The Challenge(s) of Documenting Africa's Least Known Languages Bonny Sands
Northern Arizona University
ACAL 45
April 17-19, 2014, University of Kansas Preliminaries
¤ Why are languages endangered?
¤ Continent-wide Surveys: Batibo (2005) & Brenzinger 1992, 1998a, Brenzinger et al. 1991, Brenzinger & Batibo 2010, Dimmendaal & Voeltz 2007, Mous 2003, Sommer 1992, Tamanji 2008, Tourneux et al. 2000.
¤ Central Africa: Anchimbe 2013, Connell 1998, 2007, Idiata 2009
¤ West Africa: Blench 2007, Childs 2006, Haruna 2012
¤ Northern/Eastern Africa: Brenzinger 2007 a & b; Dimmendaal 1989. Mezhoud & El Allame 2010, Nyombe 1997, Savà & Tosco 2006, Zelealem Leyew 2004
¤ What is language documentation? EGIDS: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (Simons & Lewis 2013)
GIDS Level Label Description UNESCO 5 written The language is used orally safe by all generations and is effectively used in written form in parts of the community. 6a vigorous The language is used orally safe by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language. 6b threatened The language is used orally vulnerable by all generations but only some of the child-bearing generation are transmitting it to their children. 7 shifting The child-bearing definitely endangered generation knows the language well enough to use it among themselves but none are transmitting it to their children. 8a moribund The only remaining active severely endangered speakers of the language are members of the grandparent generation. 8b nearly extinct The only remaining speakers critically endangered of the language are members of the grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the language. Numbers of African languages at different risk levels (Lewis et al. 2013) Region # of living Vital In trouble Dying languages
Middle Africa 677 555 77 45
Western Africa 889 794 49 46
Northern Africa 97 53 23 21
Eastern Africa 433 362 57 19
Southern Africa 50 41 3 6 total: 1805 209 137 ’Vigorous' vs. ‘Shifting’/’Threatened'
¤ Gĩkũyũ ‘shifting’ or 'developing’? ¤ (Orcutt-Gachiri 2013) says there is a shift to Kiswahili ¤ 7 million speakers
¤ What percentage must be failing to acquire the language? ¤ Does the population size matter? vigorous The language is used orally by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language. threatened The language is used orally by all generations but only some of the child-bearing generation are transmitting it to their children. shifting The child-bearing generation knows the language well enough to use it among themselves but none are transmitting it to their children. ’Shifting' vs. ‘Moribund’
¤ ǂHoan of Botswana
¤ some middle-aged speakers
¤ majority of speakers are between 60 and 70 years old (Gerlach & Berthold 2011) ’Extinct' languages
¤ N|uu ¤ once considered extinct (cf. Traill 1999)
¤ Birgid ¤ few speakers over age 70 in 1974 (Bell 2006) ¤ 2 rememberers found in 2003 (Edenmyr et al. 2011)
¤ Kwadi ¤ considered dead (Winter 1981) ¤ 2 rememberers found in 2014 (Anne-Maria Fehn, personal communication) How many languages in need of documentation? ¤ 346 in trouble?
¤ Ethnologue tends to overcount languages (Maho 2004)
¤ some have had documentation What about:
¤ Marginalized populations
¤ Small populations
¤ Languages belonging to under-documented families
¤ Sign languages
¤ Cross-Linguistic studies ¤ Other types of documentation Marginalized populations
¤ G|ui [gwi] and G||ana [gnk] ‘vigorous’ ¤ 2,500 and 2000 speakers (Ethnologue) ¤ 500 and 800 speakers (Batibo 2001: 315) ¤ eviction from CKGR
¤ Naro [nhr] 'language of wider communication' (3 on GIDS scale) ¤ 14000 speakers (Ethnologue) ¤ RADs difficulty accessing education (Hays 2004, Sekere 2011) ¤ undocumented dialects
¤ Ts’aokhwe reportedly "prefer to see themselves as separate people from the Naro" (Barnard 1985: 2) Marginalized populations
¤ hunter-gatherers
¤ endangered dialects
¤ special castes (blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, etc.) ¤ Sombə [kgt] blacksmiths, 3 speakers (Connell 2010) ¤ Jeri leatherworkers, Ivory Coast, a few villages (Kastenholz 1998) ¤ Jɔgɔ [lig] blacksmiths ~ 19,000 in Ghana (Lewis et al. 2013) but groups in Ivory Coast have shifted languages (Kastenholz 1998)
¤ refugee populations
¤ Deaf
¤ etc. Small populations
¤ Downward population pressures: ¤ disease, ¤ climate change ¤ armed conflict ¤ genocide
¤ 100,000 is not too large to be threatened (in other parts of the world) ¤ Navajo: 171,000 speakers 17 ‘Vigorous’ Northern African lgs. ≤ 100,000 speakers Tulishi [tey] 2500 (2007) Siwi [siz] 30,000 (2006)
Ganza [gza] 3,000 Tegali [ras] 35,700 (1984)
Tocho [taz] 3,800 (1989) Dagik [dec]/ Ngile [jle] 38,000 (1982)
Kanga [kcp] 8,000 (1989) Senhaja Berber [sjs] 40,000 (2011)
Wali [wll] 9,000 (2007) Midob [mei] 50,000 (1993)
Ghomara [gho] 10,000 (2008) Daju, Dar Sila [dau] 63,100 (2000)
Komo [xom] 18,530 Gaam [tbi] 67,200 (2000)
Jumjum [jum] 25,000 (1987) Daju, Dar Fur [daj] 80,000 (1983) North African lgs. ≤ 100,000 speakers Developing Educational
Acheron [acz] 9,830 (2006) Lumun [lmd] 30,000 (2012) Ethnic population: 20,000 Home area population 19,000 (2011 census) Otoro [otr] 10,000 (2001) Burun [bdi] 18,000 (1977) Gbaya [krs] 16,000 (1987) Moro [mor] 30,000 (1982) Krongo [kgo] 21,700 (1984) Tira [tic] 40,000 (1982) Uduk [udu] 22,000 Laro [lro] 40,000 (1998) Ama [nyi] 70,000 (1982) Koalib [kib] 44,300 (1984) Katcha-Kadugli-Miri [xtc] 75,000 (2004) ‘Vigorous’ endangered languages
¤ Qimant [ahg] (Zelealem Leyew 1998) ~1,650 (1994)
¤ Iko [iki] (Urua 2004) ~5000 (1988)
¤ Oko [oks] (Adegbija 2001) ~10,000 (1989)
¤ Vute [vut] (Mutaka 2008) ~21,000 (1997) Tanzania, Cameroon and Nigeria
¤ Tanzania has 39 languages 'in trouble'
¤ Cameroon, Nigeria > 60 each 26 ‘safe’ lgs. ≤100,000
Language name & Population estimate % Change from Language name & Population estimate % Change from Ethnologue code & year of estimate Ethnologue 13 to 17 Ethnologue code & year of estimate Ethnologue 13 to 17 (from Ethnologue 17 (1996-2013) (from Ethnologue 17 (1996-2013) (Lewis et al. 2013) (Lewis et al. 2013) Bende [bdp] 27,000 (1999) +35% Ndendeule [dne] 100,000 (2000) +27%
Bungu [wun] 36,000 (1987) -- Ngoreme [ngq] 55,000 (2005) +72%
Burunge [bds] 13,000 (2002) -58% Nyika [nkt] 25,000 (2007) n/a
Cutchi-Swahili 45,000 (2002) n/a Pangwa [pbr] 95,000 (2002 -46% [ccl] Gorowa [gow] 50,000 (1999) +67% Pimbwe [piw] 29,000 (1987) --
Ikizu [ikz] 55,000 (2005) +96% Rwa [rwk] 90,000 (1987) --
Kerewe [ked] 100,000 (1987) -- Sandawe [sad] 40,000 (2000) -43%
Konongo [kcz] 51,000 (1987) -- Temi [soz] 30,000 (2002) +50%
Machinga [mvw] 36,000 (1987) -- Tongwe [tny] 13,000 (2001) -41%
Malila [mgq] 65,000 (2003) +25% Vinza [vin] 10,000 (1987) --
Manda [mgs] 22,000 (2002) +22% Zanaki [zak] 100,000 (2005) +61%
Matumbi [mgw] 72,000 (1978) -- Datooga [ t c c ] 87,800 (2000) -41% to -56% (Developing) Mpoto [mpa] 80,000 (1977) -- Vwanji [ w b i ] 28,000 (2003) -53% (Developing) Grammar sketches for < 1/3rd
Language name & Year of most recent Language name & Year of most recent Ethnologue code grammar or Ethnologue code grammar or grammar sketch grammar sketch
Bende [bdp] 2006 Ndendeule [dne] 1999 sketch
Bungu [wun] -- Ngoreme [ngq] --
Burunge [bds] 1994 Nyika [nkt] --
Cutchi-Swahili [ccl] -- Pangwa [pbr] 1983
Gorowa [gow] -- Pimbwe [piw] --
Ikizu [ikz] -- Rwa [rwk] 2009 sketch
Kerewe [ked] 1909 sketch Sandawe [sad] 2012
Konongo [kcz] 1905 sketch Temi [soz] 1991/92
Machinga [mvw] 1876 sketch Tongwe [tny] --
Malila [mgq] -- Vinza [vin] --
Manda [mgs] -- Zanaki [zak] --
Matumbi [mgw] 1912 sketch Datooga [tcc] 1983 sketch
Mpoto [mpa] -- Vwanji [wbi] -- Get ready for Cameroon Cameroon (36 ‘safe’ ≤5,000), pt. 1
Language name & Ethnologue Status Population estimate & year of Grammar Bibl code estimate (from Ethnologue 17 (Nordhoff et al. e (Lewis et al. 2013) 2014) port ions Jukun Takum [jbu] Wider 2,440 in Cameroon (2000) 1980 √ √ communication Cuvok [cuv] Developing 5,000 (1983), increasing 2003 phonology √
Duupa [dae] Developing 5,000 (1991) -- √
Jimi [jim] Developing 3,500 (1982) -- √
Kolbila [klc] Developing 2,500 (1997) -- √
Yambeta [yat] Developing 3,700 (1982) -- √
Yasa [yko] Developing 2,400 (2000) 2004 sketch √ --
Akum [aku] Vigorous 1,400 in Cameroon (2002) -- --
Ambele [ael] Vigorous 2,600 (2000) 2001 phonology --
Bamenyam [bce] Vigorous 4,000 (1994) 2003 sketch --
Bassossi [bsi] Vigorous 5,000 (2004) -- --
Bati [btc] Vigorous 800 (1975) -- --
Befang [bby] Vigorous 2,980 (2000) 2004 sketch -- pt. 2
Language name Ethnologue 17 Grammar Language name Ethnologue 17 Grammar & Ethnologue Population & Ethnologue Population code estimate & year code estimate & year Bonkeng [bvg] 3,000 (2000) -- Laimbue [lmx] 5,000 (1994) --
Longto [wok] 2,400 (1982) --
Cung [cug] 2,000 (2001) -- Malimba [mzd] 2,230 (2001) 1974 phonology
Dek [dek] 2,980 (2000) -- Mbonga [xmb] 1,490 (2000) --
Dugwor [dme] 5,000 (2001) -- Naami [bzv] 2,500 (2001) --
Dzodinka [add] 2,600 in -- Ndaktup [ncp] 2,980 (2000) -- Cameroon (2000), increasing Gimme [kmp] 3,000 (1982) -- Njen [njj] 1,800 (2002) --
Gimnime [gmn] 3,000 (1982) -- Nubaca [baf] 4,500 (2007) 1990 phonology
Ipulo [ass] 2,500 (1990) -- Nyokon [nvo] 3,900 (1956) 2011 phonology
Kemedzung [dmo] 4,500 (2001) 2010 sketch Tibea [ngy] 1,400 (1992) --
Kwa’ [bko] 1,000 (2000) -- Tsuvan [tsh] 2,300 (2000) --
Kwaja [kdz] 2,980 (2000) -- Yangben [yav] 2,300 (1994) -- Nigeria
¤ 103 labelled 'vigorous' or 'developing' with ≤5,000 speakers ¤ 60+ 'in trouble’/'dying'
(Ethnologue 17 (Lewis et al. 2013))
Nigeria ≤ 5000 speakers, pt. 1
Piya-Kwonci [piy] Duhwa [kbz] Kir-Balar [kkr] Obulom [obu] Abon [abo] Dungu [dbv] Koenoem [kcs] Okodia [okd] Abureni [mgj] Ebughu [ebg] Kofa [kso] Oruma [orr] Acipa, Eastern [acp] Eki [eki] Kpasham [pbn] Panawa [pwb] Aduge [adu] Fam [fam] Kugama [kow] Pe [pai] Àhàn [ahn] Firan [fir] Kugbo [kes] Sha [scw] Ajiya [idc] Fungwa [ula] Kumba [ksm] Shama-Sambuga [sqa] Ake [aik] Gengle [geg] Kutto [kpa] Shuwa-Zamani [ksa] Alege [alf] Gudu [gdu] Kyak [bka] Sur [tdl] Ambo [amb] Gwa [gwb] Laka [lak] Tala [tak] Áncá [acb] Hasha [ybj] Lamja-Dengsa-Tola [ldh] Tambas [tdk] Asu [aum] Horom [hoe] Laru [lan] Teme [tdo] Ayere [aye] Ibuoro [ibr] Leelau [ldk] Tha [thy] Are you familiar with any of these?
Baan [bvj] Idere [ide] Lopa [lop] Tita [tdq] Bali [bcn] Iko [iki] Mághdì [gmd] Toro [tdv] Basa-Gurmana [buj] Ito [itw] Mashi [jms] Tumi [kku] Biseni [ije] Itu Mbon Uzo [itm] Mbongno [bgu] Ubang [uba] Bo-Rukul [mae] Janji [jni] Mingang Doso [mko] Uzekwe [eze] Bukwen [buz] Jiru [jrr] Moo [gwg] Vono [kch] Burak [bys] Ju [juu] Mundat [mmf] Waka [wav] Buru [bqw] Kaivi [kce] Ndunda [nuh] Wannu [jub] Cakfem-Mushere [cky] Kam [kdx] Nggwahyi [ngx] Wãpha [juw] Cineni [cie] Kami [kmi] Nkari [nkz] Wom [wom] Ciwogai [tgd] Kariya [kil] Nkoroo [nkx] Yotti [yot] Cori [cry] Kholok [ktc] Nkukoli [nbo] Zumbun [jmb] Dong [doh] Kinuku [kkd] Nnam [nbp] many more have ≥ 5,000 speakers
¤ e.g. Ukaan [kcf] dialect cluster spoken in only 5 villages (Salffner 2009)
¤ Ikaan dialect only has 600-700 speakers
¤ young adults and children are less adept speakers Documentation priorities
¤ Which languages are the least known? under-documented families, pt. 1 (Hammarström 2010) Language name location/status Grammar sketch Kujarge [vkj] (Chad/Sudan border area) -- Mpra (Mpre) (Ghana), nearly extinct -- under-documented families, pt. 2
Language name location/status Grammar or sketch grammar Birri [bvq] CAR √ Daju [byg, djc, daj, dau, njl] Chad √ Eastern Jebel [soh, xel, zmo, tbi] Sudan √ Kresh group [krs, aja] Sudan, South Sudan √ Shabo [sbf] Ethiopia possibly forth. Schnoebelen Tama [mgb, sjg, tma] Chad √ Temeinan [teq, keg] Sudan √ Warnang [wrn] Sudan -- Tegem/Lafofa [laf] Sudan possibly forth. Thelwall Mao [myf, gza, hoz, sze] Sudan, Ethiopia √ Bangime [dba] Mali √ under-documented families, pt. 3 Language name location/status Grammar sketch Jalaa [cet] probably extinct -- Dume probably extinct -- Hidden language diversity
ǂHoan was thought to be a dialect of !Xóõ Jeff Gruber (Gruber 1973, 1975, Collins & Gruber, forth.)
Bangime thought to be Dogon ¤ Stefan Elders, Abbie Hantgan (2013) Sign languages (cf. Nyst 2010 )
¤ Adamarobe Sign Language (Nyst 2007) ¤ Algerian Jewish Sign Language (Lanesman 2013)
¤ ------
¤ Bura Sign Language (Nigeria)
¤ Mbour Sign Language (Senegal)
¤ Burkina Faso Sign Language / Langue des Signes Mossi (Burkina Faso
¤ Nanabin Sign Language (Ghana)
¤ Yoruba Sign Language (Nigeria) (Orie 2013) Cross-Linguistic studies
¤ sound patterns ¤ (labial flaps, clicks, etc.) ¤ syntactic patterns ¤ linkers, nominative case, etc. ¤ Afranaph anaphor project (http:// www.africananaphora.rutgers.edu/) ¤ micro-typological patterns (e.g. Marlo 2013) ¤ contact patterns (e.g. Good 2013) ¤ language use/dynamics (e.g. Lüpke & Storch 2013) Other types of studies
¤ intonation & prosody ¤ language socialization ¤ ethnobotany (e.g. Legère 2009) ¤ etc. Problems
¤ Funding
¤ Accessing language communities
¤ Difficulties working on obsolescent languages Funding
¤ not enough proposals being submitted ¤ perception of threat level ¤ perception of linguistic diversity ¤ lack of community ties & interest
¤ dearth of earlier linguistic work --- ¤ interest in particular linguistic structures Access to language communities
¤ unsafe travel areas ¤ cross-border languages
¤ dispersed "communities"
¤ Infrastructure challenges
¤ Transportation & traffic safety ¤ Work spaces & lodging
¤ Access to Food & Health care U.S. State Dept. alerts/warnings
u
u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u
u Hadza (Tanzania) Regions of Tanzania near Lake Eyasi Research site south of Lake Eyasi Example problems
¤ Finding and identifying proficient language users ¤ Finding enough people to work with in a single location ¤ hurt feelings of rememberers
¤ Vision, hearing & dental issues ¤ Alcohol & drug abuse Idiosyncratic linguistic variation (cf. Dorian 2010); Gerlach (2012) Spectrogram of /ŋǁóˤːŋǁòlò/ ‘ostrich feathers’ (younger ǂHoan speaker)
7000 ) z H ( y c n e u q e r F
0 0 0.7679 Time (s) Spectrogram of /ŋǁóˤːŋǁòlò/ ‘ostrich feathers’ (older ǂHoan speaker)
token_s6_0121_134004 0.0022636349 0.747483952 7000 ) z H ( y c n e u q e r F
0 0 0.7509 Time (s) Lexical Semantics
¤ mismatch in lexical semantics between contact language(s) and target language
¤ variation in responses given for the same word
¤ change in kinship terminology (Boden, forth.)
¤ loss of competence in the domain of color terms in Gizey (Ajello 2007) ¤ Gizey has 12,000 speakers & is still spoken by children ¤ a dialect of Masana [mcn], with a population of 103,000 (Lewis et al. 2013) Translation issues
¤ difficulty in recognizing animals no longer seen in the area ¤ difficulty identifying flora & fauna ¤ Hadza ¤ ‘rock hyrax’ tɬʰaʃo ≠ ‘tree hyrax’ ¤ tʃ’abako ‘bush hyrax’ ≠ ‘rock hyrax’ (Peterson, et al. 2013) Metalinguistic Awareness ¤ literacy & ability to annotate
¤ grammaticality judgements
¤ filling out paradigms Conclusions ¤ 350-600 endangered African languages
¤ Let’s document languages before they are critically endangered
¤ Proposal pressure leads to proposal funding THANK YOU!
¤ Thanks especially to Gudo Mahiya (Tanzania), Sheena Shah & Andy Chebanne for help recording ǂHoan & ǂHoan consultants: Muchuwaiko Tsaidla, Basenane Mosupatsela, Mosekathoshe Molutwane, Suag||ai N||aleciexo, Talela Mosupatsela, and Justa Mosekatoshe of Dutlwe and Tshwaane, Botswana.
¤ This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant #BCS-0726200: "Collaborative Research: Phonetic and Phonological Structures of Post-velar Constrictions in Clicks and Laterals" & SBR-9514214 "Research on Hadza Demography and Language". Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
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