needs 30 L of water for every 1 kg of dry mass [21] • Using the same tanks and mixers as water storage • We produce 0.637 Mg/day of refuse • Need 21.24 Mg of water • Using same approximate element concentration in dry matter • Residence time in the tank reactor is 1 day [24]

Jonathan Rohwer 118 NUTRIENT NEEDS AND RECOVERY

• Needs • Recovered Element Mass Per Year [Mg] Element Mass Per Year [Mg] Nitrogen (N) 33.05 Nitrogen (N) 3.26 Potassium (K) 23.6 Potassium (K) 2.33 Calcium (Ca) 11.8 Calcium (Ca) 1.16 Magnesium (Mg) 4.721 Magnesium (Mg) 0.465 Phosphorus (P) 4.721 Phosphorus (P) 0.465 Sulfur (S) 2.36 Sulfur (S) 0.233 Chlorine (Cl) 2.36 x 10-1 Chlorine (Cl) 2.33 x 10-2 Boron (B) 2.36 x 10-1 Boron (B) 2.33 x 10-2 Iron (Fe) 4.72 x 10-2 Iron (Fe) 4.65 x 10-3 Manganese (Mn) 1.18 x 10-1 Manganese (Mn) 1.16 x 10-2 Zinc (Zn) 4.72 x 10-2 Zinc (Zn) 4.65 x 10-3 Copper (Cu) 1.42 x 10-2 Copper (Cu) 1.40 x 10-3 Molybdenum (Mo) 2.36 x 10-4 Molybdenum (Mo) 2.33 x 10-5

Jonathan Rohwer 119 MACRONUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

Element Form of Uptake Mass Per Year [20] [Mg] + - Nitrogen (N) NH4 , NO3 31.09 Potassium (K) K+ 22.21 Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ 11.10 Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+ 4.442 - 2- Phosphorus (P) H2PO4 , HPO4 4.442 2- Sulfur (S) SO4 2.221

Jonathan Rohwer 120 MICRONUTRIENT RECOVERY

Element Form of Mass Per Year Uptake [20] [Mg] Chlorine (Cl) Cl- 2.221 x 10-1 -2 Boron (B) H3BO3 4.442 x 10 Iron (Fe) Fe2+, Fe3+ 2.221 x 10-1 Manganese (Mn) Mn2+ 1.110 x 10-1 Zinc (Zn) Zn2+ 4.442 x 10-2 Copper (Cu) Cu2+ 1.333 x 10-2 2- -4 Molybdenum (Mo) MoO4 2.221 x 10

Jonathan Rohwer 121 CHEMICAL REACTIONS FOR NUTRIENTS

• Some of the elements Food Production is getting is not in the principle form of uptake for the plants • Phosphorus & Boron • Phosphorus Pentoxide when exposed to water will eventually become phosphoric acid [25] • Borax when exposed to hydrochloric acid forms boric acid [26]

Phosphorus Reactions

Boron Reaction

Jonathan Rohwer 122 PUMPS

• Food production has three needs for pumps • From nutrient recovery tanks to water storage tanks • From water recovery basins to water storage tanks • From water storage tanks to plants • Nutrient recovery and plant watering will use the same pump since they have similar power requirements • Water recovery pumps will use a much smaller pump since it has much lower power requirements

Jonathan Rohwer 123 PLANTS WATERING PUMPS

• Have to bring the water up to 0.689 MPa (100 psi [27]) for nozzles to operate properly • 1/9 of all nozzles are operating at any given time (About 5,040 Nozzles) • Used energy conservation, assuming frictionless and adiabatic flow • Pumps water from 8th floor to all other floors

Jonathan Rohwer 124 NUTRIENT AND WATER RECOVERY PUMPS

• The power analysis for the nutrient recovery and water recovery pumps was simple, Power = Work / Time, since pressure changes were not important like with plant watering pumps • Nutrient recovery was assumed to have to pump 21.24 Mg of water a day since that is the mass in the tank and the residence time • Pumps water on the same 8th floor up 4 m to the water storage tank opening • Water recovery was assumed to have to pump 17 Mg of water (1.1 factor of safety) over the course of a day • Pumps water from all 9 floors to the 8th floor storage tanks

Jonathan Rohwer 125 PUMP MASS AND VOLUME

• All pumps used were based on two real world pumps that provided similar pressures and volumetric flow rates • Franklin Electric Turf Boss 160 GPM 5 HP Self-Priming Cast Iron Sprinkler Pump [28] • Nutrient and plant watering pumps • Mass = 60.76 kg [9] • Volume = 0.05185 m3 [28] • Flotec FP5112 – 10.3 GPM ½ HP Portable Transfer Pump [29] • Water recovery pumps • Mass = 7.62 kg [29] • Volume = 0.001809 m3 [29]

Jonathan Rohwer 126 PUMP MASS, POWER, AND VOLUME

Number of Total Mass Total Power Total Pump Pumps [Mg] [kW] Volume [m3] Plant 64 3.889 13.0 3.318 Watering Nutrient 2 0.1215 1.35 0.1037 Recovery Water 44 0.335 6.36 x 10-3 0.0796 Recovery TOTAL: 4.346 14.36 17.85

Jonathan Rohwer 127 MOTOR SIZING

• All electric motors used in Food Production were based on Zytek’s 170 kW Traction Motor [30] • It was assumed that motor mass and volume scale linearly with power • Used in our elevators, tank mixers, and irrigation system • Mass = 75 kg [30] • Volume = 0.0353 m3 [30] • The ratio of mass and volume to power was used to find the mass and volume of our motors • Assumed to have a motor efficiency of 73.5% which was used on all motor including pumps

Jonathan Rohwer 128 ELEVATORS

• Food Production has 6 elevators • Carry a mass of 0.55 Mg • Structural mass of 1.06 Mg • Travel at 1.016 m/s, which is how fast friend elevators travel on earth [31] • If the elevator travels 3m at a time (height between floors), it takes 2.95 sec • Assuming Power = Work / Time and a motor efficiency of 73.5% • Moving 1.61 tons 3 meters in 2.95 seconds yields a power of 8.27 kW per elevator, 49.6 kW in Total

Jonathan Rohwer 129 MIXERS

• Assumed that two 1m x 1m plates traveling at 1 rev/min was sufficient to mix our tanks • Average Velocity = 0.1047 m/s • Cd = 1.28 • Using the drag equation below to get a force

• We then got torque (14.03 N- m), work (88.16 J) and therefore a power of 5.29 kW per mixer

Jonathan Rohwer 130 IRRIGATION

• Consist of moving the pipe with the nozzles attached to every row of plants • Moves 40 m • Takes 7.5 min • Weights 327.6 N (5 cm diameter PVC pipe filled with water) • Friction factor of plastic on plastic is 0.3 [32] • Assuming static friction since frequent stops and starts • Weight and friction factor gives friction force (98.29 N) which is applied over the 40 m distance over a time of 7.5 min • This gives a power per module of 13.7 W

Jonathan Rohwer 131 MOTORS IN FOOD PRODUCTION

Motor Number of Total Mass Total Power Total Motors [Mg] [kW] Volume [m3] Elevators 6 0.0219 49.6 0.0103 Mixers 66 0.2094 349.1 0.09859

Irrigation 3240 0.0196 44.4 0.00922

Jonathan Rohwer 132 NOZZLES

• We looked at two types of nozzle to get an idea of what we need • Both nozzle produce 5 - 50 micron droplets required by plants [33]

Characteristic AgriHouse [27] FogCo [34] Material Nylon Brass Orifice Size [mm] 0.635 0.508 Volumetric Flow 2.366 x 10-6 2.839 x 10-6 Rate [m3/s] Operating Pressure 0.6895 6.895 [MPa]

Jonathan Rohwer 133 NOZZLES CONT.

• We decided to base our nozzle of the AgriHouse • Made of plastic and has a large orifice size (easier to manufacture) • Lower operating pressures are less power intensive • Our nozzles are made of polyethylene to aid with clogging • Metal nozzles attach the ions in the water leading to clogging • Need 14 nozzle per module to provide proper flow rate on plant roots (45,220 in total)

Jonathan Rohwer 134 TOTAL OXYGEN PRODUCTION [35 - 41]

2 2 2 2 2 Food CO2 [umol/m /s] O [mg/m /s] Area [m ] O [kg/day]

Strawberries 25.0 0.4 6459 223

Blueberries 6.00 0.096 62,315 517

Kale 4.99 0.0798 1,054 7.27

Spinach 20.0 0.32 1,563 43.2

Broccoli 14.8 0.237 8,606 176

Sweet Potato 9.30 0.149 68,226 877

Russet Potato 13.3 0.213 29,368 540

Wheat 20.0 0.320 102,973.0 2,850

Oats 30.2 0.483 288,550 12,050

Rice 30.2 0.480 188,732 7,830

Soybean 30.0 0.48 51,170 2,122

TOTAL 27,200

Matt Prymek SULFUR PLASMA LAMPS (1) [42-44]

• Quartz bulb filled with sulfur, argon is placed in waveguide and excited with microwave radiation • Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR): light between 400 and 700 nm, measured in micro-moles of photons • Photosynthetic Photon Flux (PPF): total PAR emitted from a surface each second • Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD): PAR incident on a surface each second

Schematic of Sulfur Plasma Lamp Spectra of Lamps

Image Credit: D. A. MacLennan et al [43] Image Credit: Ceravision Limited [42]

Matt Prymek 136 SULFUR PLASMA LAMPS (2) [37,42-44]

• Crops require PPFD of 200 - 1,000 umol/m2/s • Assume 90% efficiency in light distribution • One 1360 W lamp per 10 m2 provides 417 umol/m2/s • Assume 18-hour lighting period for each crop

Sulfur Plasma Lamp Specifications ModelModel PowerPower VolumeVolume Mass BrightnessBrightness PPF Mass [kg] PPF [umol/s] SystemSystem (Watts)(Watts) (cm(cm33)) [kg] [Lumens][Lumens] [umol/s] Plasma-i- i 13601360 8,3008,300 9 27,20027,200 4,6204,620 AS1300

Lighting System Mass, Power, Volume Avg. Power ## LampsLamps MassMass [Mg][Mg] Avg. Power (MW) VolumeVolume (m(m33)) (MW) 80,90080,900 728728 82.582.5 671671

Matt Prymek 137 LIGHTING REPLACEMENT RATES [43-45]

• Assume 18-hour lighting period • Bulb, mount (without magnetron) lifetime: ~ 99,000 hours -> 15.1 years • Magnetron lifetime: ~ 20,000 hours -> 3.04 years Bulb Materials Mount Materials Total Total Sulfur Argon Al Mass SiO2 [g] Total [mg] [mg] Mass Cu [kg] SiO2 [g] [g] Sulfur Argon [kg] Mass SiO [g] [kg] [mg] [mg] 2 9.43[g] 26.0 2.75 9.4 8.0 7.80 0.20 9.4 9.43 26.0 2.75 9.4 Magnetron Materials TotalTotal Mass Al [kg] Cu [kg] SiO2 [g] CaO2[g] Mass Al [kg] Cu [kg] SiO2 [g] CaO2[g] [kg][kg] 8.08.0 7.807.80 0.200.20 9.49.4 1.01.0 Yearly System Material Replacement Rates

Al Cu CaO2[k SiO2 Sulfur Argon [Mg] [Mg] g] [kg] [g] [g] 24.4 3.67 53.9 20.2 280 29.7 Matt Prymek 138 MASS, POWER, VOLUME BREAKDOWN (1)

Volume Total Total Total Replacem Sub- Unit Mass per Power per Number Lifetime per unit Mass Power Volume Material ent Rate system Definition unit [Mg] unit [MW] of units [yr] [m3] [Mg] [MW] [m3] [Mg/yr] 400 m2 Crops 0.367 0 1100 3230 1186 0 3,550,000 n/a n/a n/a module Polyethylen Nozzles 1 nozzle 4.27×10-6 0 4.27×10-6 45220 0.1931 0 0.193 14 0.0138 e Water 20 m 0.0291 0 0.0604 3230 94.1 0 195 PVC 60 1.57 Pipes length Water 1 tank 2.8 0 60 64 179.2 0 3840 Concrete 100 1.79 Tanks Water 1 electric Copper and Tank 3.17×10-3 7.20×10-3 1.49×10-3 64 0.203 0.339 0.0956 10 0.0203 motor Iron Mixers

Water Cast Iron Tank 1 pump 0.06076 2.03×10-4 0.05185 64 3.889 0.013 3.3184 10 0.389 and Motor Pumps Irrigation 1 electric Copper and 1.21×10-5 2.74×10-5 5.69×10-6 3240 0.0392 7.08×10-3 1.84×10-2 10 3.92×10-3 Motor motor Iron Nutrient 1 tank 2.8 0 60 2 5.6 0 120 Concrete 100 0.056 Tanks Nutrient 1 electric Copper and Tank 3.17×10-3 7.20×10-3 1.49×10-3 2 6.35×10-3 0.0144 2.99×10-3 10 6.35×10-4 motor Iron Mixers

Nutrient Polyethylen 1 pump 0.06076 6.73×10-4 0.05185 2 0.1215 1.35×10-3 0.10370 10 0.0122 Pumps e and Motor

Reclaimin Polyethylen 1 pump 0.00762 1.45×10-7 0.001809 44 0.335 6.36×10-6 0.0796 10 0.0335 g Pumps e and Motor

139 MASS, POWER, VOLUME BREAKDOWN (2)

Unit Volume Total Total Total Replaceme Sub- Mass per Power per Number Lifetime Definitio per unit Mass Power Volume Material nt Rate system unit [Mg] unit [MW] of units [yr] n [m3] [Mg] [MW] [m3] [Mg/yr] Steel Structural 1 column 66.044 0 137.78 500 33022 0 68890 50 660 Columns Steel 1 sulfur Al,Cu,SiO

Lights plasma 0.009 82.635 0.0076 80900 728 82.635 617.5 2,S,Ar,Ca 6 121 lamp O2 1 Structural Elevators 1.08 0 6.1875 6 6.48 0 37.125 20 0.324 elevator Steel Elevator 1 electric Copper 1.24×10-3 2.82×10-3 0 6 7.47×10-3 0.0169 0 10 7.47×10-4 Motors motor and Al Freeze 1 freeze Stainless 20.4 0.23 50 2 40.8 0.46 100 10 4.08 Dryers dryer Steel Fecal Whole Structural Furnace, 4.03 0.012 45.3 1 4.03 0.012 45.3 10 0.403 system Steel urine tanks Floors, Whole 533 0 222.08 1 533 0 222.08 Concrete 100 5.33 ceiling, etc structure

Harvesting 1 cart 0.095 0 0.5 84 7.94 0 42 Aluminum 20 0.397 Carts

0.094 0 0.5 16 1.51 0 8 Aluminum 20 0.0755 Mushroom 1 cart Carts SiO 0.007 0 0 16 0.106 0 0 2 5 0.0212 glass

TOTAL 35814 83.5 3627121

140 MATERIAL REPLACEMENT RATES

Total Total Mass Lifetime Required rate Requireme Material Type System Shape [Mg] [Years] [Mg/Year] nt [Mg/Year] Vertical Support Columns of base (0.56m)2 and height 27 33022 50 660.44 Structural steel Beams m (A36) Elevators Sheets of thickness 1.9 cm 6.48 20 0.324 660 Fecal furnace, Urine 0.3 cm thick sheets 4.03 10 0.403 tanks Aluminum 6061-T6 Harvesting carts Sheet of thickness 1 cm 9.45 20 0.4725 0.472

Aeroponics Nozzles Cylinders 1 in tall and 0.5 in diameter 0.0104 14 0.0007 HDPE Plastic bags for 3.20 Sheets of thickness 1 mm 9.22 2.9 3.1793 (polyethylene) stored food Small Motors Casing and Rotors 0.17526 10 0.0175 47,200 Floors, ceilings Slabs for floors and so on 533 100 5.33

Sulfur Concrete Water Tanks Just have to pour/fill the tanks 179.2 100 1.792 7.18

Nutrient Tanks Just have to pour/fill the tanks 5.6 100 0.056

Stainless Steel Freeze Dryers Curved sheets 40.8 10 4.08 4.08 Mushroom carts Glass Sheet of dimensions 1m x 0.5m x 0.5cm 0.106 5 0.0212 0.0212 (must be pure SiO2)

Tubes of inner diameter 5 cm, outer PVC Water Pipes 94.1 60 1.568 1.568 diameter 6.2 cm, length of 20 m

A90 Cupronickel heating wire (000 Fecal Furnace 000 gauge wire 0.07 10 0.007 0.007 gauge) Casted into a front plate, back plate and Large Water Pumps 1.94432 10 0.194432 Cast Iron turbine blades 0.396 Motor Parts Rotor and Casing 2.02 10 0.202 141 141 Copper Motor Coils Wire 0.356 10 0.0356 0.0356 RISK MANAGEMENT

We sorted our risks by likelihood and severity of consequences.

Consequences

Negligible Minor Moderate Severe

Likelihood Likely - Light - Nozzles malfunction clog

Possibl - Coolant e leak Unlikel - Elevator -Pump break - Dead crop - Corrosion y break-down down sections of inner walls - Insufficient of water tank nutrient resources Rare - Structural collapse 142 142 SOURCES

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147 GROUND TRANSPORTATION APPENDIX

148 HOW ARE RESOURCES AND PEOPLE TRANSPORTED ACROSS MARS?

System Totals Vehicle Quantity Carrying Capacity Track Length [km] 13450 Rover 20 2 People Mass [Mg] 18.1 million Tube Utility Vehicle 50 1 Person, 2 Mg Power [MW] 40.71 Resource Railcar 274 165 Mg Personnel Railcar 10 4-10 people Material Replacement Rates [Mg/Year] Flatbed Railcar 35 165 Mg or 2 Rovers Steel 2467 Aluminum 0.32 Polyethylene 1.074 Sulfur Concrete 453.5 Nitinol 1.2 Copper 0.274 Optical Fiber 157.5 1 - Iron Oxide, 2 – Copper, 3* - Water Ice, 4 – Hematite, 5 – Thorium, 6 – Nitrates/Germanium, 7 - Hydrated Minerals/ Phyllosilicate Clays, Laser Diodes 4050 8* - Rocket Support, 9* - Science Telescopes, * = not visible

149 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

1. Train System • All railcars are capable of completing round trips to launch and resource sites. • Resource railcars transport and unload 165 Mg of resources. (Resource Extraction) • Personnel railcars transit four maintenance workers or ten space transport passengers, while providing ECLSS and blocking 50% of surface radiation. (Resource Extraction/Space Transportation) • Personnel railcars travel fast enough to limit radiation exposure to half of Earth average. (Customer) • Flatbed railcars carry processed material to the city lava tube section and rovers to the resource sites. (Manufacturing) 2. Crewed Rover System • Crewed rovers carry two maintenance workers, providing ECLSS for eight hour maintenance shifts and blocking 50% of surface radiation, or four workers in the event of an emergency. (Resource Extraction) • Crewed rovers carry all necessary maintenance tools, including robotic maintenance arm. 3. Tube Utility Vehicle (TUV) • TUV’s transport up to 2 Mg of processed resources or food to respective destinations within the city. • (City Infrastructure) 4. Communication System • System provides two-way communication between vehicles, city, and communications satellites.

150 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – SURFACE ACCESS RAMP

• Provides access for rails between surface and city • Rail splits at the bottom to service city and manufacturing lava tube sections • Single rail runs the length of the ramp

Property Value Units Length 850 m Width 125 m Height 150 m Slope 10 °

151 REGOLITH REMOVAL PLOW

• Problematic sand buildup on tracks is unlikely. Regolith Plow • High winds and dust-devils remove dust from raised surfaces. • Most large sand dunes lie at the bottom of craters away from tracks.

• This plow is a contingency in case buildup does occur.

Assumptions:

• The Plow removes all regolith within its four-meter width.

• Friction between the regolith and the RRP causes a 25% increase in power requirements over the frictionless solution.

• The density of Martian regolith is a constant at 1.52 Mg/m3.

• All regolith removed follows a parabolic trajectory perpendicular to the tracks of initial flight path angle 45o. Required power, Pr is a function of • All regolith moves three meters in the direction of the train velocity, V (m/s), and the nearest rail, leaving a one-meter gap between the rails and height of the buildup, h(m). the discarded regolith 푃푟 = 12.73푉ℎ 푘푊

152 GROUND TRANSPORTATION: VEHICLE SPECIFICATIONS

153 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – VEHICLE SPECIFICATIONS

Resource Tube Utility Personnel Railcar Flatbed Railcar Crewed Rover Railcar Vehicle

Quantity 10 274 35 20 50

13.8 (Maintenance) 28.7 (Manufact.) Mass [Mg] 22.2 4.33 0.38 1.42 (Launch) 39.7 (Rovers) Power Required 155 136 136 N/A N/A [kW] Energy Capacity N/A N/A N/A 49.4 21.7 [kWh] Volume [m3] 45 114 N/A 10.5 N/A Surface Area N/A N/A 45 N/A 7 [m2] 10 people to 165 Mg, or 100 165 Mg or 2 2 people, 4 in Capacity launch, 4 for 2 Mg m3, of regolith crewed rovers emergency maintenance Operates in ECLSS, egress Hopper ECLSS, egress Features Rover ramps pressurized suits unloading suits, robotic arm environments Aluminum, steel, Aluminum, steel, Aluminum, steel, Aluminum, steel, Aluminum, steel, Materials copper, copper, copper copper copper polyethylene polyethylene

154 RAILCAR WHEELS

Wheel Diamet Thicknes Material Section er [m] s [m]

Inner 0.9 0.05 Steel

Outer 0.851 0.05 Steel

Inner Width Intermediate Outer Width [m] Width [m] [m] 1.9 2 2.2

155 RESOURCE RAILCAR

Dimensions Length Width (m) Height (m) (m)

10 3 4

Mass Power Volume Material [Mg] [kg] [m3]

22.11 127 114 Steel

156 RESOURCE RAILCAR HOPPER DOORS

Length Width Height Object [m] [m] [m] Hopper 3 1 0.35 Closed Hopper 1 1 0.55 Opening

157 PERSONNEL RAILCAR

Dimensions Length Length with Width Height [m] Shields [m] [m] [m] 6 7 3 4

Mass Power Volume Material [Mg] [kW] [m3] Aluminu 13.01 147 45 m Personnel Railcar with Personnel Railcar with spacesuit covers employed spacesuit covers removed

158 FLATBED RAILCAR

Dimensions

Thickness Length [m] Width [m] [m]

10 4.5 0.07

Mass Power Surface Material [Mg] [kW] Area [m2]

28.67 127 40 Steel

159 CREWED ROVER

Dimensions Section Length [m] Width [m] Height [m]

Front 1.3 2 1.5

Middle 1.4 3.15 2

Back 1.3 2 1.5

Mass Energy Volume Material [Mg] Capacity [kWh] [m2]

3.71 41.6 10.5 Aluminum

160 NITINOL TIRE

• Design inspired by NASA Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV) nitinol tire design [1] • Employed on the crewed rover

Dimensions Diameter [m] Thickness [m] Material 1.33 0.44 Nickel Titanium Alloy

Rim Dimensions Outer Inner Outer Inner Thickness Thickness Material Diameter [m] Diameter [m] [m] [m] 0.435 0.333 0.435 0.411 Aluminum

161 CREWED ROVER – ROBOTIC MAINTENANCE ARM

Component Dimensions Joint Thickness Length [m] Diameter Material [m] [m] Arm 1.5 0.025 0.051 Steel Two-Pronged 0.05 0.01 N/A Steel Hand

162 TUBE UTILITY VEHICLE (TUV)

Dimensions

Thickness Width Thickness w/o Length [m] w/ fringe [m] fringe [m] [m]

3 2.5 0.1 0.032

Energy Surface Mass [Mg] Capacity Material Area [m2] [kWh]

0.12 21.7 7 Aluminum

163 TUBE UTILITY VEHICLE (TUV)

Frame Dimensions

Length Width Inner Thickness Outer Material [m] [m] [m] Thickness [m]

2.5 1.5 0.003 0.05 Aluminum

Wheel Dimensions

Diameter [m] Thickness [m] Material

0.91 0.05 Polyethylene

164 TUBE UTILITY VEHICLE (TUV)

Component Dimensions Componen Length [m] Width [m] Height [m] t Battery 0.35 0.5 0.8 Box Driver’s 0.4 0.36 0.727 Seat Steering 0.085 0.05 0.5 Wheel

165 Ground Transportation: Surface Resource Transportation Trade Study

166 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – SURFACE TRANSPORT TRADE STUDY

• Analyzed energy required to move railcar and rover up identical slopes • Slopes: 0° to 10° • Slope Length: 1 km • Vehicle Masses: 0 Mg to 165 Mg

• Assumptions • Electric traction motors scale linearly [2] • Drag neglected • Rail: • Considered losses due to gravitational potential and rolling resistance • Rover: • Considered losses due to gravitational potential and driving on regolith [3]

• Conclusion: rover requires 4-5 times more energy, hence choose rail over rover

167 Ground Transportation: Long-Distance Transportation Trade Study

168 LONG-DISTANCE TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS

1. Shall have a range to arrive to the furthest point of resource collection and return. 2. Shall have a high enough weight carrying capacity for large scale resource transportation. 3. Shall carry a variety of objects of different shapes and sizes (rovers, launch vehicles, materials, personnel). 4. Shall endure frequent travel. 5. Shall be easily maintainable and repairable. 6. Shall safely transport personnel. 7. Shall be producible on Mars. 8. Shall make efficient use of Mars resources. 9. Shall carry personnel to destination within time limits set by radiation and health factors. 10.Shall consume power efficiently. 11.Shall have achieved a technology readiness level of at least 4.

169 CATEGORIES AND WEIGHTS

Required Luxury 1 2 3 4 5 for system success

Category Weight Reasoning Req # Range- What affects how far similar 4 Many necessary resources will be best accessible at a long distance from the city. 1 systems travel?

Speed - How quickly similar systems travel 2 Due to radiation hazards, any personnel traveling should minimize their time on the train. 9

Power Efficiency - Are similar systems Power is not one of our scarcest resources. A system producing resources will be worth high 3 10 power intensive for the mass they carry? power draws.

Maintenance - In what ways do similar We will have to rely on people to do maintenance. If we can reduce the amount of time people 3 4,5 systems fail? must be outside to fix a system they will be healthier. Safety - What are the dangers to personnel 4 Any personnel traveling for maintenance should be safe on the system. 6 on board?

Carrying Capacity and Resource Efficiency Resources will be the main purpose for the long distance transport. Efficiency with resource use 5 2,8 - compared to the load carried is important for an effective system.

Modularity - Can the system carry the The system will have to transport everything from resources, vehicles, rockets, and people. It 2 3 different objects we’d transport? must be flexible to changes in shape and volume.

Constructability - Do we have construction Many systems only need to be constructed once, and then maintained. Difficulties are 3 7 capabilities for this system’s complexity? temporary.

170 COMPLETED TRADE STUDY

Permanent Power Resource Surface Range Speed Maintenance Safety Modularity Constructability Total Efficiency Efficiency Transport

Weight 3 2 3 2 2 5 2 3

Train 4 4 1 4 4 5 5 3 83

Rover 1 2 1 5 2 1 5 4 51

Hopper 5 5 5 2 2 3 2 4 79

171 RESEARCH

Range in One Trip

System Rank Reasoning

Train 4 Can reach all parts of planet as long as rail exists.

Rover 1 17 km range; limited.

Hopper 5 Can reach other side of planet without significant changes to design

Speed for Personnel Travel System Rank Reasoning

Train 4 Max Speed 43 km/hr

Rover 2 Max speed 30 km/hr

Hopper 5 140 min round trip to furthest point on globe = 4564 km/hr (Ryan Duong)

172 RESEARCH

Constructability - Design and Development System Rank Reasoning

Train 3 Low complexity; significant precedent, difficult development

Rover 4 High complexity; Will already be manufacturing slightly similar systems

Hopper 4 High complexity; Will already be manufacturing many similar systems

Power Efficiency

System Rank Reasoning

Train 1 15260 kWh per trip to furthest resource site

Rover 1 15375 kWh per trip to furthest resource site

Hopper 5 12 kWh per trip

173 RESEARCH

Maintenance

System Rank Reasoning

Train 4 Easily Accessible. Simple system

Rover 5 Easily Accessible. Simple system.

Hopper 2 Inaccessible. Complex system

Safety System Rank Reasoning

Train 4 Accessible- Constrained to travel on established track

Rover 2 Possibilities for getting stuck or breached by sharp rocks

Hopper 2 Travels sub-orbitally, contains rocket propellant

174 RESEARCH

Carrying Capacity and Resource Efficiency System Rank Reasoning

Train 5 1.3 units weight of resources carried per unit weight of infrastructure

Rover 1 0.014 units weight of resources carried per unit weight of infrastructure

Hopper 2 0.4 units weight of resources carried per unit weight of infrastructure

Modularity System Rank Reasoning

Train 5 Easily customizable car shape (flatbed rail)

Rover 5 Easily customizable payload shape (tow)

Hopper 2 Constrained by shape for aerodynamics

175 Sub-Orbital Rocket Analysis for Ground Transportation

176 REQUIREMENTS AND ASSUMPTIONS

System Need Requirement Science Capacity to carry: Designed for heaviest predicted load: Support • Science rovers 600kg and largest volume payload 20 • Three human explorers cubic meters , based off of Curiosity Rover. Resource Capacity to carry significant resources 100 Mg per day Extraction Launch and land twice without Same amount of fuel estimated for refueling launch/land for each flight Hopper shall be able to travel as near Used ballistic trajectory for quick transport as 50km from the city as far as hallway around planet General across the planet Buildable by materials on Mars TBD Fueled by Martian propellant Methane + LOX Must have a soft landing Included retro propulsion to bring v=0 at landing # Assumption 1 Same fuel is burned in launch and retro-propulsion for landing 2 Heat effects from atmosphere not included 3 No maneuvering after exiting atmosphere 4 No gravity loss or drag 177 BALLISTIC TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS

u Isp* g0 *ln( MR ) u Isp* g MR e 0 178 TRADE STUDY

Degrees DeltaV [km/s] Mass around Isp [s] Trajectory (One launch) Ratio planet

180 363.3 3.5469 53

90 363.3 3.2283 37.5

179 TRADE STUDY RESULTS

• Hopper is infeasible to construct because it requires mass fractions significantly higher than is feasible.

• Hopper does not meet requirements for ground transport, because it would consume more materials than it helps produce.

180 Ground Transportation: Train Network Route Creation

181 ROUTES SUMMARY

Latitude Longitude Length Max Slope # Identifier (+N) (+E) [km] [deg] City -36.8 89.6 1086.0 20* 1 Iron -41.7 96 8420.0 19.5 2 Copper 7.55 318.53 504.8 20* 3 Water -37.215 93.996 5844.0 19.20 4 Hematite 0.2 357.5 546.6 19.20 5 Thorium 11.609 326.78 3267.4 20* Nitrates, 6 -4.587 137.16 3219.0 20* Germanium Hydrated 7 -28 77 1081.0 19.20 Minerals Launch/Lan 8 -36.63 89.75 17.8 20 d Site 9 Telescopes -36.5 89.42 3.851 18

182 ROUTES – FULL MAP

1 - Iron Oxide, 2 – Copper, 3* - Water Ice, 4 – Hematite, 5 – Thorium, 6 – Nitrates, Germanium, 7 - Hydrated Minerals/ Phyllosilicate Clays, 8* - Rocket Support, 9* - Science Telescopes, * = not visible

183 ROUTES – ENLARGED SECTIONS MAP

184 Ground Transportation: Crewed Vehicle ECLSS

185 PROVISION VESSEL INFORMATION

Assumptions • A human needs 1.6 kg of water per day to survive [4]. • A human needs 4 kg of food per day to survive. [Food Production].

Constraints: • Maximum 3 people in rovers • Maximum 4 people in rails • Maximum rover mission duration: 8 hours. • Maximum rail mission duration: 5 days.

186 PROVISION VESSELS – PERSONNEL RAILCAR

Water tank Food bin

Mass (kg) 12 Mass (kg) 16.4

Power (kW) 0 Power (kW) 0

Volume (m3) 0.0503 Volume (m3) 0.2

187 PROVISION VESSELS – CREWED ROVER

Water tank Food bin

Mass (kg) 3.41 Mass (kg) 1.71

Power (kW) 0 Power (kW) 0

Volume (m3) 0.0078 Volume (m3) 0.0068

188 OXYGEN SUPPLY AND CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL SYSTEM – CREWED ROVER TRADE STUDY

Oxygen Recycling and Oxygen Supply and Crewed Rover Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide Reduction [5] Scrubbing Mass 0.130 Mg 0.024 Mg Power 0.95 kW 1.670 kW Volume 0.120 m3 0.025 m3 Lower mass and volume Lower power requirements, no requirements, less Advantages need to refill oxygen tanks complexity, proven technology Complex, little research, difficult to Have to replenish oxygen Disadvantages manufacture supply after every mission Chosen system X

189 OXYGEN SUPPLY AND CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL SYSTEM –PERSONNEL RAILCAR TRADE STUDY

Oxygen Recycling and Oxygen Supply and Personnel Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide Railcar Reduction [5] Scrubbing

Mass 0.220 Mg 0.121 Mg

Power 1.66 kW 2.103 kW

Volume 1.250 m3 0.231 m3

Lower mass and volume Lower power requirements, no requirements, less Advantages need to refill oxygen tanks complexity, proven technology

Complex, little research, difficult to Have to replenish oxygen Disadvantages manufacture supply after every mission

Chosen system X

190 OXYGEN SUPPLY AND CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL SYSTEM – FINAL DESIGN

Crewed Rover Mass Power Volume Oxygen Supply 12.72 kg 4.320 W 0.015 m3 System Carbon Dioxide 11.68 kg 1.666 kW 0.010 m3 Removal System

Personnel Railcar Mass Power Volume

Oxygen Supply 97.85 kg 4.320 W 0.210 m3 System Carbon Dioxide 23.37 kg 2.099 kW 0.021 m3 Removal System

The oxygen supply system provides oxygen via an aluminum oxygen tank and an off-the-shelf regulator. The carbon dioxide removal system uses a zeolite filter to separate the carbon dioxide from the air, which is then heated to release the carbon dioxide into the Martian atmosphere.

191 RADIATION SHIELDING – FINAL DESIGN

• The radiation shielding consists of a 10 cm thick layer of high density polyethylene and a 5 cm inert atmospheric buffer of diatomic nitrogen contained using an outer layer of 1.2 mm thick Al 6061.

• The high density polyethylene (HDPE) provides a dose reduction rate of approximately 50%. [6]

192 Ground Transportation: Structures

193 HOW ARE RESOURCES AND PEOPLE TRANSPORTED ACROSS MARS?

Note: There are several resource extraction sites on the surface ranging from hundreds of kilometers away to over 8,000 kilometers

4/6/2018 194 CREWED VEHICLE STRUCTURE

Internal Pressure = 81.06 MPa Rover load capacity = 1,200 kg Personnel car load capacity = 1,000 kg Floor thickness = 0.025 m Wall/Ceiling thickness = 0.0012 m Polyethylene wall = 0.100 m Nitrogen gap = 0.050 m Calculations: Pressure vessel, FEA Profile of crewed vehicle walls.

195 HEAVY TRANSPORT VEHICLES

P thickness = 7 cm

Length = 6 m

Material = A36 Steel P = 165 Mg Failure criteria = yield strength FS = 1.3

196 RAIL AND WHEEL ASSEMBLY

Wheel set on a 3 meter length of track

197 RAIL PROFILE

198 WHEEL AND RAIL ANALYSIS

199 RAIL WHEEL LIFETIME

200 RAIL STRESS HAND CALCULATIONS

201 TRACK DESIGN – FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

To mimic the force nature of a train traveling over the rails, a force equal to approximately 1710 kN was applied to the model. This represents the force of four recourse car wheels, the maximum number in contact with a single slab at one time, multiplied by the factor of safety. From this analysis, the slab and substrate dimensions were altered until stress and strain values approached our allowable values.

202 RAILWAY TRACK - FINAL DESIGN

The railway tracks utilized by ground transportation are designed based off a J-slab non-ballasted track design. [7] Our design focused on manufacturability, ease of replacement, and minimal human interference on the surface. The track consists of a concrete slab on top of a concrete substrate.

Dimensions: The substrate is constructed in the shape of a trapezoid, measuring 2.62 m in width at the top and 2.92 m in width at the bottom. The substrate has a height of 0.15 m and a length of 6.5 m. The slab measures 2.62 m in width, 6.5 m in length, and 0.10 m in height. We include a center hole, measuring 1.32 m in width, 4.8 m in length, with 0.2 m radius-rounded corners, to reduce the railway’s material needs.

203 Ground Transportation: Power and Thermal

204 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – RAILCAR MOTOR SIZING

• Determined maximum velocity based on personnel railcar traveling to farthest resource extraction site within the radiation exposure limits • Iteratively sized motor mass and power • Assumptions • Electric traction motors scale linearly [2] • Linear acceleration and deceleration, each over 1 hour • Considered losses due to:

• Gravitational potential Electric Traction Value Units • Rolling resistance [8] Motor Properties Mass 60.2 kg • Drag [9] Volume 0.028 m3 Mechanical Output 100 kW Power Electrical Input 136 kW Power

205 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – RAILCAR TRAVEL TIMES

• Takes into account: rolling resistance, gravitational potential, and drag

Personnel – Personnel – Flatbed – Flatbed – Resource – Resource Resource – Destination Maintenance Launch (hr) Manufacturing (hr) Rovers (hr) Empty (hr) – Full (hr) Total (Days) (hr) Copper Site 109 N/A 185 255 144 1200 55.8 Germanium 83.4 N/A 157 215 121 1010 41.7 Site Hematite Site 72.3 N/A 121 166 93.8 777 36.3 Hydrated 15.0 N/A 24.0 32.4 19.0 145 6.9 Minerals Site Iron Site 29.4 N/A 54.1 74.0 42.2 342 16.0 Launch/ Land 2.3 2.3 2.45 2.6 N/A N/A N/A Site Nitrates Site 84.6 N/A 159 219 123 1020 47.8 Plagioclase 7.8 N/A 11.5 15.2 9.4 64.2 3.1 Site Thorium Site 97.4 N/A 164 225 127 1050 49.2 Water/Ice 14.8 N/A 26.2 35.5 20.7 160 7.5 Site

206 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – ROVER BATTERY SIZING

• Sized batteries to provide ECLSS for an eight hour maintenance shift and drive round-trip across the resource extraction site • Iteratively sized Nickel-metal Hydride (NiMH) battery mass and energy capacity • Assumptions • NiMH batteries scale linearly • Constant velocity during driving periods • No acceleration/deceleration

• Considered losses due to: Crewed Rover • Gravitational potential Battery Value Units Properties • Driving on regolith [3] Mass 416 kg Volume 0.250 m3 Energy Capacity 49.9 kWh

207 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – TUV BATTERY SIZING * TUV = TUBE UTILITY VEHICLE

• Sized batteries to perform five round-trips of 1.6 km each way at 16 km/hr, with cyclic loading of 2 Mg • Iteratively sized Nickel-metal Hydride (NiMH) battery mass and energy capacity • Assumptions • NiMH batteries scale linearly • Constant velocity during driving periods • No acceleration/deceleration

• Considered losses due to friction TUV Battery Value Units • Neglected drag Properties Mass 181 kg

Volume 0.108 m3

Energy Capacity 21.7 kWh

208 Ground Transportation: Vehicle Lifecycles and Replacement Rates

209 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – SYSTEM LIFECYCLES

• Limited lifetimes based on Lifetime Material System components or subsystems (Years) Rail resource car 50 structure Rail flatbed car A36 Structural Steel 100 • Assume entire component structure will be replaced at end of Rail vehicle wheels 1000 lifetime Rail lines 1000 Rover structure 100 Aluminum 6061-T6 Personnel railcar 100 structure • Employed Fermi estimation HDPE Crewed vehicle 100 (Polyethylene) insulation Sulfur Concrete Rail substrate 100 Nitinol Rover wheels 2 Copper Electric motor 15 Optical Fiber Communications 40 10mW FP* Laser Communications 23 Diodes

210 GROUND TRANSPORTATION – REPLACEMENT RATES

푀푔 퐶표푚푝표푛푒푛푡 푀푎푠푠 [푀푔] • 푅푒푝푙푎푐푒푚푒푛푡 푅푎푡푒 = ∗ (100 − 푅푒푐푦푐푙𝑖푛𝑔 %) 푦푟 퐶표푚푝표푛푒푛푡 퐿푖푓푒푡푖푚푒 [푦푟] • Took material recycling rates into account • E.g. Sulfur “Martian” concrete has a recycling rate of 98% [10], so only 2% needs to be new during recasting

Replacement Rate Material Total Mass (Mg) (Mg/year) A36 Structural Steel 2,360,000 2470 Aluminum 6061-T6 32.0 0.32 HDPE (Polyethylene) 107 1.07 Sulfur Concrete 22,700 454 (Rail Substrate) Nitinol 2.40 1.20 Copper 4.11 0.274 Optical Fiber 6,300 158 10mW FP* Laser Diodes 93,200 4050

211 CREWED VEHICLE THERMAL LOSSES

• This temperature difference generates heat loss through the walls of the crewed vehicles. Each layer of the wall impedes the transfer of heat to some extent depending on the material thickness, exposed surface area, and thermal conductivity. Using these values, the heat loss was calculated with the following equation:

• Where Q is the heat loss rate measured in watts, is the difference in vehicle internal and external temperatures measured in degrees Kelvin, k is the thermal conductivity measured in W/(moK), t is the thickness of each material measured in meters, and SA is the surface area of each material measured in square meters. Using this formula we find that the crewed rover loses 5.054 kW to the Martian environment, while the personnel rail car loses 13.53 kW.

212 REFERENCES

[1] “Superelastic Tire,” NASA, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://technology.nasa.gov//t2media/tops/pdf/LEW-TOPS-99.pdf. [Accessed: 20-Aug-2002]. [2] “Zytek 170kW 460Nm,” Zytek Automotive, 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.zytekautomotive.co.uk/products/electric- engines/170kw/. [Accessed: 27-Feb-2018]. [3] F. Zhou, B. Trease, and K. Iagnemma, “Simulations of Mars Rover Traverses,” Journal of Field Robotics, 2013. [Online]. Available: http://kiss.caltech.edu/papers/xterramechanics/papers/simulations.pdf. [Accessed: 06-Feb-2018]. [4] “Closing the Loop: Recycling Water and Air in Space,” NASA, 2006. [5] Burke, K. A., and Jiao, F., “Game Changing Development Program Next Generation Life Support Project Oxygen Recovery From Carbon Dioxide Using Ion Exchange Membrane Electrolysis Technology— Final Report,” Dec. 2016. [6] L. Narici, M. Casolino, L. Di Fino, M. Larosa, P. Picozza, A. Rizzo and V. Zaconte, "Performances of Kevlar and Polyethylene as radiation shielding on-board the International Space Station in high latitude radiation environment", Nature, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-01707-2#Abs1. [Accessed: 25- Mar- 2018]. [7] J. Ren, X. Li, R. Yang, P. Wang and P. Xie, "Criteria for repairing damages of CA mortar for prefabricated framework-type slab track", Sciencedirect, 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061816300952. [Accessed: 25- Mar- 2018]. [8] P. N. Astakhov, “Resistance to Motion of Railway Rolling Stock,” Proc. Cent. Res. Inst. Minist. Railw., vol. 311, p. 178, 1966. [9] “Drag Coefficient,” Engineering Toolbox, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/drag-coefficient- d_627.html. [Accessed: 27-Feb-2018]. [10] L. Wan, R. Wendner, and G. Cusatis, “A Novel Material for In Situ Construction on Mars: Experiments and Numerical Simulations,” Northwestern, 2016.

213 RESOURCE EXTRACTION APPENDIX

214 RESOURCE EXTRACTION SITES

Chemical Extraction Rate Compound Rate Needed (Mg/Year) (Mg/Year) Met?

SiO2 183,000 90.8 Yes FeO 73,700 12,800 Yes

Al2O3 29,200 357 Yes MgO 28,800 3.80 Yes

SO3 22,600 259 Yes CuO 8,330 423 Yes

2- SO4 7,780 0.226 Yes

Na2O 7,070 0.0115 Yes

Fe2+/Fe3+ 3,570 0.226 Yes TiO2 3,240 21.2 Yes Th 2,320 2,310 Yes Map Label Number Unique Minerals

Location Name P2O5 2,170 14.8 Yes

1 Shalbatana Vallis Copper phase, perogene [2] Assumptions:Cl- 1,790 1,260 Yes

2 NE of Shalbatana Vallis Thorium at 0.71% abundance [3], [4] Mg2+ • Surface1240 abundance4.53 is Yes projected through regolith Hydrated minerals, hematite crystals, phosphorus rich soil MnO 926 112 Yes Miridiani Planum 3 [5]–[7] layers NO3 122 31.6 Yes 4 Majuro Canyon Hydrated minerals [3], [4] • All minerals are 2+ Zn extractable101 in0.903 their currentYes Lobate debris flows; evidence for covered glaciers [8], [9]; Reull Vallis K2O form1,420 54.5 Yes 5 Nearby site for extraction of hydrated minerals [4] Ca2+ • Extraction17.5 sites11.3 offer largeYes Iron and halogen rich components, magnesium-iron-chlorine Gale Crater + pool of resources-4 6 clays, calcium sulfates, and nitrates [9],[10],[11],[12] Na 1.43 6.58×10 Yes 215 Mn2+ 0.228 0.0113 Yes LOCATIONS

Thorium: 0.71 weight percent Shalbatana Valliis

Nitrates: 0.11 Miridiani weight percent Planum

Copper Oxide: 15 weight percent

Mineral Required by Needed(Mg/yr) Yield (Mg/yr) Source

City, transport, Food, SC SiO2 38.85 183200 Each extraction site

Al O City, s transport, ground, 350.18 29140 Each extraction site 2 3 SC, food FeO City, Manufacturing, 12694.40 73730 Each, abundance at Gale, Reull ground transport, food

Th City 2313.52 844400 Each, abundance at Shalbatana

food NO3, NO4 31.62 126.7 Gale Crater

Food, manufacturing Mo 0.66 4.087 Iron meteorites, trace at Gale 216 MINERAL EXTRACTION SITE INFRASTRUCTURE

Lifetim Mass Power Volume e Vehicle (Mg) (MW) (m3) (years) Dragline Excavator 15 1.4 50 10 (1) 10 Intermediate 4.0 0.10 10 Excavator (2)

30 Haul Truck (3) 8.0 0.60 5

12 Crusher (1) 40 0.50 10

Conveyer 40 0.35 0.04 2 Belt

Truck 692 0.00123 1,036 30 Shelter (1)

300 Hauling 810 0.8 20 Road (1)

Magnetic 30 1.2 30 8 Trucks (3)

1,510 TOTAL 1,570 4.64 217 0.511 HAUL TRUCK POWER

Battery

Charging Brushes

Charging Wall Specifications Mass (Mg) 810 Power (MW) 0.8 Volume (m3) 300

218 REGOLITH COLLECTION SYSTEM YIELD

System Total Requirement of Chemical Extraction Rate Compound Requirement Extracted Compound Compound (Mg/Year) System Group Needed (Mg/Year) (Mg/Year) Satisfied? Manufacturing SiO2 63.0 SiO2 183,000 *SiO 4- 90.8 Yes Manufacturing 4 42.6

FeO 73,700 Manufacturing FeO/Fe2O3 12,800 12,800 Yes

Al2O3 357 Al2O3 29,200 Manufacturing 357 Yes MgO 28,800 Manufacturing MgO 3.80 3.80 Yes

SO3 259 SO3 22,600 Manufacturing 259 Yes 2+ Food Production *Cu 0.0136 CuO 8,330 423 Yes Manufacturing CuO 423 2- 2- SO4 0.226 SO4 7,780 Food Production 0.226 Yes

Na2O 0.0115 Na2O 7,070 Manufacturing 0.0115 Yes 2+ 3+ Fe2+/Fe3+ 3,570 Food Production Fe /Fe 0.226 0.226 Yes

TiO2 3,240 Manufacturing TiO2 21.2 21.2 Yes

Th 2,320 Power Th 2,310 2,310 Yes - 2- Food Production *H2PO4 / H2PO4 4.53 P2O5 2,170 14.8 Yes Manufacturing *P4O10 4.10 219 REGOLITH COLLECTION SYSTEM YIELD

System Total Requirement of Chemical Extraction Rate Compound Requirement Extracted Compound Compound (Mg/Year) System Group Needed (Mg/Year) (Mg/Year) Satisfied? - Food Production Cl 0.226 Cl- 1,790 1,260 Yes Manufacturing *Cl2 628 2+ Mg2+ 1240 Food Production Mg 4.53 4.53 Yes

MnO 926 Manufacturing *MnO2 112 112 Yes

NO3 31.6 NO3 122 Food Production 31.6 Yes 2+ Food Production Zn 0.0453 2+ Zn 101 2+ 0.903 Yes Manufacturing Zn 0.857 + Food Production *K 22.6 K2O 1,420 54.5 Yes Manufacturing K2O 0.0229 2+ Ca2+ 17.5 Food Production Ca 11.3 11.3 Yes + -4 Na+ 1.43 Food Production Na 6.58×10-4 6.58×10 Yes 2+ Mn2+ 0.228 Food Production Mn 0.0113 0.0113 Yes

220 METEORITE COLLECTION SYSTEM

System Total Requirement of Extraction Rate Compound Requirement Extracted Compound Chemical Compound (Mg/Year) System Group Needed (Mg/Year) (Mg/Year) Satisfied? *H BO 0.00792 B 1.23 Food Production 3 3 0.0453 Yes

I- 5.48×10-4 I 1.23 Food Production 5.48×10-4 Yes

*MoO 2- Food Production 4 2.26×10-4 Mo 0.858 0.857 Yes Mo Manufacturing 0.857

Se 2.01×10-4 Se 8.33 Food Production 2.01×10-4 Yes

Ni 7.44 Ni 123 Manufacturing 7.44 Yes

Cr 3.11 Cr 18.4 Manufacturing 3.11 Yes 221 OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

[1]

222 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Mass: 692 Mg Shelters are necessary to provide Power: 0.00123 MW protection to batteries overnight. Volume: 1,036 m3

223 DEBRIS-COVERED GLACIERS

Lobate Debris flows: • Populate region around lava tube Martian City • Interpreted as pure water ice covered by debris [6,7] 1 Debris- • 2 nearest (blue covered arrows) estimated to glaciers hold on the order of Debris- covered billions of tons of glaciers water • '1' holds water 3 times the volume of Los Angeles [7]

224 WATER EXTRACTION

280 Mg of water are needed daily by the city Thermal wells maintain liquid water in glacial ice by pumping superheated steam into the ice [1],[2]

Extracted water is returned to the city through an above ground pipeline

There are 4 thermal wells at the glacier site

3 thermal wells are operational at all times while a fourth well is being drilled Mass (Mg) Power (MW) Volume (m3) 1.088 kg/s is sent to the city from Per Well 17 4.42 282 each of the 3 operational wells Total 68 17.68 1128

225 THERMAL WELL WATER FLOW

The temperature of the liquid water in the well chamber is maintained at 278 K with 0.12 kg/s of 1307.7 K steam

Pump Boiler ṁ = 1.088 kg/s Pow = 1.01 MW Pow = 1.01 MW Press = 700 Pa

Boiler Pump ṁ = 1.208 kg/s ṁ = 0.12 kg/s T = 278 K T = 1307.7 K

226 WATER STORAGE

Mass (Mg) Power (MW) Volume (m3) 167 150 15,921

• Three tanks of 15m diameter, 30m height. • Provides water for 60 days at 260 Mg per day. • Thermally controlled. • Can be refilled within 780 days (13 refill cycles).

227 THERMAL WELL EVOLUTION

Duration Duration Phase (Max) (Nominal)

Maintenance 14 days 14 days

Well Growth 615 days 615 days

Operation 3189 days 3561 days

Total 3818 days 4190 days

Each well undergoes 3818 day cycles of maintenance, drilling/growth, and operation Possible well migration over 3 cycles (34.44 years)

228 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Parameter Value

Mass 1729 Mg

Power 11 MW

Volume 4200 cubic

meters 229 MAPS PROCESS THROUGHPUT

• Fractional Distillation

Input: Martian Air (Mg) Output: (Mg) Output: Ar (Mg) Output: (Mg) 17.0 0.340 0.340 16.35

• Water Electrolysis

Input: (Mg) Output: (Mg) Output: (Mg) 34.9 3.9 31 • Propellant Production Input: (Mg) Input: (Mg) Output: (Mg) Output: CO Output: (Mg) (Mg) 3.9 28.4 3.45 12.04 15.5

230 PROPELLANT SELECTION

Obtainability Flight Storability Re- Safety Performance Total Heritage usability (%)

Weight 30 20 15 15 10 10 100 (%) Hydrazine 1 3 3 2 1 3 68.3 Liquid 3 2 1 1 3 3 73.3 Hydrogen Liquid 3 1 2 3 3 2 78.3 Methane

RP-1 1 3 3 1 3 2 66.7 APCP 1 2 3 1 2 2 56.7 Propellant selection trade study with scores ranging from 1-least favorable to 3-

most favorable 231 RISK ANALYSIS FOR MAPS

Number Risk Factor

1 Compressor failure

2 Fractional distillation failure

3 Electrolysis failure

4 Propellant production failure

5 Fluid line failure

232 REFERENCES

[1] Allison, M., “Mars Atmospheric Model,” Goddard Institute for Space Studies. [2] C. Popa, F. G. Carrozzo, G. Di Achille, S. Silvestro, F. Esposito, and V. Mennella, “Evidences for Copper Bearing Minerals in Shalbatana Valley, Mars.,” 45th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., no. 2340, 2014. [3] P. R. Christensen et al., “JMARS – A Planetary GIS,” in American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2009, 2009, p. IN22A-06. [4] J. Yin et al., “Enhancement of JMARS,” in 44th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2013. [5] G. Klingelhöfer et al., “Jarosite and hematite at Meridiani Planum from opportunity’s Mössbauer spectrometer,” Science (80-. )., vol. 306, no. 5702, pp. 1740–1745, 2004. [6] E. Petersen, J. W. Holt, and J. S. Levy, “ALL OUR APRONS ARE ICY: NO EVIDENCE FOR DEBRIS-RICH ‘LOBATE DEBRIS APRONS’ IN DEUTERONILUS MENSAE, abstract #2354,” in Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2018, no. 2354, pp. 3–4. [7] J. W. Holt et al., “Radar sounding evidence for buried glaciers in the southern mid-latitudes of Mars,” Science (80-. )., vol. 322, no. 5905, pp. 1235–1238, 2008. 233 [8] D. G. Horvath and J. C. Andrews-Hanna, “Reconstructing the past climate at Gale crater, Mars, from hydrological modeling of late-stage lakes,” Geophys. Res. Lett., vol. 44, no. 16, pp. 8196–8204, 2017. [9] D. T. Vaniman et al., “Mineralogy of a mudstone at Yellowknife Bay, Gale crater, Mars,” Science (80-. )., vol. 343, no. 6169, 2014. [10] B. Sutter et al., “Evolved gas analyses of sedimentary rocks and eolian sediment in Gale Crater, Mars: Results of the Curiosity rover’s sample analysis at Mars instrument from Yellowknife Bay to the Namib Dune,” J. Geophys. Res. Planets, vol. 122, no. 12, pp. 2574–2609, 2017. [11] J. C. Stern et al., “Evidence for indigenous nitrogen in sedimentary and aeolian deposits from the Curiosity rover investigations at Gale crater, Mars,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., vol. 112, no. 14, pp. 4245–4250, 2015. [12] S. Hoffman, A. Andrews, and K. Watts, “Mining"; Water Ice on Mars An Assessment of ISRU Options in Support of Future Human Missions,” 2016. [13] V. J. Lunardini and J. Rand, “Thermal Design of an Antarctic Well,” 1995.

• y, Mars.,” 45th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., no. February, p. 2340, 2014.

234 SCIENCE SUPPORT APPENDIX

235 LAVA TUBE - SIZING AND DIMENSIONS

Dimensions:

• Width – approx. 300m, found by Purpose Current taking a line of gradient of one of the Estimated pits (red circle). Volume • Height – approx. 100m, estimated Buildings Homes: 2.24x106 using typical skylight widths and their for Human m3 corresponding minimum depths. [36] use Schools: 4.48x104 • Length – approx. 1.5km (bottom) m3 and 1.6km (top), found using the Hospital: 5.0x103 measuring tool in JMARS. m3 [6] Volume: Farming Plants: 1.41x107 3 7 3 m • 1.5km tube – 7.07x10 m Water: 7.75x104 • 1.6km tube – 7.54x107 m3 m3 (monthly supply) • Both tubes – 1.46x108 m3 Total 1.65x107 m3 Fig. shows the two sections of Needed our lava tube, circled in red. 236 ROVER BASED MISSIONS

• The Search for Life • Determine if Mars has or ever had life. • The Geologic History of Mars • Determine and create a detailed, stratified geologic history of Mars. • The Martian Seismic Network • Place seismic stations around Mars and determine the internal structure of Mars and the location of Mars’s core. • The Mystery of Martian Methane • Determine the origin of Methane found within Gale crater. • The Impact Cratering on Mars The Science rover that these • Improve our understanding of impact missions will use. crater

237 NON-ROVER BASED MISSIONS

• Missions to Phobos and Deimos • Every 5 years, place landers and Phobos and Deimos and return samples to Mars to determine how Phobos and Deimos formed. • Telescopes on Mars • Place an X-ray and visual telescope on Mars to help increase our understanding of The Phobos/Deimos the Universe. Lander • Terraforming Mars • Through venting of greenhouse gasses from city/manufacturing, turn Mars into a 2nd “Blue Marble”. • Lava Tube Selection • Look at different locations where lava tubes are present on Mars and determine the optimal location for our city.

The X-Ray and Optical Telescope 238 THE SEARCH FOR LIFE ON MARS

• Goals • Attempt to find evidence for past or current life on Mars • Look at ice cores, search for isotopic biosignatures • Search for biosignatures in past river/lake beds (Craters, Valles Marineris, etc.) • Search in present-day locations for life (Subsurface, other lava tubes) • Requirements • Rovers (For sample collection/simple sample analysis) • Lab equipment (For sample analysis) A Science Rover, • Primary locations to search obtaining a sample on Mars.

Brandon Smith 239 EXAMPLE LOCATIONS FOR THE SEARCH FOR LIFE ON MARS

Hellas, currently has subsurface glaciers. Due to the presence of glacial water, and water’s importance for our understanding of what life is, as well as the close proximity to our city, Hellas is a prime choice for locations where biosignatures or current life could exist.

Valles Marineris lies on the dichotomy line between the Northern lowlands and the Southern highlands. It is hypothesized that the lowlands was once a vast ocean. A shoreline, such as Valles Marineris, is a perfect place to search for any biosignatures or signs of current lifeforms.

Brandon Smith 240 BIOSIGNATURES TO LOOK FOR

• What is a Biosignature? • Any substance that provides scientific evidence for past/present life • Types of Biosignatures that we could find on Mars • Isotopes (Ones that require a biological process to be made) • Chemical features • Organic Matter • Minerals (Biomagnetite, for instance) • Microscopic structures (Microfossils) • Fossils • Atmospheric gasses (See the Mystery of Martian Methane)

Brandon Smith 241 THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MARS

• Goals • Create a detailed, stratified geologic history of Mars • Determine the cause of Mar’s current state • Use stratigraphy to determine important events in Martian history • Requirements • Rovers (For imaging and sample collection) • Lab equipment (For radiometric dating and sample analysis) • Locations where we could see stratigraphy

Brandon Smith 242 LOCATIONS FOR STUDYING THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MARS

These two locations could allow us to view stratigraphy of Mars. Older Martian layers could be seen in Gale, while newer layers could be seen on the edge of Tharsis.

Brandon Smith 243 THE MARTIAN SEISMIC NETWORK

• Main goal of this mission • Map Mars’ interior structure

• Requirements • 145 total stations ranging globally • 1 station per 1E6 km2 • Placed on bedrock

• Rovers • Can transport stations to designated areas • Simple installment • Drill borehole for seismometer • Rest of the equipment can be set on the surface

Nick Jancich 244 SEISMIC STATION LAYOUT AND MPV

MPV numbers for stations Mass Power Volum (kg) (W) e (m3) Seismom 14.000 1.000 0.006 eter Digitizer 2.000 3.000 0.003 (Data logger) Windshiel 4.300 0.010 d Battery 19.821 0.116 Solar 7.038 0.429 Panels Structure 66.000 100.00 0.850 and antenna 0 TOTAL 113.15 104.00 1.414 9 0 Total for 15,288.3 15,080.0 205.03 145 65 00 0 Nick Jancich 245 SEISMOMETER INSTALLATION

• Dimensions of a seismometer • 0.168 m diameter • 0.274 m height from bottom to the handle

• These seismometers are a weak motion broadband seismometers, and are able to measure global seismic activity [1].

• Seismometers are very sensitive, but the only background noise that will effect them is wind, so windshields are placed over the top of the seismometers.

• This design allows us to just place them on the bedrock without having to drill the base into the rock.

Nick Jancich 246 EQUIPMENT FUNCTIONALITY

• Seismometer • measures ground movements • Digitizer (data logger) • converts the signals from the seismometer to numerical data that can be stored and sent • Windshield • protects the top of the seismometer that isn’t below the surface from wind disturbances • Battery • supplies power when the sun isn’t present

Nick Jancich 247 EQUIPMENT FUNCTIONALITY CONT.

• Solar panels • Power the station • Structure • Holds and supports the solar panels • Communication dish • Sends the numerical data from the stations to our Mnet satellites and back to our science labs in the city • Same dish we use on our science rovers, with the same power draw (100 W), diameter (0.3 m), mass, and volume

Nick Jancich 248 VISUAL OF A REGION UNDER 1 SEISMIC STATION

The red box in this JMARS image represents an area that will be assigned to 1 seismic station.

Nick Jancich 249 SEISMIC SOURCES FOR INTERIOR MAPPING

• Seismic sources that can be measured globally • Impacts • The cratering rate on Mars is >200 annually, but these are very small impacts (crater diameters ~4 m) [2] • Smaller impacts will only generate regional seismic waves • An impact large enough to create globally seismic activity occurs about once every 10 years [3] • The energy released has to be at least 1014 J, creating a moment magnitude of at least 3.5 • ‘Mars’-quakes (a finding in its own) [4] • Could be similar to intraplate oceanic earthquakes, since they are away from plate boundaries and the stresses are caused by lithospheric cooling • These quakes can generate moment magnitudes between 3-5, with 6 being the max

Nick Jancich 250 QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED BY THE MARTIAN SEISMIC STATIONS • Main science questions that need seismic stations to answer (3 regard the interior structure [5], 2 regard the core [5], and two regard other seismic events [4][6]) • What are the depths of the transitions between each layer? • How is density changing with depth in these layers? • What is the composition of each layer? • Is the core completely liquid or solid or is it similar to Earth’s core? • What is the position and size of the core? • Are there ‘mars’-quakes? • Is there any subsurface volcanic activity? • Other insights regarding Martian geology • Did an impact form Borealis Basin?

Nick Jancich 251 EXPLORING NEARBY IMPACT CRATERS

Why on Mars? • Few active geologic processes mean craters are well preserved (ejecta, shock metamorphism, melt) [7] • Impact craters from every geologic era of Mars (no erasure by tectonic processes) [9] Assumptions: • Dust is understood well enough to exclude in remote sensing and measurements • Fresh craters will form over the lifetime of the city • Late Heavy Bombardment size impactor unlikely, no contingency plan required What we hope to accomplish: • Deeper understanding of the two types of impact craters- simple (a) and complex (b) [7] Image from “Explorer’s Guide to Impact Craters [8] • Study Martian geologic and atmospheric history Megan Harwell 252 GOALS - SIMPLE CRATERS

• Gather material from different geographic units • Understand distribution of ejecta size from crater rim • Sample enough craters to find a statistical distribution of ejecta distribution MOLA Map [4] and • Create an empirical function HiRISE Image via JMARS [9]. that can be applied to numerical models [10], [11]

Megan Harwell 253 EXPLORING A SIMPLE CRATER • Drill walls of crater for stratigraphy [7] • Drill for and gather ejecta for distribution outside of crater rim [7] • Limited by lack of ejecta preserved from impacts over the eras, so unlikely to find relationship between ejecta and atmospheric interactions • Drill base of crater to sample melt and impact breccia MOLA Map [4] and composition, collect samples to HiRISE Image via determine age JMARS [9]. • First crater: • 1 km diameter (blue arrow) • Samples (white dots) taken every 300 m from crater rim, covering a region of 1500 m from crater rim Megan Harwell 254 GOALS - COMPLEX AND RAMPART CRATERS • Gather material from different geographic units • Central uplifted peak Complex includes material from crater older geographic layers schematic [8] [7] • Study rampart craters for evidence of past or current life, window into Martian atmospheric history [8] • Fluidized ejecta, evidence of water upon formation [7], [9] Bombala Crater via JMARS with ejecta outlined [9] Megan Harwell 255 Exploring Rampart and Complex Craters

• Fluidized ejecta, evidence of water present upon formation [7] • Ideal location for finding former life due to evidence of water • Bombala Crater [9] • 35 km diameter crater • 60 km fluidized ejecta blanket • Located at 105.984E, -27.484 N • Drill sample every 1.5 km from edge of fluidized ejecta to crater rim, 40 cores • 35 further drills possible, so inside crater, at central peak, around central peak to constrain uplift. Bombala Crater via JMARS with ejecta Megan Harwell outlined [9] 256 BENEFITS/ASPECTS OF MISSION

• Drill at multiple locations around the crater to gather sedimentary layers, lithographic units • Gives data on geologic history of Mars, atmospheric history [7] • Gather ejecta at different locations from rim of crater to develop an empirical relationship for addition to numerical analyses [7], [11], [12] Challenge • Rove over craters with Gaussmeter to collect strength of Magnetic field • Melt will carry evidence of past magnetic field and its orientation [13] • Gives data on persistence of Magnetic field on Mars, or lack thereof

Megan Harwell 257 PHOBOS AND DEIMOS MISSIONS

Mission Goals: • Send a spacecraft to Phobos and Deimos and return with 100 kg of samples • These samples will be analyzed to learn more about composition of moons and gain valuable information CAD Model of Phobos Volume Power M (kg) M (kg) Spacecraft prop 0 (m3) (kW)

Phobos 816 1243.8 3.11 ~50

Mass, Power, and Volume Deimos 1252.5 1714.9 3.94 ~50 of Phobos and Deimos Riley Viveros spacecraft 258 PHOBOS AND DEIMOS TRANSFER ORBITS

• Hohmann Transfer from 150 km parking orbit to Phobos and Deimos respectively • Used MATLAB code to calculate the required ∆V • Used MATLAB code and below equation to calculate propellant mass

Riley Viveros 259 PHOBOS AND DEIMOS MISSION ASSUMPTIONS • Phobos and Deimos have circular orbits about Mars • Drill Volume: 1 m3 • Drill Mass: 300 kilograms • Isp: 364 seconds • Inert Mass Fraction: 0.10 • Typical value for 2nd stage satellites • Initial launch to parking orbit will place spacecraft in correct plane • 1.08 degree inclination wrt Mars • Give a 5% extra fuel mass margin to allow for any extra corrections required

Riley Viveros 260 ORIGIN OF THE MARTIAN MOONS

• Two Major hypothesis for where Phobos and Deimos came from • Phobos and Deimos formed from a disk of debris around Mars • Orbits are nearly circular and near same plane as Mar’s equator • Phobos and Deimos could be captured asteroids • Reflectance spectra suggest similar composition to carbonaceous Asteroids

Semi-major Gravitational Orbital data of Orbital Period Inclination Axis of Orbit Eccentricity Parameter μ Mar’s Moons [hours] [deg] [km] (km3/s2) Phobos 9376 7.65 0.0151 1.075 7.112 x 10-4

Deimos 23,458 30.29 0.0002 1.788 9.85 x 10-5

Michael 261 Rose Getting to the Moons

Scientific missions were designed to figure out the origins of the Martian Moons. A brief overview of the missions are as follows: 1. Spacecraft depart parking orbit to Phobos or Deimos

Time of ΔV ΔV ΔV Figure 1: Orbit path 1 2 Tot Flight [km/s] [km/s] [km/s] to Phobos [hours] Phobos 0.7112 0.554 1.265 2.19 Spacecraft Deimos 1.1054 0.6587 1.764 6.615 Spacecraft

3 Minitial (kg) Volume (m ) Power (kW) Phobos 1243.8 3.11 ~50 Spacecraft Deimos 1714.9 3.94 ~50 Spacecraft

2. Lander tethers onto moon and collects Figure 2: Model of the 100 kg sample lander that tethers onto 262 the moons Getting Back to Mars

3. Spacecraft departs moons and returns to Mars

Volume Power M (kg) reentry (m3) (kW) Phobos 586 3.11 ~50 Spacecraft Deimos 567 3.94 ~50 Spacecraft Figure 3: Orbit path from Phobos 4. Spacecraft lands around 47 km away from the city for cargo to be picked up

Semimajor Seminimor axis a [km] axis b [km] Phobos 42.1 6.9 Spacecraft Deimos 39.3 6.8 Spacecraft

5. Cargo is then analyzed in lab. Missions will repeat every 5 years Figure 4: Landing site for moon 263 Michael missions Rose LANDING ELLIPSE

• Analysis for landing ellipse is done through a Monte Carlo simulation of 2000 runs • The landing ellipse is a 3-힂 ellipse (98.9% of trajectories land within the ellipse) [19] • To complete analysis, the table below shows what variables were subjected to a gaussian Figure 5: landing distribution error ellipse for Deimos

Parameter Error

⍴ error 7% [1], [4], [5]

V error 100 m/s

CD error 4.062% [2]

Mass error 2 kg [6]

Figure 6: landing 흲 error .6 [6] ellipse for Phobos Michael 264 Rose PHOBOS/DEIMOS ENGINE SELECTION

Initial Assumptions: Conclusion: • Delta-V = 2.53 km/s for Phobos • Raptor Engine is chosen • Initial mass of s/c = 10,000 kg • Methane is chosen as the fuel from Resource Requirements: • Large thrust with minimum

• CH4 / LOX or LH2 / LOX propellant volume

Propellant Thrust Mass Propellant Engine Vehicle Propellant Isp [s] Volume [kN] [Mg] Mass [Mg] [m3]

SpaceX Raptor CH / LOX 375 1900 2.7 9.89 11.7 ITS 4 Delta III

RL-10B-2 Delta IV LH2 / LOX 462 109.9 0.277 7.48 20.7 SLS

J-2X SLS LH2 / LOX 448 1310 2.47 7.78 21.5 Annie 265 Ping PHOBOS/DEIMOS ENGINE SCALING EQUATION

푇 −1 ~푊 ൗ3 푊

• T/W = Thrust to weight ratio • Decreasing the weight to 1/10 of initial weight • Decrease thrust to weight ratio by (1/10)-1/3 • Multiply by adjusted weight to find adjusted thrust value

Annie 266 Ping PHOBOS/DEIMOS LANDING PARACHUTE

Requirements:

Vertical reentry V Mass upon re-entry with 20% Mission [m/s] contingency [kg]

Phobos 1090 586 Deimos 703 567

Parachute Specifications: Mission Surface Area [m2] Diameter [m] Mass [kg]

Phobos 2.40 1.75 0.664

Deimos 2.77 1.88 0.768

Annie 267 Ping PHOBOS/DEIMOS NAVIGATION SYSTEM

Requirements: • Fully autonomous • Communication may Terrain Contour be cut off during Matching (TERCOM) reentry due to ionized air Accuracy 40 m • TRL 4 Mass 0.037 Mg TERCOM: Power 1 kW • Measures the terrain Volume 11.6 m3 using radars and compares to a digital Processing 16-bit computer, 6.48 contour map onboard Power MHz • Tested on Earth with low-altitude hops

Annie 268 Ping PHOBOS/DEIMOS MISSION HEAT SHIELD • LI-900 • Silica glass = Manufacturable on Mars [28] • 5 inches (0.127 m) thick [29] • 40 inch (1.016 m) diameter [30] • Assumed cylindrical to simplify calculations • 21.35 kg per mission • 42.7 kg every 5 years • Rejected alternatives • LI-2200: more dense, more structurally sound; not needed for strength • FRCI-12, AETB-8: both contain Boron = difficult to manufacture [31]

Trevor Waldman 269 CAPTURED ASTEROIDS - REFLECTANCE SPECTRA

• Red unit (left) brighter in near- infrared • Blue unit (right) brighter in visual • Similar to D or T-type carbonaceous asteroids from the outer belt and Trojans of Jupiter [32] • Nice Model supports the migration of outer belt asteroids inwards • Discrepancies between Phobos’ spectrum and the spectra of D and T-type asteroids could be from weathering Fig. shows the red and blue units of Phobos. [32]

Alaina Glidden 270 CAPTURED ASTEROIDS - CHALLENGES

• Spectra does not match low-albedo carbonaceous meteorites • CI/CM carbonaceous chondrites fit the blue unit spectrum but, the 3µm band is missing in Phobos’ spectrum. • Phobos is either non-hydrated or has been dehydrated in the past • Weathered meteorite spectra show a subdued 3µm band. Therefore, the absence of the 3µm band for Phobos could be from space weathering. [32] • When testing for weathering, the red unit spectrum could not be reproduced. • Must conclude that there are currently no analogous materials to Phobos and Deimos in our current meteorite collection. Fig. shows the reflectance spectra of Phobos, Deimos with respect to 271 Alaina Glidden Phobos’ Stickney crater and its ejecta. (Pieters et al. 2014 [33]) CAPTURED ASTEROIDS - POROSITY AND WATER CONTENT

• Phobos is currently not big enough to compress the current analog material of D-type asteroids to Phobos’ bulk density. [32] • Phobos cannot be a captured D-type asteroid. • Suggests the moons are gravitational aggregates of loosely consolidated material (rubble piles) • Porosity could also increase the rate of tidal dissipation (good for capture scenario) • Low density could also be explained by a higher water content. [32] • Could be 10%-35% water (closer to 10%) • Low because, objects near Fig. shows the density of Phobos and Deimos Jupiter’s orbit should be about along with different types of asteroids and a 1/3 water by mass few specific asteroids that are similar to the Phobos spectra (Rosenblatt, 2011) [32]. Alaina Glidden 272 IN ORBIT FORMATION - ORBITAL PARAMETERS OF THE MOONS

Orbital Parameters of the Moon, Phobos and Deimos • For a moon that formed from a disk of debris, we would expect: Moon Phobos Deimos • Near-circular orbit (low eccentricity) Eccentricity 0.0549 0.0151 0.0005 • Near-equatorial/ecliptic orbit (low (elliptical/cir inclination) cular) • The tilt of the Earth’s axis varies over time so the inclination of the Moon relative to Inclination 5.145º 26.04º 27.58º the equator will vary a lot with time as well. from Ecliptic • We currently think that the Moon from a (tilt of orbit) disk of debris that formed around the Earth after a giant impact. It is reasonable Inclination 18.28º- 1.08º 1.79º to assume that the orbital parameters of from 28.58º the Moon would give a baseline to Equator compare to moons that are thought to have formed this way (like Phobos and Deimos).

Alaina Glidden 273 X-RAY TELESCOPE - SCALING FROM CHANDRA Fraction of the telescope mirror surface covered by a particle of radius “a” is given by equation (1) [41].

휋푎2 퐹 = (1) 푛 2휋푅퐿 R = radius of the mirror tube L = length of the tube For a 100 µm dust particle (threshold diameter of a dust particle suspended in a Martian wind storm [9]), 퐹푛 of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory telescope is approximately 1 × 10−8. Decreasing this fraction to 1 × 10−9 and maintaining the 푅/퐿 ratio of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, the outer radius and length of our telescope are 1.9 m and 2.6 m respectively.

Alaina Glidden 274 X-RAY TELESCOPE - DUST INITIAL SOLUTION

• Particles such as Martian dust and particulates from manufacturing can both absorb and scatter x-rays, decreasing the effective collecting area. Performance of the telescope will decrease as the surface of the mirrors collect particles. • Solution: encase the telescope in glass and place on a mountain that is taller than the scale height of the atmosphere. • Reduces the possibility of dust particles contaminating the x- ray image. Martian Atmosphere Scale Height = 11.1 km [42] Elysium Mons Elevation = 13.5 km Location = (146.547 E, 24.813 N) Distance from home = ~5,000 km • Final decision – 3 km northeast of the lava tube (Ground Transportation)

Fig. shows an elevation map of Alaina Glidden Elysium Mons 275 X-RAY TELESCOPE - WHAT CAN WE LOOK AT?

• Supernova Remnants: Shell of shocked material, temperature, composition [43] (Fig. 1 Crab Nebula X- Ray core, Chandra) • Active Stellar Caronae: Magnetic loops, Solar flares, Finding Non-Eclipsing Systems [43] (Fig. 2 Sun Magnetic Field Lines and Solar Prominances, ISAS) • Young and Binary Stars: O type stars, Stellar Wind, Stellar Formation. [43] (Fig. 3 v1647 Orionis X-Ray ejection plumes, Chandra) • Galaxies: Galactic Nuclei, Galaxy Clusters, Dark Matter [43] (Fig. 4 Perseus Cluster Shows insights into Dark Matter, Chandra) • Black Holes: High Energy Neutrinos, Cosmic Rays [43] (Fig. 5 Sagittarius A Supermassive Black Hole at the center of the Milkyway Galaxy, Chandra) • Planets and Small Bodies: Reflections of Planetary/Cometary Atmosphere, Aurora from Magnetic Fields [43] (Fig. 5 Jupiter Polar Auroras, Chandra)

Fig. shows the different kinds of x-ray sources that we can image with an x-ray telescope. [44] [45] Alaina Glidden 276 OPTICAL TELESCOPE

• The lack of am ozone layer on Mars also means that we can have better images in the UV spectrum. • Once in operation, it will be the largest telescope and will have a resolution of 0.04 arcseconds, which allows it to image planetary atmospheres and determine their composition. [46] • 121 Hexagonal mirrors that are each 4 m across Advantages • Less atmospheric distortions • Virtually no light pollution • Less gravity allows for larger telescopes with less infrastructure needed.

Fig. shows the primary and secondary mirrors of the optical telescope.

Alaina Glidden 277 TELESCOPES - MPV, LIFETIME AND SPECIFICATIONS SUMMARY

Component Mass Power Volume Diameter Length/ Operating Lifetime (Mg) (kW) (m3) (m) Depth Range (eV) (yr) X-ray 10.42 12.3 4.12 3.8 5.2 m 100 – 30 Telescope 10,000 [16] (Zerodur) [15] X-ray Mount 31.3 7.4 4 3.8 m - 30 X-ray Total 41.72 19.7 8.12 3.8 m - N/A Optical 161.4 730 (day) 63.81 40 m 34.5 m 0.51 – 9.54 30 Telescope 1,210 (obs.) (Zerodur) [15] Optical Mount 3,080 1,660 (day) 385 40 m - 30 1,620 (obs.) Optical 5,821 930 (day) 316,600 90 m 65 m - 100 Structure 410 (obs.) Optical Total 9,062 2,770 (max) 317,000 90 m 65 m - N/A Observation 9,104 2,789.7 317,100 - - - N/A Operation Total

Alaina Glidden 278 TELESCOPE DOME PURPOSE AND SOLUTION

• Requirements: • Size similar to Extremely Large Telescope [49] • Enclose optical telescope • Solution: • 5135 Mg + 686 Mg for doors • 1902 m3 of Al • Total internal volume = 316600 m3 • Max power of telescope + dome: 6.2 MW [1] • Average power draw: 3.6 MW [1] • Loading scheme on right • Gravity • Weight of doors under Mars gravity

Trevor Waldman 279 OPTICAL TELESCOPE DOME FEA

Trevor Waldman 280 OPTICAL TELESCOPE DOME FEA CONT.

Trevor Waldman 281 TELESCOPE POWER BREAKDOWN

Optical X-Ray Telescope Telescope

Dome maximum demand [kW] 2770 N/A Dome normal demand during the day [kW] 930 N/A Dome normal demand during observation [kW] 410 N/A Telescope normal demand during the day [kW] 730 7.4 Telescope normal demand during observation [kW] 1210 12.3 Normal demand during the day for dome and 1660 N/A telescope [kW] Normal demand during observation for dome and 1620 N/A telescope [kW] WHAT IS THE LONG TERM GOAL FOR HUMANITY ON MARS? Using the byproducts of manufacturing, we set into motion a chain of events, that will allow Mars to be a “Blue Marble” like that of Earth at some point in the future.

Mars as a “Blue Marble”

Source: Kevin Gill 283 TERRAFORMING MARS

• One of the primary project specifications[50] • Goals • Establish terraforming operations [51] • Outgassing/Venting of greenhouse gasses • Ensure that Mars becomes a “Blue Marble”, similar to Earth • Requirements • Venting of greenhouse gasses

Mars as a “Blue Marble”. (Source: Brandon Smith Kevin Gill) 284 ANALYSIS OF TERRAFORMING METHODS (MAGNETOSPHERE)

System L1 “Magnetic Shield” Ring System (120 [52] rings) [53] Total Mass (Mg) 6.11 X 1019 Mg 7.982 X 107 Mg Total Power (W) 0 W ~ 10 GW Total Volume (km3) 7.61 X 109 0.24 km3 Distance From Mars ~ 1 X 10 6 km 0 km (On Mars) (km) Required Materials Iron, Nickel Yttrium, Barium, Copper Oxide As shown in the table, both of these systems require a tremendous amount of mass and materials in order to be built. As such, it is advised that we do not try to rebuild the magnetosphere of Mars, but rather focus on rebuilding the Martian atmosphere.

Brandon Smith 285 ATMOSPHERIC TERRAFORMING CALCULATIONS • Venting Rate: 2.06 Mg/day  752.4 Mg/yr • Rate of city expansion: 20,000 people in 50 years • Mass needed to cause CO Sublimation: 2.182 X 1013 Mg 2 • Using the venting rate and expansion rate, we get 3200 years • Notes • Once this process is complete, humans need to only vent oxygen, after all CO2 ice has sublimed. • The rate of city expansion is assumed to be proportional to the rate of manufacturing expansion. • Time can be decreased by venting greenhouse gasses that cause more atmospheric forcing.

Brandon Smith 286 SCIENCE MISSION ROVER

The rover moves across the Martian The mast of the rover stands at just under 2.4m landscape as depicted in the above tall, as seen in the dimensioned drawing. CAD rendering.

287 SCIENCE ROVER MASS CALCULATION

Component Mass Source Frame 50 kg CAD Model Wheels 35 kg CAD Model Axles 15 kg CAD Model Battery 600 kg JD Bensman Solar Panels 101 kg JD Bensman Drill 50 kg [1] Samples 100 kg Science Spectrometer 3 kg Science Total 954 kg

288 SCIENCE ROVER ON-BOARD SPECTROMETER

The on-board spectrometer is used for quick analysis of samples in the field.

289 ROVER CORE SAMPLE

Each of the core samples is connected to its own drill bit in order to keep the simplest procedure for the rover. 290 TELESCOPE DRAWINGS

The X-ray telescope (left) is stored inside the optical telescope (right) when not in use. 291 LAVA TUBE - CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION

• Living in a lava tube provides protection from radiation and the harmful Martian atmosphere without the need for large infrastructure. • Limiting factor was availability of water and phyllosilicate clays and the possibility of nitrates. (Northeastern rim of Hellas Basin) • Black dots in the figure represent known glaciers • Blue dots represent phyllosilicate clays • Pink triangles represent sulfates • White stars represent known lava tubes • Curiosity has found nitrates in the rim of Gale crater meaning that it is possible that there are also nitrates in Hellas Basin. [38] • The original location was Olympus Mons but, there were not enough useful minerals or water nearby.

Maps of Lava tube locations, relative to glaciers (Top) and mineral deposits (Bottom)[39] 292 CONSIDERING HELLAS BASIN AS A CITY LOCATION

• Considerations • lava tube • General location • Resources • Scientific interest

Areas of interest

293 HELLAS - LAVA TUBE AND GENERAL LOCATION

• Lava tube • Large, located on the eastern rim of the basin

• Location • Not too far north or south • Some inertial assistance for launches • Many areas to land/launch Lava tube location on Hellas

294 POTENTIAL LAVA TUBE - APOLLONARIS PATERA • Volcano: Apollonaris Patera • Volcanic structure near Gusev Crater (174.922E,-7.781N) • Elevation: 1300 m in caldera to 2965 at rim [57], [58] • Flat terrain north of volcano is a potential landing area for spacecraft • Potential lava tubes on North flank of volcanoes • Also possibly former river beds • High evidence of water alteration of surface [57] • High amount of water alteration makes it difficult to isolate potential lava tubes MOLA topography of Gusev Crater and Apllonaris Patera Megan Harwell 295 POTENTIAL LAVA TUBE - APOLLONARIS PATERA • Gusev Crater • Elevation: 1300 m in caldera to 2965 at rim [58] • Minerals: • Lower silica content volcanic rocks [59] • Olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, FeTi oxides [60] • Colombia Hills: • 90.1% SiO2… 98% “when corrected for dust”, of potentially hydrothermal origin [61] • Silicate concentration formed from remnants of former basaltic materials after “extensive open- system leaching of metallic cations”- enriched in TiO2 [62] • Opaline silica • Spectral match with structurally bonded H2O [63] MOLA topography or Gusev Crater and Apllonaris Patera Megan Harwell 296 OLYMPUS MONS AS A POSSIBLE CITY LOCATION

• Pros • Near the Northern Lowlands • Near Tharsis • Easy to find on Martian map • Cons • Far Away from minerals • Far away from certain locations of scientific interest. A lava tube West of Olympus Mons (208.983 E, • Conclusions 22.012 N) • Not the best option • Look for alternative city locations

Brandon Smith 297 POTENTIAL – THARSIS MONTES [64]

Tharsis Montes; volcanic region, consisting of three individual peaks: ● Arsia Mons (121 W, 9 S), pictured. ● Ascraeus Mons (104.5 W, 11.8 N) ● Pavonis Mons (113.4 W, 0.8 N)

THEMIS data reveals numerous possible lava tube skylights on the northern flank of Arsia Mons. But how suitable is the region for the city?

Image credit: G. E. Cushing et al., [64]. Matt Prymek

298 POTENTIAL – THARSIS MONTES [65]

Equatorial glaciers are believed to have been common during periods of very high obliquity in Mars’ past.

Smooth lobes extending from Arsia Mons and Pavonis Mons are thought to be the remnants of individual cold-based equatorial glaciers.

Up to hundreds of meters of ice is thought to exist under a thick shell of sublimation till.

Glaciers exist within a few hundred kilometers of various lava tubes on Arsia Mons’ northern flank.

Image credit: J. W. Holt Matt Prymek [65].

299 POTENTIAL – THARSIS MONTES [66]

• Tharsis region is very thickly mantled in dust, preventing visible or near infrared spectroscopy. • Gamma-ray spectroscopy reveals only slight enrichment in thorium, hydrated minerals. The city will rely entirely on that which can be mined or extracted. Without high-quality mineralogical data, the Tharsis region cannot be recommended in comparison to those areas for which higher-quality data exists.

Image credit: W. V. Boynton [66]. Matt Prymek 300 THE MYSTERY OF METHANE [67]

Question: What is the source of methane on Mars?

Significance: Methane has a photochemical lifetime in the Martian atmosphere of approximately 300 years. Detecting methane on Mars implies ongoing or very recent sources of methane.

Matt Prymek 301 THE MYSTERY OF METHANE [67, 68]

Possible Sources of Methane: ● Life ○ Methane as a biosignature of small oases of subterranean methanogenic microbes, where liquid water can still be stable. ○ Biomass production lower limit of 940 Mg/yr. ● Volcanic ○ Methane as a product of ongoing volcanic activity and outgassing ○ Methane as a product of volcanically-driven hydrothermal activity ■ carbon-bearing fluid alters basaltic crust and produces methane. ■ A single magmatic dike 1 x 1 x 10 km intruded during the past 10,000 years with sufficient subsurface liquid can produce the observed methane.

Matt Prymek 302 THE MYSTERY OF METHANE [69, 70]

Possible Sources of Methane (cont.): ● Serpentinization ○ Low-temperature, pressure hydration of olivine by liquid water produces H2 which, in the presence of CO2 , produces methane. Alteration of 800 Mg/yr of olivine produces the observed methane. Comet impact, cosmic dust ○ Cometary ice contains ~ 1% methane ○ 20% methane yield by UV photolysis of carbonaceous materials in infalling material. ○ 800 Mg upper bound of carbonaceous material necessary to produce observed plumes. NASA/JPL-Caltech/SAM-GSFC/Univ. of Michigan Matt Prymek 303 THE MYSTERY OF METHANE [69, 71-73]

Possible Source Locations of Methane • Plumes of methane have been detected over Syrtis Major, the north polar region, Valles Marineris • Arabia Terrae - large volumes of subsurface ice, possibly water. • Tharsis volcanic province - possible hydrothermal processes, outgassing. • Elysium volcanic province - possible hydrothermal processes, outgassing.

Npdl: dissected Noachian plains Nple: etched Noachian plains Hs: volcanic deposits from Syrtis Major of Hesperian age. Image Credit: M.J. Mumma et al., [73]

Matt Prymek 304 THE MYSTERY OF METHANE [73-77]

Detection: VNIR / IR Satellite Spectrometers Visible / Near-Infrared Spectrometer • Based directly on OSIRIS-REx Visible-InfraRed Spectrometer (OVIRS). • Search for strong absorption features near 1.63, 1.66, 1.67, 3.32 µm. • Spectral range of 0.4 – 4.3 µm, 10 nm spectral resolution. • 4 milliradian field-of-view. • Mass: 17.8 kg, Power: 8.8 Watts, Volume: est. 0.125 m3 Thermal Infrared Spectrometer • Based directly on OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES) • Search for 7.66 µm and nearby strong absorption features. • Spectral range of 5.71 - 100 µm • 0.1 µm spectral resolution near absorption feature (8.66 cm-1 resolution). • 6.5 milliradian field=of-view. • Mass: 6.27 kg, Power: 10.8 Watts, Volume: 0.0565 m3 .

Matt Prymek 305 THE MYSTERY OF METHANE [73-77]

Detection: Rover Spectrometers and Sampling Rover Spectrometer • Rover spectrometer possess 200 - 1050 nm range, 0.2 nm spectral resolution. • Search of 890 nm absorption peak. Current Rover Exploration Locations • Valles Marineris - methane plumes have already been detected here. • Hellas Basin • Gale Crater • Gusev Crater Future Exploration Locations To Explore Methane • Arabia Terrae (large volumes of subsurface ice, possibly water). • Tharsis (volcanic province - possible hydrothermal processes, outgassing). • Elysium (volcanic province - possible hydrothermal processes, outgassing).

Matt Prymek 306 ΔV TO REACH CELESTIAL BODIES

Body ΔV (km/s) Variation* This is a first-order approximation Venus 15.73 ±8.110% • Assumes circular orbits at Earth 11.42 ±8.180% average distance Vesta 16.27 ±4.920% • This is accurate over long timescales Ceres 10.07 ±24.93% Saturn 32.78 ±3.649% • Assumes geometry Titan 16.24 ±8.239% doesn’t change during the mission Uranus 27.79 ±3.038% Pluto 19.87 ±3.832% • Uses patched conics * Due to changing geometry between the bodies as time goes on • Gives an average ΔV over the steady-state

• Starts from a 150-km Mars holding orbit

Henry Heim 307 ΔV BREAKDOWN

Total ΔV ΔV at Mars ΔV at Target Body Mars V (km/s) (km/s) (km/s) (km/s) ∞ Venus 15.73 3.372 4.495 4.768 Earth 11.42 2.106 3.602 2.649 Vesta 8.216 2.026 2.082 2.476 Ceres 9.965 2.430 2.553 3.275 Saturn 32.78 5.551 10.838 7.568 Titan 16.24 5.551 2.569 7.568 Uranus 27.74 7.665 6.206 9.994 Pluto 19.87 7.665 0.332 9.995 Because we assumed geometry doesn’t change, the outbound and inbound ΔV is the same

Henry Heim 308 FUEL TO REACH CELESTIAL BODIES

Structural Mass (Mg) Propellant Mass (Mg) Body ΔV (km/s) Methane H2/LOX Methane H2/LOX Venus 15.73 4.665 1.770 118.1 44.81 Earth 11.42 0.907 0.472 22.95 11.94 Vesta 8.216 0.283 0.173 7.162 4.389 Ceres 9.965 0.556 0.312 14.08 7.885 Saturn 32.78 54.51 198.7 1,380 5,031 Titan 16.24 5.766 2.080 146.0 52.65 Uranus 27.74 181.1 1,270 4,585 32,160 Pluto 19.87 34.50 7.100 873.3 179.7 To mine 1 Mg of material

Henry Heim 309 REFERENCES

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323 SPACE TRANSPORTATION APPENDIX

324 VEHICLE ASSEMBLY BUILDING

• Interior dimensions are 100 m long by 30 m wide by 15 m tall VAB Interior • Hangar is large enough to construct two rockets simultaneously • Underground living section supports work crews for 30 day shifts • Parts and supplies are shipped from the city by rail • Rockets are transported to the launch pad by a crawler, which consists of 12 flatbed railcars connected in a six by two column

Taxi on the crawler with the support tower Empty crawler

325 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

• Cycler • Must maintain artificial gravity of 0.1 g throughout trip (Customer) • Must reduce crew and passenger radiation exposure to 500 mSv over entire trip (Human Factors) • Must provide food, water, and oxygen for crew and passengers throughout trip (Human Factors) • Must transport 50 people per trip between Earth and Mars (Management) • Must maintain constant video communication with Earth and Mars (Customer) • Taxi • Must transport 50 people from the surface of Mars to the Cycler (Management) • Must not exceed 5 g during takeoff (Human Factors) • Lander • Must transport 50 people from the Cycler to the surface of Mars (Management) • Must not exceed 5 g during landing (Human Factors) • Must protect crew and passengers from re-entry heating (Human Factors)

Cleveland - 326 EMMEE POWERED CYCLER TRAJECTORY

• Powered Cycler trajectory minimizes the flyby velocity 2 and periapsis distance at Mars. Optimized in MALTO by Rob Potter 1 • Hyperbolic excess velocity 4 ranges from 2.5 to 4 km/s 3 • 1 km/s ∆ V required over 310 day time of flight

• Flyby altitude varies 300 to 1.) Depart Earth and dock with the cycler. 1000 km 2.) Arrive at Mars after 310 day journey

3.) Depart Mars for 310 day journey to Earth

4.) Arrive at Earth

Toumey - 327 VARIATIONS IN TRAJECTORY

Parameter EMMEE

3.2 to 5 E1 V∞ (km/s) 4.1 2.5 to 4 M2 V∞ (km/s) 3.2 2.5 to 4 M3 V∞ (km/s) 3.2 3.2 to 5 E4 V∞ (km/s) 4.1 210 to 420 E-M TOF (days) 310 210 to 420 M-E TOF (days) 310 1000 to 48,000 E Flyby Alt (km) 9,300 300 to 1000 M Flyby Alt (km) In phase, cheap flyby 375 0 to 2 ΔV (km/s) Out of phase, expensive flyby 1

Toumey - 328 CYCLER TRADE STUDY

Quality Weight Value Score (1-5) Hohmann S1L1 EMMEE Hohmann S1L1 EMMEE

# of cyclers 2 1 4 2 5 1 3

Reusability 5 0 5 4

TOF 3 255 Days 160 Days 310 Days 3 4 2

Average 5 3.4 km/s 5.5 km/s 3.2 km/s 4 2 4 Excess Velocity Variance in 5 3.2 km/s 5.1 km/s 1.5 km/s 2 1 5 Excess Velocity Power 3 0 kW 0 kW 300 kW 5 5 3 Required Totals 64 69 86

Toumey - 329 CYCLER COMMUNICATIONS

• Angular separation must remain less than 3 degrees with the Earth-Cycler-Sun and Mars-Cycler-Sun system • Plot demonstrates failure to maintain contact.

Results:

 Cycler vehicle cannot be used as a relay during solar conjunction once every 15 years

 All other instances of solar conjunction (2 per synodic period) can be avoided using the cycler

Toumey - 330 MISSION PROFILE

Toumey - 331 HYPERBOLIC RENDEZVOUS

Rendezvous Procedure • Initiate transfer ellipse optimized for the specific flyby that is occurring • Burn to match speed with cycler and dock or abort at periapsis of hyperbolic trajectory

Rendezvous Sizing • Propellant Mass: 296.3 Mg • 1 Engine, 7.59 min burn

Abort Option Parameters • If rendezvous fails, perform ΔV rendezvous 2.30 to 2.93 landing procedure. Reduces (km/s) 2.47 failure rate of rendezvous to less ΔV abort 2.12 to 2.89 than 1% 2.49 TOF (hrs) 6.00

Toumey - 332 PROPELLANT MASS FOR TAXI VEHICLE

First Stage Second Stage Rendezvous Deorbit Inert Mass 45.51 31.29 15.59 64.84 (Mg) LOX Mass 478.7 470.7 234.5 72.8 (Mg) Methane Mass 126.0 123.9 61.7 19.2 (Mg) Total Propellant 604.63 594.51 296.27 92.00 (Mg) Burn Time 4.69 19.31 7.59 2.92 (min)

Toumey - 333 CYCLER ROTATION DESIGN

Cycler Design Requirements: • Crew/passenger living area must rotate* to provide artificial gravity • Docking ports must not rotate* to improve docking accuracy and safety Central Column • Communications equipment must not rotate* to ensure Habitation Ring pointing accuracy • Central column must be crew-accessible for maintenance and storage • Connected, pressurized sections must rotate* at the same rate to increase lifetime of atmospheric seals Final Design: • Cycler ring and central column are contiguous and Docked Taxi always rotating • Two non-rotating utility modules are positioned at each Utility Modules end of the central column • Communications equipment and docking ports are mounted on utility modules *Note: Rotation with respect to an inertial reference frame

Cleveland - 334 DOCKING PROCEDURE

Initial state: Taxi inbound, docking port empty and non-rotating 1. Taxi approaches and docks 2. Utility module and taxi spin up to match cycler rotation using reaction control thrusters 3. Utility module seals with the cycler 4. Passengers and crew disembark the taxi and enter the cycler 5. Taxi depressurizes and utility module disengages seals with the main body 6. Utility module spins back down with taxi using reaction control thrusters Final state: Taxi docked, taxi and utility module non-rotating Communications during the procedure are handled by the other non- rotating utility module

Cleveland - 335 LAUNCH VEHICLE REUSABILITY ANALYSIS

2nd Stage DL, 2nd Stage DL, 2nd Stage LL, 2nd Stage LL, Config. 1st Stage DL 1st Stage LL 1st Stage DL 1st Stage LL 1st Stage DL 1st Stage LL Extra Prop 72.47 113.6 200.5 246.095 744.8 809.2 Extra Inert 5.455 8.553 12.37 15.801 41.77 46.61 Total Mass 1880 1924 2082 2131 2940 3010 Total Prop 1658 1699 1848 1894 2657 2722 Total Inert 102.0 105.1 113.6 117 163.0 167.8 DL = Desert Landing, LL = Launchpad Landing, Mass in Mg Values calculated from and given relative to worst case scenario rendezvous with no reusability: Total Mass: 1802 Mg Prop Mass: 1585 Mg Inert Mass: 96.57 Mg Payload Mass: 120 Mg (60 for capsule, 60 for food, water, and people) Due to the inability to transport large stages long distance, all desert landing configurations were scrapped. Conclusion: reusing just the first stage is very reasonable, and is worth doing to reduce manufacturing costs and complexity.

Cleveland - 336 COMMON LAUNCH VEHICLE

All of the communication satellites launches can be handled with a single common launch vehicle architecture by varying the propellant loading.

71% Mnet Launcher Legend Common Upper Stage 64.2% 100% MEHDL-S Launcher Common Lower Stage

Common Fairing 100% 100% MEHDL-M Launcher

Blaskovich - 337 TAXI LAUNCH VEHICLE

• The full taxi vehicle consists of 4 stages; two for atmospheric ascent, one to perform the hyperbolic rendezvous, and one more to perform the deorbit and landing. • The first stage can land back on the launch pad and is reusable. Launch Vehicle Sizing First Stage Second Stage Rendezvous Deorbit Inert Mass 45.51 31.29 15.59 64.84 (Mg) LOX Mass 478.7 470.7 234.5 72.80 (Mg) Methane Mass 126.0 123.9 61.70 19.20 (Mg) Total 604.6 594.5 296.3 92.00 Propellant (Mg)

Blaskovich - 338 LAUNCH

Launch Procedure • Launch from Hellas Basin launch site every synodic period • Circularize into 150 km parking orbit to wait for phasing

Launch Vehicle Sizing • Total Launch Mass: 1804.6 Mg • Total Propellant Mass: 1587.4 Mg • First stage: 4 engines, 4.8 min burn • Second stage: 1 engine, 18.9 min burn

Blaskovich - 339 RENDEZVOUS + ABORT

Rendezvous Procedure • Initiate transfer ellipse optimized for the specific flyby that is occurring • Burn to match speed with cycler and dock or abort at periapsis of hyperbolic trajectory Rendezvous Sizing • Propellant Mass: 296.3 Mg • 1 Engine, 7.59 min burn Abort Option • If rendezvous fails, perform landing procedure Abort Window: 5.25 minutes

Blaskovich - 340 LANDING

Landing Procedure • De-orbit burn at hyperbolic periapsis • Inflatable heatshield for thermal protection Landing sizing • 8m radius inflatable heatshield • Propellant mass: 92.00 Mg • Deorbit: 1 engine, 5.75 min burn • Landing: 1 engine, 2.7 min burn

Blaskovich - 341 RENDEZVOUS ORBITS

Blaskovich - 342 CYCLER STRUCTURES - OVERVIEW

• Kevlar/Aluminum Whipple shield for meteoroids and debris < 1.5 cm • Polyethylene layer reduces radiation to 500 mSv over 310 day trip • Inner Aluminum layer for interior pressure Wall thickness Purpose Material Mass (Mg) (mm) Whipple Bumper Kevlar 3.0 45.6 Whipple Spacing Aluminum 450 13.7 Whipple Rear Aluminum 4.5 92.9 Wall Radiation Polyethylene 28.0 85.6 Shielding Interior Structure Aluminum 2.5 43.9 Total 488 282

Roe - 343 VAB STRUCTURES - OVERVIEW

• 0.5 meter concrete walls and roof reduce radiation to annual dose on earth, and provide majority of structure • 100 m x 30 m floor plan allows multiple rockets to be assembled at once • 5 mm Polyethylene layer minimizes air leakage • Four 0.5 m x 0.5 m x 15 m A36 steel supports prevent buckling

Roe - 344 CYCLER STRUCTURES - SIZING

• Desired cross section of 9 m width and 3 m height to feel comfortable for passengers • Radius sized so that artificial gravity of 0.1 g at waist, less than 10% difference between feet and head • 70.2 m3 Net Habitable Volume per passenger Symbol Description Value Unit P Interior pressure 1 atm

WHall Width of hallway 9 m

HHall Height of ceiling 3 m

RO Outer radius of 33 m cycler

Ri Inner radius of 36 m cycler Roe - 345 CYCLER STRUCTURES - MMOD

• Whipple shield consists of Kevlar bumper and aluminum rear wall [ST-1] • Debris split into fragments by bumper, stopped by rear wall without extensive damage [ST-1] • Designed to stop debris impacting normal to bumper with velocity < 7.5 km/s, diameter < 1.5 cm

Figure from Christiansen [ST-1] Roe - 346 CYCLER STRUCTURES - RADIATION

• Assumes background radiation of 1.84 mSv/day [ST-2] • Must reduce dose to 500 mSv, annual limit for astronauts [ST-2], over 310 day trip between Earth and Mars • Polyethylene chosen for high attenuation, low density [ST-3] • Radiation decreases exponentially with material depth [ST-4], impractical to reduce dose further • 28 mm layer reduces radiation to desired levels

Roe - 347 CYCLER STRUCTURES - PRESSURE

• Assumes interior pressure of 1 atm, Aluminum wall • Modeled interior as cylinder with diameter equal to width of hallway for preliminary wall thickness • FEA used to determine exact dimensions

Symbol Description Value Unit P Interior pressure 1 atm

WHall Width of hallway 9 m

tw Wall thickness 2.5 mm

σyield Yield stress of Al 503 MPa 7075-T6

σmax Maximum stress 158 MPa

Roe - 348 VAB STRUCTURES - FRAME

• Concrete chosen as primary building material for radiation shielding properties [ST-5] • Primary failure method buckling from weight of roof • 15 meter ceiling chosen to prevent buckling • A36 structural steel columns and cross beams installed, placed next to walls to provide necessary floor space. Material Mass (Mg) Replacement Rate (Mg/Year) Sulfur Concrete 14,800 2.95 Polyethylene 52 0.0104 A36 Steel 196 1.96 Roe - 349 VAB STRUCTURES – RADIATION AND AIR

• Assumes background radiation of 1.84 mSv/day [ST-2] • Must reduce dose to 3.6 mSv, the average dose on Earth at sea level [ST-2], over 365 days • Concrete chosen for high attenuation, material strength [ST-5] • 0.5 m walls and roof reduce radiation to desired levels • 5 mm polyethylene layer reduces air leakage to less than 50 kg/year

Roe - 350 TAXI STRUCTURES

• From sizing of taxi vehicle, inert mass fraction of 9% • Materials based off of common Earth launch vehicles, modified to be manufactured on Mars. • No extra radiation or MMOD shielding due to short time of flight (~6 hours)

Material Mass (Mg) Replacement Rate (Mg/Year) Aluminum 140 46.2 Titanium 24.8 8.16 Total 164.8 54.4

Roe - 351 CYCLER THRUSTERS

• The powered cycler needs 25 N of thrust (0.05 N/Mg for 500Mg) • 8 Hall-Effect thrusters • Xenon-based propellant • ISP of 2655 seconds • Total Mass 19.57 Mg • Total Volume 6.57 m3 • Total Power of 500 kW (at maximum draw)

Duncan - 352 CRAWLER OVERVIEW

• Modified 12-car flatbed railcar system • Length of 66 m and width of 9 m • Can carry up to 1.98*103 Mg • Support tower allows the Taxi to be built on Crawler and lifted onto the launch pad • Total mass of Crawler is 200 Mg • Requires a total power draw of 1.53 MW

Duncan - 353 APPENDIX: DOCKING PORT RCS

• Hydrazine monopropellant system • Iridium and silver catalyst • ISP range of 222 s to 230 s • Capable of thrust up to 24.6 N • 8 thrusters mounted around outside of docking port • When running 101 W of total power draw • 600 s to accelerate or decelerate • Total mass of 120 kg Image by Ariane Group [ST-6]

Duncan - 354 APPENDIX: OTHER CYCLER THRUSTER CONSIDERATIONS

Monopropellant Thrusters Hall-Effect thrusters

• Hydrazine based • Argon based propellant propellant • Specific Impulse of 2250 s • Specific Impulse of 230 s • Total Mass of 23.17 Mg • Total Mass of 296.8 Mg • Total Volume of 16.61 m3 3 • Total Volume of 291 m • Total Power draw of 500 • Total Power draw of 0 kW kW

Neither were selected because we established that we would solely rely on Earth for the Cycler’s propellant, and Xenon is the most feasible solution

Duncan - 355 APPENDIX: OTHER DOCKING PORT RCS CONSIDERATIONS

• Cold gas thrusters considered for rotational control of Docking Port • Based on the thrusters used on NASA’s SIRTF [ST-7] • Xenon based propellant • Typical thrust 360 mN • Specific Impulse (Nominal) of 65 s • System declined due to the number of thrusters needed

Duncan - 356 TAXI ENGINES

• Liquid methane liquid oxygen propellants • Oxidizer to fuel mass ratio of 3.8 • Chamber pressure of 200 bar • ISP of 364 seconds • Total thrust of 1860 kN • Expansion ratio of 175 • Engine dry mass of 2.7 Mg

Hunnewell - 357 INFLATABLE HEAT SHIELD

• Inflatable heat shield made of Kevlar • Filled with .7 Mg Nitrogen at 1.8 bar • Inflates to surface area of 200 m2 • .9 Mg of Kevlar • Heating model assumes perfect convection • Uninflated volume of .7 m3

Hunnewell - 358 CYCLER RCS

• Hydrazine monopropellant system • Iridium and silver catalyst • ISP of 225 • Capable of thrust up to 3780 N

• 16 thrusters mounted Image courtesy of Aerojet Rocketdyne around outside of cycler [ST-8] • When running 168 W power draw per thruster • 8.51 kg per thruster

Hunnewell - 359 OTHER CYCLER RCS CONSIDERATIONS • Reaction wheels considered for rotational control of cycler • Based on Rockwell Collins RDR 68 system • Each wheel can hold 68 newton meter seconds of angular momentum • This requires over two hundred thousand wheels • This would add 1547 Mg of reaction wheel and require 1.02 MW • System declined due to added mass and power draw

Hunnewell - 360 LAUNCH VEHICLE INSULATION

• 2 cm thick layer of silica aerogel around launch vehicle • Assumed 60 mph winds and ambient temperature of 20 C as this was considered to be the “worst case scenario” • Hilperts correlation used for calculation of nusselt number over rocket. • Reduces power draw to keep cryogenic propellants cool on launch pad from 1.8 MW to .22 MW • Total mass added of 1.56 Mg

Hunnewell - 361 LAUNCH PAD WINCH SYSTEM

• Required to bring Taxi to vertical on launch pad after delivery from VAB • Total force required to right Taxi vehicle of 18710 kN • Uses only electric motors and gear reduction • Power draw when operating of 5087 kW

Hunnewell - 362 CYCLER FOOD

• Prepackaged meals made ready to eat • Can last unrefrigerated for the length of the trip • Will supply approximately 2500 calories per day • Total mass of 13.28 Mg • Total volume of 64.96 m3

Pharazyn - 363 CYCLER OXYGEN PRODUCTION

• Two cycle process: • Electrolysis converts water into breathable oxygen • The Sabatier Process converts CO2 into water with hydrogen • Requires 2 Mg of Hydrogen each resupply to support Sabatier Process

Pharazyn - 364 VAB ECLSS

Oxygen Production • The cycler oxygen production system is a great source of comparison since both the cycler and the VAB hold 50 people • Only the electrolysis part of the oxygen production system will be used since water is very easy to attain from the main city

Depressurizing VAB • The atmosphere will be pumped into storage tanks while the large doors are being opened to transport the launch vehicle • Using a vacuum pump, depressurization will take approximately two days and use 26.88 kW

Pharazyn - 365 IMPORTANT REACTIONS

• Electrolysis:

• Respiration:

• Sabatier:

Pharazyn - 366 WATER RECYCLER INFORMATION

Assumptions • A person needs 1.6 kg of water per day to survive [ST-9].

Constraints: • Maximum 50 people in the cycler (primary design parameter) • Maximum mission duration: 310 days.

Futch - 367 CYCLER WATER RECLAMATION SYSTEM

Specifications Mass (Mg) 2.6

Power (kW) 8.67 Volume (m3) 10 Computers 2

Futch - 368 CYCLER WATER RECLAMATION CARBON SCRUBBING* Frequency: Once per trip

CO2 production: 0.13 Mg per scrub

Energy Required: 6.27 kW per scrub

* Carbon revitalization is not a steady state process; this information was calculated strictly to provide supplementation for an important aspect of living in the city.

Futch - 369 TRADE: COMMUNICATIONS THROUGH CYCLERS

Previous Design Iteration: Communications NOT Routed Through • Evaluate using the cyclers as the Cyclers Antennae Solar Panel Satellite Power (kW) Dry Mass (Mg) primary relay, eliminating the Diameters (m) Area (m2)

direct Mars-Earth link Cycler 3.5 2x25 - -

0.5, (2x0.5), 3, Mars Terminal 14.5 236.8 3.07 • When necessary, use a minimal 10 data rate with the original relay Relay 16.3 2, 3, 10 247.5 3.01 satellite (very infrequently) Earth Terminal 11 0.5, 10 187.7 2.61 • Nominal data rate (42 Mbps) and minimal data rate (10

Mbps) compiled from Final Design Iteration: Communications Routed Through Cyclers discussions with various Antennae Solar Panel Satellite Power (kW) Dry Mass (Mg) systems Diameters (m) Area (m2) Cycler 8 2x25 - - Conclusion: By routing all communications through cycler Mars Terminal 7 0.5, (2x0.5), 5 123.2 1.78 except once every 15 years, we Relay 6.5 3, 7 108.4 1.54 save power and antenna size on Mars satellites Earth Terminal 5.3 0.5, 10 99.5 1.02

Gordon - 370 TRADE: DATA RATE

• Evaluate impact of data rate by its effect on the relay satellite. • Note that previous trade studies were done before the choice to route communications through the cycler, so the power numbers are outdated but the trends are valid

Data Rate Total Total Relay Solar Panel Area Solar Panel Mass (Mbps) Power (kW) (m2) (Mg) 16 7.05 95.53 1.91

42 16.3 220.87 4.42

100 35.2 476.96 9.54

230 73 989.16 19.78

Gordon - 371 TRADE: CYCLER ANTENNA SIZE

Solar Panel Requirements for Mars Relay Satellite based on Cycler Antenna The large antenna size on the Size cycler is not to reduce power Cycler Cycler Transmitting Power Solar used to transmit from the cycler, Antenna Antenna (Relay<->Cycler) Total Relay Panel Solar Panel rather to reduce power used to Diameter (m) Mass (kg) (kW) Power (kW) Area (m2) Mass (Mg) transmit from a satellite to the 25 262.18 3.5 16.3 220.87 4.42 cycler. 20 205.47 5.4 18.2 246.61 4.93 15 148.76 9.7 22.5 304.88 6.10 Mass Estimates based on linear 12 114.73 15 27.8 376.69 7.53 approximation from NASA paper [ST-10] 10 92.05 21.5 34.3 464.77 9.30 Consultation with Comms & Solar Panel Requirements for Mars Terminal Satellite based on Cycler Antenna Control and Space Size Transportation indicated Cycler Cycler Transmitting Power Total Solar prioritizing satellite power over Antenna Antenna (Terminal<->Cycler) Terminal Panel Solar Panel cycler antenna size. Diameter (m) Mass (kg) (kW) Power (kW) Area (m2) Mass (Mg) Note that previous trade studies 25 262.177 3.5 14.5 196.48 3.93 were done before the choice to 20 205.467 5.4 16.4 222.22 4.44 route communications through 15 148.757 9.7 20.7 280.49 5.61 the cycler, so the power 12 114.731 15 26 352.30 7.05 numbers are outdated but the trends are valid. 10 92.047 21.5 32.5 440.38 8.81

Gordon - 372 LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS EARTH TERMINAL <-> CYCLER

Link Budget Analysis spreadsheet from SMAD [ST-11]

Gordon - 373 LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS MARS TERMINAL <-> CYCLER

Link Budget Analysis spreadsheet from SMAD [ST-11]

Gordon - 374 LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS EARTH TERMINAL <-> RELAY

Link Budget Analysis spreadsheet from SMAD [ST-11] Using minimal data rate for this link

Gordon - 375 LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS MARS TERMINAL <-> RELAY

Link Budget Analysis spreadsheet from SMAD [ST-11]

Gordon - 376 CYCLER POWER

Power Production: 7 Safe and Affordable Fission Engines that provide 700 kW of power combined with a 730 m2 radiator

Feroz - 377 TAXI VEHICLE POWER

Lead acid batteries are used to provide 5 kW of power for the duration of the flight. Materials needed are lead, sulfuric acid, and water. Our batteries are designed to store 12 Volts and are rated at 125 Amp- hours

Power Volume Quantity Mass [Mg] [kW] [m3]

20 0.6 5 0.25

Feroz - 378 VEHICLE ASSEMBLY BUILDING POWER

System Power [kW] Temperature Regulation 756 The 7.63 MW is Powered Tools 5080 drawn directly from Propellant Maintenance 219 the city’s power grid Crawler 1530 through the use of Lighting 36.3 power lines Oxygen/Pressurization 8.67 TOTAL: 7630

Feroz - 379 REFERENCES (1)

[ST-1] E. L. Christiansen, "Meteoroid/Debris Shielding," NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, 2003.

[ST-2] J. Rask, W. Vercoutere, B. J. Navarro and A. Krause, "Space Faring The Radiation Challenge," NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, 2008.

[ST-3] S. B. Guetersloh, C. Zeitlin, L. H. Heilbronn, J. Miller, T. Komiyama, A. Fukumura, Y. Iwata, T. Murakami and M. Bhattacharya, "Polyethylene as a radiation shielding standard in simulated cosmic-ray environments," Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, vol. 252, no. 2, pp. 319-332, 2006.

[ST-4] NDT Resource Center, "Half-Value Layer," 2014. [Online]. Available: https://www.nde- ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Physics/HalfValueLayer.htm. [Accessed 24 March 2017].

[ST-5] J. H. Hubbell and S. M. Seltzer, "X-Ray Mass Attenuation Coefficients," National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2004. [Online]. Available: https://www.nist.gov/pml/nist-x-ray-mass-attenuation-coefficients-version-history. [Accessed 24 March 2018].

[ST-6] “20N CHEMICAL MONOPROPELLANT THRUSTER,” Chemical Monopropellant Thruster Family | Ariane Group Available: http://www.space-propulsion.com/brochures/hydrazine-thrusters/hydrazine-thrusters.pdf

[ST-7] Patterson, M., Foster, J., Haag, T., Rawlin, V., Soulas, G., and Roman, R., “NEXT: NASAs Evolutionary Xenon Thruster,” 38th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit, Jul. 2002. [ST-8] “Monopropellant Rocket Engines,” Monopropellant Rocket Engines | Aerojet Rocketdyne Available: http://www.rocket.com/propulsion-systems/monopropellant-rockets. [ST-9] “Closing the Loop: Recycling Water and Air in Space”. Nasa.gov. n.d.https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/146558main_RecyclingEDA(final)%204_10_06.pdf (page 4) [ST-10] Pidgeon, D., and Tsao, A., “Mass and Power Modeling of Communication Satellites,” 1991. [ST-11] Wertz, J. R., Everett, D. F., and Puschell, J. J., eds., Space Mission Engineering: The New SMAD, Hawthorne, CA: Microcosm Press, 2011.

380 COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE APPENDIX

381 ACRONYM LIST

1. Martian Communications Network (MNet) 2. Mars-Earth High Data Link (MEHDL) 3. Mars Terminal Satellite (MTS) • Primary (MEHDL-MP) • Secondary (MEHDL-MS) 4. Earth Terminal Satellite (ETS) 5. Space Terminal Satellite (STS)

382 REQUIREMENTS

To establish a comprehensive communications infrastructure, the system shall be comprised of two unique systems.

The Martian Communication Network (MNet) shall:

• Maintain constant global coverage to Martian ground-based operations. • Operate throughout a 15 year mission lifespan. [1] • Be manufacturable on Mars. • Launch from Mars.

The Mars-Earth High Data Link (MEHDL) shall:

• Maintain interplanetary two-way continuous HD video communication. • Provide constant communications with the Martian Cyclers. • Accommodate all types of data for the city residents. • Maintain uninterrupted coverage during the Solar Conjunction. [2] • Operate throughout a 15 year mission lifespan. • Be manufacturable on Mars.

383 Mission Assurance

Life Cycle International Telecommunication Union (ITU) global satellite communications standard specify 15 years operation times for most satellites. • Radiation damage communications hardware and solar panels • Propellant tank empties – prevents additional corrective maneuvers • Provides opportunity for new technology Replacement Cycle Satellites will enter a graveyard orbit upon retirement. • New launches will occur a year before current satellite expirations to ensure continued functionality during replacement process. Potential Failure & Consequences o Manufacturing/Structural component failures oFailure o Computer/Electronics malfunction ❑Consequence o Deployment malfunction o Pointing Error o Launch vehicle failure ❑ Loss of regional/total coverage ❑ Loss of Earth transmission

384 SYSTEM SUMMARY

MNet • 4x Satellites in a Draim constellation [3].

MEHDL • 3x Areostationary Satellites • 2x Interplanetary Cyclers (courtesy of Space Transport) • 1x Interplanetary Relay Backup in a Gangale orbit [4] • 3x Geostationary Satellites

Central Ground Station • 2x Antenna dishes for receiving downlink and sending uplink.

385 MNET SATELLITE MODEL

Key Features: • Ø 6 cm crosslink antenna • Ø 0.5 m downlink/uplink antenna • 425 kg (MAX) wet mass • 17.2 m2 solar panels • 4 Hall Effect Thrusters • Remote Sensing Instruments

Sam Albert, Duncan Harris, Connor Lynch, Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff 386 MNET OPERATIONAL ORBITS

387 Ryan Duong MNET ORBITAL CHARACTERISTICS

Satellite Type a [km] e i (J2000) [deg] RAAN (J2000) [deg] ω [deg] θ* [deg]

Elliptical 1 32500 0.263 68.4135 47.6814 270 0

Elliptical 2 32500 0.263 68.4135 137.6814 90 241.131

Elliptical 3 32500 0.263 68.4135 227.6814 270 180

Elliptical 4 32500 0.263 68.4135 317.6814 90 118.869

Ryan Duong 388 MNET CROSSLINKS AND COVERAGE

Ryan Duong 389 MNET COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Link Type Frequency Band Mars Crosslink V Band (56 GHz) Mars Uplink X Band (8.4 GHz) Mars Downlink X Band (7.4 GHz) Data Rate Per Channel 0.3 [Mbps] # Users 35 Total Capacity 10.5 [Mbps]

MNet Forward Case User: Rovers MNet Forward Case User: Rovers Frequency 8.4 GHz Frequency 8.4 GHz Rover antenna gain 24.8 dBi Rover antenna gain 24.8 dBi Rover transmit power 50 W Rover transmit power 50 W Rover antenna diameter 0.3 m Rover antenna diameter 0.3 m MNet antenna gain 24.8 dBi MNet antenna gain 24.8 dBi MNet antenna diameter 0.3 m MNet antenna diameter 0.3 m MNet transmit power 30 W MNet transmit power 30 W Ground station dish Ground station dish 3 m 3 m diameter diameter 390 Sam Albert MEHDL SATELLITE MODELS – PRIMARY MTS

Key Features: • 2x Ø 0.5 cm crosslink antenna • Ø 0.5 m downlink/uplink antenna • Ø 5 m interplanetary antenna • 14.2 m2 radiator area • 1.826 Mg wet mass • 123 m2 solar panels • 4 Hall Effect Thrusters

Alex Blankenberger, Duncan Harris, Connor Lynch, Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff 391 MEHDL SATELLITE MODELS – SECONDARY MTS

Key Features: • Ø 0.5 cm crosslink antenna • Ø 5 m interplanetary antenna • 123 m2 radiator area • 1.87 Mg (MAX) wet mass • 123 m2 solar panels • 4 Hall Effect Thrusters

Alex Blankenberger, Duncan Harris, Connor Lynch, Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff

392 MTS OPERATIONAL ORBITS

393 Ryan Duong MTS ORBITAL CHARACTERISTICS

Satellite Type a [km] e i (J2000) RAAN (J2000) ω [deg] θ* [deg] [deg] [deg] Areostationary1 20427.7 0 37.1135 150.68 0 0

Areostationary2 20427.7 0 37.1135 150.68 0 120

Areostationary3 20427.7 0 37.1135 150.68 0 240

394 Ryan Duong MEHDL SATELLITE MODELS – SPACE TERMINAL

Key Features: • Ø 7 m Earth-link antenna • Ø 5 m Mars-link antenna • 14.2 m2 radiator area • 1.87 Mg (MAX) wet mass • 123 m2 solar panels • 4 Hall Effect Thrusters

Alex Blankenberger, Duncan Harris, Connor Lynch, Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff

395 STS OPERATIONAL ORBITS

396 John Cleveland MEHDL SATELLITE MODELS – EARTH TERMINAL

Key Features: • Ø 0.5 m downlink/uplink antenna • Ø 10 m interplanetary antenna • 23.6 m2 radiator area • 1.07 Mg (MAX) wet mass • 43.1 m2 solar panels • 4 Hall Effect Thrusters

Alex Blankenberger, Duncan Harris, Connor Lynch, Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff

397 STS ORBITAL CHARACTERISTICS

Satellite Type a [km] e i (J2000) RAAN (J2000) ω [deg] θ* [deg] [deg] [deg] Relay 228e6 0.093 4.5 349.8 357 208

John Cleveland 398 ETS OPERATIONAL ORBITS

399 Ryan Duong ETS ORBITAL CHARACTERISTICS

Satellite Type a [km] e i (J2000) RAAN (J2000) ω [deg] θ* [deg] [deg] [deg]

Geostationary 42164 0 0 0 0 0 1 Geostationary 42164 0 0 0 0 120 2 Geostationary 42164 0 0 0 0 240 3

400 Ryan Duong MEHDL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Link Type Frequency Band

Interplanetary V Band (60 GHz) Crosslink Earth Downlink C Band (5.5 GHz)

Mars Downlink X Band (10 GHz)

Data Rate Per 42 [Mbps] Channel

401 Alex Blankenberger MEHDL COMMUNICATIONS

MEHDL-M crosslinks

402 Ryan Duong SATELLITE MODELS FOLDED CONFIGURATIONS

MEHDL-MP MEHDL-S

4.88 m 5.14 m

MNet

2.21 m

5.14 m

Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff

MEHDL-MS 403 COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE ∆V BUDGET

9000.0 8149.9 8149.9 8500.0 7604.9 7604.9 7065.4 8000.0 6717.9 6798.7 6912.5 7500.0 7000.0 6500.0 6000.0 5500.0 5000.0 4500.0 4000.0 3500.0 3000.0 2500.0 2000.0 15 YEARS 1500.0 1000.0

ΔV [M/S] PER 500.0 0.0 Draim Draim Draim Draim Areo1 Areo2 Areo3 Gang 1 2 3 4 ale1 Total [m/s] 7604.9 8149.9 7604.9 8149.9 6717.9 6798.7 7065.4 6912.5 Graveyard Transfer [m/s] 148.3 148.3 148.3 148.3 10.5 10.5 10.5 0.5 Perturbations/Attitude [m/s] 391.8 391.8 391.8 391.8 420.0 9.8 525.0 225.0 Phasing [m/s] 0.0 545.0 0.0 545.0 0.0 491.0 242.5 0.0 Transfer [m/s] 1984.8 1984.8 1984.8 1984.8 1987.4 1987.4 1987.4 2357.0 Launch 5080.0 5080.0 5080.0 5080.0 4300.0 4300.0 4300.0 4330.0 404 Ryan Duong LAUNCH OPERATIONS

We created three different launch vehicles to fit the need: • 4 Individual MNet launches • 1 Individual relay launch • 1 Stacked Areostationary launch

405 Andrew Blaskovich LAUNCH TRAJECTORIES

MNet Transfer Areostationary Transfer

406 Ryan Duong LAUNCH TRAJECTORIES

MEHDL-S interplanetary orbit

407 John Cleveland CENTRAL GROUND STATION

3 m

3 m

System Mass [Mg] Power [kW] Volume [m3] Central Ground Station 2.05 2.216 1.22

408 Stuart McCrorie, Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE FAILURE When the primary MTS fails, MNet will provide a second layer of redundancies by crosslinking with the secondary MTS.

409 Ryan Duong THERMAL ANALYSIS – SOLAR PANELS AND BATTERIES

Battery Mass, Solar Area, m2 Array Mass, kg Satellite kg MNet 17.2 172 14.5

MEHDL – 43.1 431 161 Earth Terminal

MEHDL – Mars 123.2 1232 163 Terminal

MEHDL – Earth Mars 108.4 1084 63.6 Relay

410 Duncan Harris THERMAL ANALYSIS – POWER DRAW

Satellite Transmit, W MNet 30

MEHDL – Earth Terminal 5300

MEHDL – Mars Terminal 7000

MEHDL – Earth Mars Relay 6500

411 Duncan Harris THERMAL ANALYSIS – RADIATORS

Satellite Radiator Area, m2 Radiator Mass, kg Thermal Solution 200 Passive Radiators MNet 4.7 (Chassis area) External Radiator MEHDL – Earth 77.3 77.3 w/ copper heat Mars Relay pipes External Radiator MEHDL – Earth 23.5 121 w/ copper heat Terminal pipes External Radiator MEHDL – Mars 14.2 77.3 w/ copper heat Terminal pipes

412 Duncan Harris THERMAL ANALYSIS – PAINT

Satellite Painted Area, m2 Mass, kg MNet 1.03 0.351 MEHDL – Earth 14.7 5.0 Mars Relay MEHDL – Earth 30.8 10.5 Terminal MEHDL – Mars 14.2 4.83 Terminal

413 Duncan Harris THERMAL ANALYSIS – HEAT FLUX SOURCES

Source Heat Flux, W/m2

Sun – Mars distance 276

Mars IR 390 Mars Albedo 176

Sun – Earth distance 604

Earth IR 252 Earth Albedo 385

414 Duncan Harris Martian Comm. Trade Study

AreoPolar Constellation

Satellite Type Semi-Major Eccentricity Inclination wrt RAAN wrt J2000 Argument of True Anomaly Axis [km] J2000 [deg] [deg] Periapsis [deg] [deg] Areostationary1 20427.7 0 37.1135 47.6814 0 0 Areostationary2 20427.7 0 37.1135 47.6814 0 120 Areostationary3 20427.7 0 37.1135 47.6814 0 240 Polar1 18500 0 130.1135 47.6814 0 0 Polar2 18500 0 130.1135 47.6814 0 120 Polar3 18500 0 130.1135 47.6814 0 240

Satellite Orbit Crosslink Coverage 2D Coverage

415 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Draim Constellation

Satellite Type Semi-Major Eccentricity Inclination wrt RAAN wrt Argument of True Anomaly Axis [km] J2000 [deg] J2000 [deg] Periapsis [deg] [deg] Elliptical 1 32500 0.263 68.4135 47.6814 270 0 Elliptical 2 32500 0.263 68.4135 137.6814 90 241.131 Elliptical 3 32500 0.263 68.4135 227.6814 270 180 Elliptical 4 32500 0.263 68.4135 317.6814 90 118.869

Satellite Orbit Crosslink Coverage 2D Coverage

416 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study Rosette Constellation

Satellite Circle Circle Circl Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Circle Type 1 2 e 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Semi-Major 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427. 20427.7 20427.7 20427.7 20427.7 20427. 20427. Axis [km] 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Eccentricity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Inclination wrt 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.113 82.1135 82.1135 82.1135 82.1135 82.113 82.113 J2000 [deg] 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 RAAN wrt 47.681 47.681 47.681 119.681 119.681 119.681 191.681 191.681 191.681 263.681 263.681 263.6814 335.681 335.681 335.681 J2000 [deg] 4 4 4 Argument of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Periapsis [deg] True Anomaly 0 120 240 0 120 240 0 120 240 0 120 240 0 120 240 [deg]

Satellite Orbit Crosslink Coverage 2D Coverage

417 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Walker Constellation * 6 Orbital Planes spaced 30° apart to total 66 satellites.

Satellite Circle 1 Circle 2 Circle 3 Circle 4 Circle 5 Circle 6 Circle 7 Circle 8 Circle 9 Circle Circle Type 10 11 Semi-Major Axis 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 4196.19 [km] Eccentricity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Inclination wrt 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.1135 125.113 J2000 [deg] 5 RAAN wrt J2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [deg] Argument of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Periapsis [deg] True Anomaly 0 32.7273 65.4546 98.1818 130.909 163.636 196.364 229.091 261.818 294.545 327.27 [deg] 3

Satellite Orbit Crosslink Coverage 2D Coverage

418 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Polar Perturbation

419 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Areostationary Perturbations

ΔW ΔE

ΔΩ

ΔSMA

420 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Draim Elliptical Orbits

421 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Rosette Constellation

422 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Walker Constellation

423 Ryan Duong Martian Comm. Trade Study

Eclipse Times Comparisons

424 Ryan Duong Propellant Analysis

425 Connor Lynch ∆V Analysis

426 Connor Lynch Mars Comm. Network LBA

Analog vs. Digital • Analog systems use older technology and could be used without computer chips, in some ways simplifying manufacturing • Analog systems are also more resistant to noise, and could thus be favorable in some ways to the link budget • However… • Analog systems only support a small range of data types (audio, video, etc.) and would not support other types of scientific data (text files, raw data files, software patches) • Digital systems are far more flexible in their ability to adapt to changing data requirements • Digital transmission is also more efficient2 • Although newer technology, digital systems are ubiquitous and can now be produced with relative ease • Lastly, if any system on Mars will require computer chips (which is highly likely), then other systems may as well take advantage of this. The newly formed Manufacturing team is working on thoroughly justifying the assumption that computer chips can be manufactured on Mars

427 Sam Albert Mars Comm. Network LBA

Complete Link Budget Analysis Part 1/3

428 Sam Albert Mars Comm. Network LBA

Complete Link Budget Analysis Part 2/3

429 Sam Albert Mars Comm. Network LBA

Complete Link Budget Analysis Part 3/3

430 Sam Albert Mars Comm. Network LBA

Crosslink Analysis for Mars Communications Network (MNet)

• Crosslinks between each MNet satellite are necessary in order to provide global coverage with only one ground station

• Requirements: • Same data rate as uplink/downlink: 5 Mbps • Two identical systems for constant connectivity with minimal satellite reorientation • Add minimal power and mass to satellite design • Do not interfere with uplink/downlink transmissions

• Design (for each of the two crosslink antennas): • 6 cm diameter parabolic antenna • 5 W transmitting power • 56 GHz transmitting frequency (EHF band) • 2 kg added mass, including pointing system

431 Sam Albert Mars Comm. Network LBA

Tradeoff Between Radio Frequency (RF) and Optical Communication Systems for Mars- Earth High Data Link (MEHDL)

• Motivation: MEHDL requires high data rate transmission over long distances. How can we effectively communicate back to Earth?

• Background: Optical communication is a growing technology which uses lasers to transmit at very high data rates with 50% mass reduction, 65% power reduction3. Deep Space Optical Communications will soon have a TRL of 6 after use on the Psyche mission in 20224.

• Requirement: Primary requirement is to transmit 42 Mbps to Earth continuously – lower than initially thought.

• Analysis: While it is true that optical communications offers high performance, the manufacturability and complexity of the system is problematic. Key concerns include: • Extremely high-precision pointing required, on the order of one micro-radian or better5 • Lifetime of active laser components may be limited to 6 years5 • Surface finish within 1 nanometer requirement6

• Conclusion: Since we are optimizing for complexity and manufacturability, instead of for mass and power, RF is a better choice in this case.

432 Sam Albert Appendix – Mars Comm. Network LBA

Crosslink Link Budget Analysis for Mars Communications Network (MNet) Crosslinks

433 Sam Albert Appendix – Mars Comm. Network LBA

Determining Data Rate Requirement for Mars-Earth High Data Link (MEHDL)

• Several subsystems need to transmit data between Mars and Earth • For each of these subsystems, estimate values for minimal, nominal, and ideal scenarios:

Mars Subsystem Minimal (Mbps) Nominal (Mbps) Ideal (Mbps) Science (Alaina) 0.1 1.51 30 Cycler (Noah) 5 7.5 10 City - news, personal, etc. (Mitch) 5.87 23.2 140 City - Logistics, ENGR info, etc. 5 10 50 Total Data Rate 16 42 230 Resultant MEHDL Sat mass (kg) 1910.57 4417.34 19738.2 Resultant Solar Panel Area on Relay (m2) 95.53 220.87 989.16 Resultant MEHDL Sat transmit power (kW) 7.05 16.3 73 Acceptability

• Acceptability: • Minimal would only provide 5 minutes of video per person per month each way – would not be “a joy to live in” for most people • Nominal case provides good balance between data available and size of the resultant MEHDL satellites • Ideal case could be considered for expansion, but provides unnecessary (i.e. daily video chat) capabilities

• Conclusion: data rate between Mars and Earth should be 42 Mbps → requirement for MEHDL

434 Sam Albert Appendix – Mars Comm. Network LBA

RF vs Optical communication

Tradeoff Between Radio Frequency (RF) and Optical Communication Systems for Mars-Earth High Data Link (MEHDL)

• Motivation: MEHDL requires high data rate transmission over long distances. How can we effectively communicate back to Earth? • Background: Optical communication is a growing technology which uses lasers to transmit at very high data rates with 50% mass reduction, 65% power reduction. Deep Space Optical Communications will soon have a TRL of 6 after use on the Psyche mission in 2022. • Requirement: Primary requirement is to transmit 42 Mbps to Earth continuously – lower than initially thought. • Analysis: While it is true that optical communications offers high performance, the manufacturability and complexity of the system is problematic. Key concerns include: • Extremely high-precision pointing required, on the order of one micro-radian or better • Lifetime of active laser components may be limited to 6 years • Surface finish within 1 nanometer requirement • Conclusion: Since we are optimizing for complexity and manufacturability, instead of for mass and power, RF is a better choice in this case.

435 Sam Albert Mars-Earth Link LBA

Feature Value

Earth Terminal Sat Link Type Frequency Band Total Transmitting Power 26.6 kW Space to Space V Band (60 GHz) Long Distance Antenna Size 10 m Earth Downlink C Band (5.5 GHz) Downlink Antenna Size 0.5 m Mars Downlink X Band (10 GHz) Mars Terminal Sat Total Transmitting Power 31.5 kW Long Distance Antenna Size 10 m

Crosslink/Downlink Antenna 0.5 m Size Cycler Communication 3 m Antenna Relay Sat Transmitting Power 31.5 kW Acknowledgements: Long Distance Antenna Size 10 m Noah Gordon – Collaboration with entire MEHDL LBA Sam Albert – Collaboration with LBA research and high Relay to Mars Terminal 2 m Antenna level system design Cycler Communication 3 m Antenna

436 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

437 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal Cross Link LBA

FSS Forward Link Cases* Small User Units Initial Notes Uplink Frequency 60.00 GHz [1] Gateway Terminal Type Tracking Diameter 0.50 m [1] Beamwidth 0.7 deg Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 47.35 dBi Transmit Power 35.0 W [1] Backoff and Line Loss -1.5 dB [1] EIRP, Gateway 61.29 dBW EIRP per user 61.29 dBW Propagation Range 35,500.0 km Crosslink Path Distance Space Loss -219.02 dB Atmospheric Losses 0.0 dB [1] Net Path Loss -219.02 dB Satellite Antenna, Type Diameter 0.5 m Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 47.35 dBi Line Loss on Satellite -1.5 dB [1] Received Carrier Power Per User, C -111.88 dBW System Noise Temperature 27.4 dB-K Typical value selected for this scenario G/T 19.95 dB/K

Receiver C/No 89.32 dB-Hz Data rate per user 80.00 dB-Hz

Available Eb/No, Uplink 9.32 dB

438 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal Cross Link LBA

Modem Implementation Loss -1.20 dB Representative for this scenario

Required Eb/No 4.76 dB Link Margin Up 3.4 dB Channel Bandwidth 36 MHz Number of Channels 1 Number of Users/Channel 1 Single User Data Rate 100 Mbps Code Rate, ρ 2/3 Single User Bandwidth 100.500 MHz Bandwidth Used/Channel 100.50 MHz Total Capacity 100 Mbps

439 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Earth Terminal ↔ Ground LBA

FSS Forward Link Cases* Small User Units Initial Notes Uplink Frequency 5.50 GHz [1] Gateway Terminal Type Tracking Diameter 0.50 m [1] Beamwidth 7.636363636 deg Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 26.59 dBi Transmit Power 100.0 W [1] Backoff and Line Loss -1.5 dB [1] EIRP, Gateway 45.09 dBW EIRP per user 45.09 dBW Propagation Range 42000 km Geostationary orbit Space Loss -204.52 dB Atmospheric Losses -5.0 dB [2] Net Path Loss -209.52 dB Satellite Antenna, Type Diameter 20.0 m Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 58.63 dBi Line Loss on Satellite -1.5 dB [1] Received Carrier Power Per User, C -107.30 dBW System Noise Temperature 27.4 dB-K Typical value selected for this scenario G/T 31.23 dB/K

Receiver C/No 93.90 dB-Hz Data rate per user 80.00 dB-Hz

Available Eb/No, Uplink 13.90 dB

440 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Earth Terminal ↔ Ground LBA

Modem Implementation Loss -1.20 dB Representative for this scenario

Required Eb/No 4.76 dB Link Margin Up 7.9 dB Channel Bandwidth 36 MHz Number of Channels 1 Number of Users/Channel 1 Single User Data Rate 100 Mbps Code Rate, ρ 2/3 Single User Bandwidth 100.500 MHz Bandwidth Used/Channel 100.50 MHz Total Capacity 100 Mbps

441 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal ↔ Ground LBA

FSS Forward Link Cases* Small User Units Initial Notes Uplink Frequency 10.00 GHz [1] Gateway Terminal Type Tracking Diameter 0.50 m [1] Beamwidth 4.2 deg Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 31.78 dBi Transmit Power 10.0 W [1] Backoff and Line Loss -1.5 dB [1] EIRP, Gateway 40.28 dBW EIRP per user 40.28 dBW Propagation Range 17,032.0 km Areostationary orbit Space Loss -197.08 dB Atmospheric Losses -1.2 dB [1] Net Path Loss -198.28 dB Satellite Antenna, Type Diameter 10.0 m Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 57.80 dBi Line Loss on Satellite -1.5 dB [1] Received Carrier Power Per User, C -101.69 dBW System Noise Temperature 27.4 dB-K Typical value selected for this scenario G/T 30.40 dB/K

Receiver C/No 99.51 dB-Hz Data rate per user 80.00 dB-Hz

Available Eb/No, Uplink 19.51 dB

442 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal ↔ Ground LBA

Modem Implementation Loss -1.20 dB Representative for this scenario

Required Eb/No 4.76 dB Link Margin Up 13.6 dB Channel Bandwidth 36 MHz Number of Channels 1 Number of Users/Channel 1 Single User Data Rate 100 Mbps Code Rate, ρ 2/3 Single User Bandwidth 100.500 MHz Bandwidth Used/Channel 100.50 MHz Total Capacity 100 Mbps

443 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal/Relay ↔ Cycler LBA

FSS Forward Link Cases* Small User Units Initial Notes Uplink Frequency 60.00 GHz [1] Gateway Terminal Type Tracking Diameter 3.00 m [1] Beamwidth 0.116666667 deg Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 62.91 dBi Transmit Power 5000.0 W [1] Backoff and Line Loss -1.5 dB [1] EIRP, Gateway 98.40 dBW EIRP per user 98.40 dBW Worst Case: Cycler to Mars Terminal or Propagation Range 402,500,000.0 km Relay Space Loss -300.11 dB Atmospheric Losses 0.0 dB [1] Net Path Loss -300.11 dB Satellite Antenna, Type Diameter 25.0 m Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 81.33 dBi Line Loss on Satellite -1.5 dB [1] Received Carrier Power Per User, C -121.88 dBW System Noise Temperature 27.4 dB-K Typical value selected for this scenario G/T 53.93 dB/K

Receiver C/No 79.32 dB-Hz Data rate per user 70.00 dB-Hz

Available Eb/No, Uplink 9.32 dB

444 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal/Relay ↔ Cycler LBA

Modem Implementation Loss -1.20 dB Representative for this scenario

Required Eb/No 4.76 dB Link Margin Up 3.4 dB Channel Bandwidth 36 MHz Number of Channels 1 Number of Users/Channel 1 Single User Data Rate 10 Mbps Code Rate, ρ 2/3 Single User Bandwidth 10.050 MHz Bandwidth Used/Channel 10.05 MHz Total Capacity 10 Mbps

445 Alex Blankenberger Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal ↔ Relay LBA

FSS Forward Link Cases* Small User Units Initial Notes Uplink Frequency 60.00 GHz [1] Gateway Terminal Type Tracking Diameter 10.00 m [1] Beamwidth 0.035 deg Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 73.37 dBi Transmit Power 4100.0 W [1] Backoff and Line Loss -1.5 dB [1] EIRP, Gateway 107.99 dBW EIRP per user 107.99 dBW Propagation Range 32,000,000.0 km Relay to Mars Terminal distance Space Loss -278.12 dB Atmospheric Losses 0.0 dB [1] Net Path Loss -278.12 dB Satellite Antenna, Type Diameter 2.0 m Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 59.39 dBi Line Loss on Satellite -1.5 dB [1] Received Carrier Power Per User, C -112.23 dBW System Noise Temperature 27.4 dB-K Typical value selected for this scenario G/T 31.99 dB/K

Receiver C/No 88.97 dB-Hz Data rate per user 80.00 dB-Hz

446 Alex Blankenberger Appendix – Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal ↔ Relay LBA

Modem Implementation Loss -1.20 dB Representative for this scenario

Required Eb/No 4.76 dB Link Margin Up 3.0 dB Channel Bandwidth 36 MHz Number of Channels 1 Number of Users/Channel 1 Single User Data Rate 100 Mbps Code Rate, ρ 2/3 Single User Bandwidth 100.500 MHz Bandwidth Used/Channel 100.50 MHz Total Capacity 100 Mbps

447 Alex Blankenberger Appendix – Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal/Relay ↔ Earth Terminal LBA

FSS Forward Link Cases* Small User Units Initial Notes Uplink Frequency 60.00 GHz [1] Gateway Terminal Type Tracking Diameter 10.00 m [1] Beamwidth 0.035 deg Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 73.37 dBi Transmit Power 26500.0 W [1] Backoff and Line Loss -1.5 dB [1] EIRP, Gateway 116.10 dBW EIRP per user 116.10 dBW Propagation Range 402,500,000.0 km Worst Case: Mars Terminal/Relay to Earth Space Loss -300.11 dB Atmospheric Losses 0.0 dB [1] Net Path Loss -300.11 dB Satellite Antenna, Type Diameter 10.0 m Antenna Efficiency 55.0% % Assumed typical value Gain 73.37 dBi Line Loss on Satellite -1.5 dB [1] Received Carrier Power Per User, C -112.14 dBW System Noise Temperature 27.4 dB-K Typical value selected for this scenario G/T 45.97 dB/K

Receiver C/No 89.06 dB-Hz Data rate per user 80.00 dB-Hz

Available Eb/No, Uplink 9.06 dB

448 Alex Blankenberger Appendix – Mars-Earth Link LBA

Mars Terminal/Relay ↔ Earth Terminal LBA

Modem Implementation Loss -1.20 dB Representative for this scenario

Required Eb/No 4.76 dB Link Margin Up 3.1 dB Channel Bandwidth 36 MHz Number of Channels 1 Number of Users/Channel 1 Single User Data Rate 100 Mbps Code Rate, ρ 2/3 Single User Bandwidth 100.500 MHz Bandwidth Used/Channel 100.50 MHz Total Capacity 100 Mbps

449 Alex Blankenberger Power Analysis

• Assumptions • 2 computers used, specifications follow analysis by Ricardo Gomez (55 W each, 45 kg) • Solar Considerations: • Find Solar flux at specified distance from Sun (provided by R. Duong) • Add together all power needs (computations, transmission strength) • Determine solar power efficiency based on current literature [2] • Calculate solar panel area from efficiency and solar flux • Given cell thickness and material density find mass of solar panels • Input maximum eclipse time to determine energy storage required • Given specific energy of specified battery, (wH/kg) find mass of battery [1] • If applicable, find volume due to energy density of the battery [1] • Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators • Find specific power (We/kg) for multiple systems in literature [4] • End of mission mass found by dividing power requirements by specific power • Taking into account the half-life of Pu-238, find required initial mass using a final time of 15 years

450 Duncan Harris Power Analysis

• RTG’s • Very high mass for large systems, most usages are on the scale of 100 W • Would be doable for MPS and Mnet current power draws • Synthetic material, is the product of nuclear fission • Solar Cells • Silicon has about a 20% by mass presence in regolith [5] • Technology is historically prevalent [6] • Manufacturing process required precision machining and lots of heat to smelt into ore • Upper limit of 26% solar conversion efficiency [2] • Lead-Acid Batteries • Any lead on Mars would be used for radiation shielding, as it is not easily accessible [5] • High Mass/power ratio [7] • Manufacturing involves refining of lead, as well as synthesizing sulfuric acid [7]

451 Duncan Harris Power Analysis

• Nickel Cadmium • Ni(OH)2, Cd(OH)2, (KOH). Have not found values for cadmium presence on Mars. Assuming no presence. • Nickel Metal-Hydride • H2O, an “intermetallic”, Ni(OH)2, (KOH) • Similar to NiCad batteries but will not depend on the presence of cadmium. • Lithium Ion • Lithium, Cobalt are key ingredients • Strongest candidate is NiMH or Lithium Ion

452 Duncan Harris Structural Analysis

• Ground stations are needed to improve the accuracy of GPS systems, especially around resource collection area

• These secondary ground stations need to be able to adjust to track satellites across the sky • The main ground station doesn’t have to worry about this since the satellite it communicates with is in geostationary orbit

• Requirements: • Small delay for repositioning (less than 60 sec) • Adjust altitude from 20o to 160o • Adjust azimuth full rotation (0o to 360o)

453 Stuart McCrorie Structural Analysis

• Power required to track would be 447.15 W + the power of the onboard computer (under investigation) • Would need to be powered by 4.438 m2 of solar panels with an efficiency of 0.2 (Harris) • Battery weight would be between 10.5 kg to 16.1 kg (Harris)

Mass, kg Volume, cm3

15.23 229.35 motor+gearbox

Power, W Gear Ratio

447.15 2976:1

Delay for Shaft diameter, cm repositioning, s

20 1.76

454 Stuart McCrorie Structural Analysis

• Gauge rough structure weights by looking at weights of modern communications satellites, and their outputs/masses (~50 confidence) Satellite Mass (kg) Power Drawn Thruster / Fuel Mass (kg) by Propulsion Communicatio power (kW) ns (kW)

TDRS-111 (K)6,7 3454 3.2 5.6 1678

Galaxy 258,9 3668 2.4 3.8 1456

AMC - 2110,11 2845 2.8 4.4 1312

Astra 4A12 4979 4.4 5.2 1892

• Our power draw will likely be ~2.8 kW (Duong) Main criteria for structure is torque of thrusters - drag (low orbits), temperature effects, and corrosive effects completely nonexistent in comparison (100% confidence). • drag pressure from geostationary low orbit in Mars less than existing at sea level on Earth 455 Stuart McCrorie Structural Analysis

• Need to shape pure metals into sheets, bar stock, building elements • Most of this needs to be brought from Earth - need manufacturing elements to make anything on Mars • Two main types of metal materials need to be made (70% confidence) • Sheet metal creation13,14 • Done via rolling and extrusion • Tubing and structural beams • Done via extrusion and pulling • Extrusion: ~3500 Mg per press, operating at around 350,000 tons processed per annum15 (90% confidence) (the mass total will be worrying) • requires immense heats, material to be heated • aluminum typically heat-treated twice before extrusion

Step Step Step Step Step 1 2 3 4 5

Initial Heating of Second Heat Material16 Extrusion Press14,16 Shaping of material16 Pulling13,16 Treatment16

Heat treatment, cooling, then Pushed through dye, creates Cutting, determining profile, Increase total length, Cooling, acid bath to remove heating for exruding desired cross sections sizing decrease size imperfections, then second heat treatment

456 Stuart McCrorie Structural Analysis

Assumptions

• Efficiency of 0.2 for silicon-based solar panels (Harris) • Density of steel of 8030 kg/m3 • Max Tensile stress of steel of 250 MPa (before yielding) • Factor of safety of 1.125 used • Used a pressure angle of 20 degrees for gears • sets it that largest gear size is 80 tooth and smallest 16 tooth for reasonable size4 • Electric Motor efficiency of 75%1 • Previously found mass of the satellite dish of 820kg2,3

457 Stuart McCrorie Structural Analysis

Results

• Gearbox of [80:56,80:16,80:16,80:16,80:24] • Power required of 447.15 W • Via that power, an angular velocity of 28.3 deg/s • Found via w = P*n/T • T= torque • n = motor efficiency • P = power

458 Stuart McCrorie SYSTEM OVERVIEW – MPS

The Mars Positioning System (MPS) represents a global navigation and position system to support the endeavors of the Martian residents.

Primary Factors to design the most desirable navigation system: • Communications hardware requirements • Satellite quantity • ΔV requirements • Ground/Tracking station quantity and locations

459 System Overview – MPS

Trade Study considered 2 navigation systems:

The Constellation for Mars Position The Mars Positioning System (MPS) Acquisition using Small Satellites Description A massive constellation in (COMPASS) [7] Low Mars Orbit (LMO) Description A Small Sat. constellation where any location should designed by the University be visible by a minimum of of Florida. 4 satellites.

460 ATTITUDE CONTROL AND STATION KEEPING • Mars has greater station keeping requirements than those of Earth. • Req. ΔV: Can range from ~20 – 200 m/s (/year) • Options: • Bi-propellant: Need injectors + other combustion materials

• LCH4/LOX: “Simple” to produce using ISRU, relative to other options • MMH/NTO: Can’t really produce using ISRU • Monopropellant: Less complex than bi-, still needs to combust

• N2H4: Can be made on Mars, not as trivial as methalox though • Cold-gas: No combustion required, more mass needed though

• CO2: Heavier than N2, but easier to obtain • N2: Lighter than CO2, but is more useful for other purposes • Ion: High Isp, low thrust • Xe: Not easy to obtain, would be better to bring from Earth

461 Connor Lynch System Overview – MPS

Features: • 15 W Transmitted (Earth GPS uses 25 W for L1) • Standard L1 1575.42 MHz GPS Signal • COTS Receivers Benefits: • Low launch mass • Low power requirements Drawbacks: • Orbital system (much more expensive than ground based systems) • Possibly remote ground stations Conclusion: Initial power draw Credit: estimate is very Samuel Zemlicka feasible for a -Retzlaff CubeSat.

462 Alex Blankenberger System Overview – MPS

MPS Feature Value Note

Frequency 1575.42 MHz Standard GPS L1 signal to so that COTS receiver designs can be used Transmitting Antenna 15 W From Link Budget Power Optimization Transmitting Antenna 13.5 dBi Typical value [8] Gain Power Received on -158 dBW Typical receiver power needed Ground [9]

463 Alex Blankenberger System Overview – MPS

Power Requirements Requirements • Support 15 W transmission during 15 year mission lifetime (A. Blankenberger) • Provide power during regular eclipses (assumed 1.5 hrs, 20% confident) • Manufacture from Martian resources Design Choice • Nickel Metal Hydride batteries used for mass estimates [4] • Silicon solar panels with 20% conversion efficiency [5] Battery mass confidence: 60%

Battery Battery Solar Panel Computer Cell Area (m2) Mass Sum Mass (kg) volume Mass (kg) Mass (kg) (kg) (m2) .4 0.001 .341 45 .732 55.74

464 Duncan Harris SYSTEM OVERVIEW – MPS

6U CubeSats for MPS

Created by Sam Zemlicka-Retzlaff 465 SYSTEM OVERVIEW – MPS Design Summary

The Martian Positioning System (MPS) Constellation Type TBD Satellite Quantity TBD Semi-Major Axis [km] TBD Eccentricity TBD Mass per Sat. [kg] ~14 Volume per Sat. [m3] ~15 W Power Requirements per Sat. 0.1 m x 0.2 m x [kW] 0.3 m

466 Appendix – Reference

1Mehrotra, R., “Regulation of Global Broadband Satellite Communications” Available: . 2Morabito, D., and Hastrup, R., “Communications with Mars During Periods of Solar ...” Available: . 3Draim, J. E., “A common period four-satellite continuous global coverage constellation,” Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, vol. 10, 1986, pp. 492 –499. 4Gangale, T., “MarsSat: Assured Communication with Mars,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 10.1196/annals.1370.007

467