The Grand Duchy, Francesco I–Cosimo II (1574–1621)

chapter 2 The Grand Duchy, Francesco I–Cosimo II (1574–1621)

Cosimo I de’ Medici’s legacy included significant anxieties. Tensions with Spain and France, particularly the former, had been the defining diplomatic issues of Cosimo’s reign. They would continue to be central concerns for the next three grand dukes. Tuscany, though wealthy and strategically located, also faced recurring threats from neighbors in the Italian peninsula and the Medi- terranean. In this context, Francesco I, Ferdinando I, and Cosimo II continued the Medici traditions and policies of centralization, expansion, seeking international importance, and attempting religious stability, with varying degrees of enthusiasm and success. All sought, as their predecessors had, to establish a strong Christian monarchy, respected around Europe for its prosperity and strength, not just for the personal wealth of its ruling family. By managing the international balance of power and navigating the domestic economic and so- cial issues, the next generations of Medici appeared poised to achieve these goals. Not all of them had either Cosimo’s talents or his robust constitution, though. His immediate successor, with whom he had shared power for five years, managed to continue Cosimo’s programs in superficial ways (artistic pa- tronage, ceremonial uses of history, etc.). Francesco, however, was ill-suited for the actual business of ruling. His successor, his brother Ferdinando, picked up the mantle with far greater ability and ambition. Unfortunately, Ferdinando’s heir Cosimo II was physically weak, and unable to exercise his own will for much of his reign, which ended before his own son was of age. The quest for Medici and Tuscan greatness was far from over, but it grew less recognizable. The historical verdict on the second grand duke, Francesco I (r.1574–87), is grim: he appeared more interested in the trappings of power and fortune than in the responsibilities which came with them. He was content to keep to his laboratory, dabbling in alchemy and potion-making, and to his mistress Bianca Cappello (1548–87), instead of actively engaging in the task of governing.1 In a fairly typical characterization, historian Roberto Cantagalli, based on the

1 Francesco’s mistress and second wife, Bianca Cappello, has received largely negative atten- tion. Cf. Mary G. Steegmann, Bianca Cappello (London: Constable and Company, 1913), esp. 132–33 and 173–74; and Pierre Gauthiez, Vie de Bianca Cappello (Paris: Éditions J. Tallandier, 1928). A more critical approach is found in Gaspare De Caro, “Bianca Capello, granduchessa di

58 chapter 2 account by Florentine diarist Bastiano Arditi, called him “inept in everything [and] happy to squander a million ducats for the vainglory of the title of grand duke, but incapable of maintaining public order” in a city and region which were essentially lawless. He criticized Francesco’s uncontrollable temper, lazi- ness, and paranoia.2 Such failings had been masked while the son shared power with his father, but could no longer be ignored when he ruled in his own right. Francesco compensated some for his lack of political acumen by a good under- standing of ceremony, and the ability to use it to his advantage. After Cosimo’s death in 1574, Francesco continued the practice established by Alessandro of having the parlamento “elect” him as grand duke. He then commissioned a lav- ish funeral for his father, designed both to allow for public mourning and to highlight the power, privilege, and wealth of the Medici family. He mixed in a generous helping of references to the 1558 funeral of Charles V, who had done so much to create and support this power. The allusions showed gratitude and presented an opportunity for comparison. Francesco, like King Philip II, had inherited power before his father the sovereign died. The analogies in the new grand duke’s ceremony emphasized the continued importance of ties with Spain, begged the favor of the new king, and demonstrated a comparable legacy and legitimacy to him.3 It served some purpose; Philip did not challenge Francesco’s power over Florence. He did resist calling him grand duke, however, for three years. After the birth of the first male heir, a sickly child named Filippo (1577–82) in part in homage to the Spanish king, Philip sent official congratulations to Francesco for succeeding to the title.4 Meanwhile, Emperor Maximilian had recognized Francesco as granduca in 1574, but when he died in 1576, Emperor Rudolf II (1552–1612, r.1576–1612) used “duke” until at least the middle of 1582.5

Toscana,” DBI 10 (1968), (accessed April 5, 2016). 2 Roberto Cantagalli, introduction, in Cantagalli, B. Arditi, Diario di Firenze, xv. 3 Borsook, “Art and Politics at the Medici Court I,” 36–37. 4 Eve Borsook, “Art and Politics at the Medici Court II: The Baptism of Filippo de’ Medici in 1577,” Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz 13, nos. 1–2 (1967): 95–114. A flur- ry of documents concerning the title can be found in Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, for example the many discussions in 1572 in vol. 111: Correspondencia de los príncipes de Alemania con Felipe II y de los embajadores de éste en la corte de Viena, 1556 á 1598, Part 5, Desde 5 de Setiembre de 1572 á 28 de Diciembre de 1574 (Madrid: José Perales y Martínez, 1895). 5 The initial recognition of the title from Maximilian came on February 12, 1575, as recorded by chronicler Giuliano de’ Ricci (1532–1606), an occasion leading Florence to express “great joy.” Giuliana Sapori, ed., Giuliano de’ Ricci, Cronaca (Milan: Riccardo Ricciardi, 1972), 184. A