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Shoah 1 Shoah
Shoah 1 Shoah [1] (« catastrophe » ,שואה : Le terme Shoah (hébreu désigne l'extermination par l'Allemagne nazie des trois quarts des Juifs de l'Europe occupée[2] , soit les deux tiers de la population juive européenne totale et environ 40 % des Juifs du monde, pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale ; ce qui représente entre cinq et six millions de victimes selon les estimations des historiens[3] . Ce génocide des Juifs constituait pour les nazis « la Solution finale à la question juive » (die Endlösung der Judenfrage). Le terme français d’Holocauste est également utilisé et l’a précédé. Le terme « judéocide » est également utilisé par certains pour qualifier la Destruction du ghetto de Varsovie, avril 1943. Shoah. L'extermination des Juifs, cible principale des nazis, fut perpétrée par la faim dans les ghettos de Pologne et d'URSS occupées, par les fusillades massives des unités mobiles de tuerie des Einsatzgruppen sur le front de l'Est (la « Shoah par balles »), au moyen de l'extermination par le travail forcé dans les camps de concentration, dans les « camions à gaz », et dans les chambres à gaz des camps d'extermination. L'horreur de ce « crime de masse »[4] a conduit, après-guerre, à l'élaboration des notions juridiques de « crime contre l'humanité »[5] et de « génocide »[6] , utilisé postérieurement dans d'autres contextes (génocide arménien, génocide des Tutsi, etc.). Une très grave lacune du droit international humanitaire a également été complétée avec l'adoption des Conventions de Genève de 1949, qui protègent la population civile en temps de guerre[7] . L'extermination des Juifs durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale se distingue par son caractère industriel, bureaucratique et systématique qui la rend unique dans l'histoire de l'humanité[8] . -
Simplified WWII Timeline
~ Belz Museum of Asian and Judaic Art ~ Holocaust Memorial Gallery ~ Simplified World War II Timeline 1933 JANUARY 30, 1933 German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler chancellor. At the time, Hitler was leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi party). FEBRUARY 27-28, 1933 The German parliament (Reichstag) building burned down under mysterious circumstances. The government treated it as an act of terrorism. FEBRUARY 28, 1933 Hitler convinced President von Hindenburg to invoke an emergency clause in the Weimar Constitution. The German parliament then passed the Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of Nation (Volk) and State, popularly known as the Reichstag Fire Decree, the decree suspended the civil rights provisions in the existing German constitution, including freedom of speech, assembly, and press, and formed the basis for the incarceration of potential opponents of the Nazis without benefit of trial or judicial proceeding. MARCH 22, 1933 The SS (Schutzstaffel), Hitler's “elite guard,” established a concentration camp outside the town of Dachau, Germany, for political opponents of the regime. It was the only concentration camp to remain in operation from 1933 until 1945. By 1934, the SS had taken over administration of the entire Nazi concentration camp system. MARCH 23, 1933 The German parliament passed the Enabling Act, which empowered Hitler to establish a dictatorship in Germany. APRIL 1, 1933 The Nazis organized a nationwide boycott of Jewish-owned businesses in Germany. Many local boycotts continued throughout much of the 1930s. APRIL 7, 1933 The Nazi government passed the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which excluded Jews and political opponents from university and governmental positions. -
THE POLISH POLICE Collaboration in the Holocaust
THE POLISH POLICE Collaboration in the Holocaust Jan Grabowski The Polish Police Collaboration in the Holocaust Jan Grabowski INA LEVINE ANNUAL LECTURE NOVEMBER 17, 2016 The assertions, opinions, and conclusions in this occasional paper are those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. First printing, April 2017 Copyright © 2017 by Jan Grabowski THE INA LEVINE ANNUAL LECTURE, endowed by the William S. and Ina Levine Foundation of Phoenix, Arizona, enables the Center to bring a distinguished scholar to the Museum each year to conduct innovative research on the Holocaust and to disseminate this work to the American public. Wrong Memory Codes? The Polish “Blue” Police and Collaboration in the Holocaust In 2016, seventy-one years after the end of World War II, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs disseminated a long list of “wrong memory codes” (błędne kody pamięci), or expressions that “falsify the role of Poland during World War II” and that are to be reported to the nearest Polish diplomat for further action. Sadly—and not by chance—the list elaborated by the enterprising humanists at the Polish Foreign Ministry includes for the most part expressions linked to the Holocaust. On the long list of these “wrong memory codes,” which they aspire to expunge from historical narrative, one finds, among others: “Polish genocide,” “Polish war crimes,” “Polish mass murders,” “Polish internment camps,” “Polish work camps,” and—most important for the purposes of this text—“Polish participation in the Holocaust.” The issue of “wrong memory codes” will from time to time reappear in this study. -
Institute of National Remembrance
Institute of National Remembrance https://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/654,The-Stroop-Report-available-online.html 2021-10-02, 06:36 25.04.2013 The Stroop Report available online The Stroop Report, originally entitled The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More!, which was prepared for Heinrich Himmler after the destruction of the Warsaw ghetto in 1943, is a unique document in human history. We have just published it on the website of the Institute of National Remembrance at www.pamiec.pl/ftp/ilustracje/Raport_STROOPA.pdf It is available in Polish and German. The uniqueness of the report is not tarnished by the fact that, as by Professor Andrzej Zbikowski writes in the introduction to the release of the Report in 2009, it does not differ from hundreds of other German reports on the destruction of European Jews. It describes the liquidation of Jewish communities in a language of statistics, officially and in a neutral and purely technical tone. However, it reveals in an exceptional way the attitude of Germans towards the Jews as the main ideological enemy of the Third Reich. The report also shows their views on the genocide of the Jews planned in cold blood. Contrary to Stroop's intentions the Report became a posthumous tribute for the Jewish people. It shows their moral and ethical superiority. Everyone knows the picture of a little Jewish boy in a large cap standing with raised hands among terrified people at whom German soldiers point their barrels - it comes from the Report. Dozens of photographs form an integral part of the document. -
4. General Government Expenditures
III. PUBLIC FINANCE AND ECONOMICS 4. General government expenditures Governments spend money to provide goods and services differences between countries. Between 2000 and 2009, the and redistribute income. Like government revenues, largest increases in government expenditures per person government expenditures reflect historical and current were recorded in Korea, Estonia and Ireland (over 6%) while political decisions but are also highly sensitive to economic in Austria, Italy, Japan and Switzerland the increases were developments. General government spending as a share of equal to or below 1%; and in Israel there was no change. GDP and per person provide an indication of the size of the government across countries. However, the large variation in these ratios highlights different approaches to delivering public goods and services and providing social protection, not necessarily differences in resources spent. For instance, Methodology and definitions if support is given via tax breaks rather than direct Government expenditures data are derived from the expenditures, expenditure/GDP ratios will naturally be OECD National Accounts Statistics, which are based on lower. In addition, it is important to note that the size of the System of National Accounts (SNA), a set of inter- expenditures does not reflect government efficiency or nationally agreed concepts, definitions, classifica- productivity. tions and rules for national accounting. In SNA Government expenditures represented 46% of GDP across terminology, general government consists of central, OECD member countries in 2009. In general, OECD-EU state and local governments and social security member countries have a higher ratio than other OECD funds. member countries. Denmark, Finland and France spend Gross domestic product (GDP) is the standard the most as a share of GDP, with government expenditures measure of the value of the goods and services equal to or above 56%, whereas Mexico, Chile, Korea and produced by a country during a period. -
Krakow HISTORY
Krakow HISTORY The first documented reference to Krakow can be found in records from 965 of the Cordova merchant Abraham ben Jacob. He mentions a rich burg city situated at the crossing of trade routes and surrounded by woods. In the 10th century Mieszko I incorporated Krakow into the Polish state. During the times of Boleslaw the Brave, the bishopric of Krakow was established (1000) and the construction of Wawel Cathedral began. In 1038, Casimir I the Restorer made Wawel Castle its seat, thus making Krakow the capital of Poland. The high duke Boleslav V the Chaste following the example of Wrocław, introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens in 1257. In the 15th century, Krakow became the center of lively cultural, artistic, and scientific development. Photo: A fragment of colourful woodcut depicting Krakow. Source: https://www.muzeumkrakowa.pl The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of a gradual decline of the city's importance. Due to the first partition of Poland in 1772, the southern part of Little Poland was seized by the Austrian army. On March 24, 1794 Kościuszko's Insurrection began in Krakow. Temporarily included into the Warsaw Duchy, it was given the status of a "free city" after Napoleon's downfall. After the defeat of the November Insurrection (1831), Krakow preserved its autonomy as the only intact part of Poland. In 1846, it was absorbed into the Austrian Monarchy again. After independence was regained in 1918, Krakow became a significant administrative and cultural center. -
Poles Under German Occupation the Situation and Attitudes of Poles During the German Occupation
Truth About Camps | W imię prawdy historycznej (en) https://en.truthaboutcamps.eu/thn/poles-under-german-occu/15596,Poles-under-German-Occupation.html 2021-09-25, 22:48 Poles under German Occupation The Situation and Attitudes of Poles during the German Occupation The Polish population found itself in a very difficult situation during the very first days of the war, both in the territories incorporated into the Third Reich and in The General Government. The policy of the German occupier was primarily aimed at the liquidation of the Polish intellectual elite and leadership, and at the subsequent enslavement, maximal exploitation, and Germanization of Polish society. Terror was conducted on a mass and general scale. Executions, resettlements, arrests, deportations to camps, and street round-ups were a constant element of the everyday life of Poles during the war. Initially the policy of the German occupier was primarily aimed at the liquidation of the Polish intellectual elite and leadership, and at the subsequent enslavement, maximal exploitation, and Germanization of Polish society. Terror was conducted on a mass and general scale. Food rationing was imposed in cities and towns, with food coupons covering about one-third of a person’s daily needs. Levies — obligatory, regular deliveries of selected produce — were introduced in the countryside. Farmers who failed to deliver their levy were subject to severe repressions, including the death penalty. Devaluation and difficulty with finding employment were the reason for most Poles’ poverty and for the everyday problems in obtaining basic products. The occupier also limited access to healthcare. The birthrate fell dramatically while the incidence of infectious diseases increased significantly. -
Famine Fascism
Fraud, Famine and .. , Fascism. The Ukrainian Genocide Myth from Hitler to Harvard ..·" ' . I Douglas Tonie ABOUT THE AUTHOR Born in Quebec, Douglas Tattle has spent most of his life in Western Canada. Tattle has worked as a photographer and photo-lab technician, fine anise, underground miner, and as a steelworker. An active trade unionise, Toccle edited the United Steelworkers' journal The Challen[!.er from 1975 co 1985, during which time the paper received over 20 international and Canadian labor journalism awards. Toccle has also worked as a labor history researcher, and as an organizer. During the 1970s he assisted the organizing drive of Chicano farmworkers in California and worked with Native Indian farmworkers in Manitoba. Toccle has wriccen for various Canadian and U.S. periodicals, magazines, and labor journals. ·Fraud, Famine and Fascis1n The Ukrainian Genocide Myth from Hitler to Harvard Douglas Tottle- PROGRESS BOOKS TORONTO ·~t .... , ; r ·'. i , I Copyright© 1987 by Douglas Tottle No part of this book may be reproduced, recorded or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except for brief quotations for purposes of review. Cover art: Richard Slye Published by Progress Books 71 Bathurst Street Toronto, Canada MSV 2P6 Printed and bound in Canada Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Tottle, Douglas, 1944- Fraud, famine and fascism Bibliography: p. ISBN 0-919396-51-8 1. Ukraine - History - 1921-1947 - Public opinion. 2. Ukraine - History - 1921-1947 - Historiography. 3. Famines - Ukraine - Public opinion. 4. Famines Ukraine - Historiography. -
The Architecture of the Third Reich in Cracow – a Dissonant Heritage?1
RIHA Journal 0253 | 20 December 2020 The Architecture of the Third Reich in Cracow – a Dissonant Heritage? 1 Jacek Purchla Abstract On 12 October 1939, Hitler signed a decree creating the Generalgouvernement (General Government), which comprised the Polish lands occupied by Germany but not subsumed directly into the Reich. Cracow became the capital of the General Government. This decided the fate of the city, for which the Nazi authorities had essentially predestined the role not only of capital of this Nebenland, but also that of a model German city in the East. How, then, should we evaluate the contribution of the Third Reich to the shaping of Cracow's cultural landscape during the 1,961 days of the city's enforced status as capital? There is no unequivocal answer to this question, and the building stock left by the Germans in Cracow is extremely heterogeneous. We do have a certain number of intriguing examples of the dissonant heritage left by the German Third Reich in Cracow today. These represent above all a broad spectrum of conflicts of memory, and also the problem of non-memory. Contents The General Government and its capital Cracow as a "model German city" in the East Architect Richard Rattinger Hubert Ritter and his "Generalbebaungsplan von Krakau" Hans Frank as "the great builder of Cracow" The new residential quarter "Nur für Deutsche" The architectural heritage of the Third Reich in Cracow – a dissonant heritage? "Krakauer Burg" The Holocaust and places of memory 1 This article has been based on the research partially earlier presented in Polish, in a book: Jacek Purchla, Miasto i polityka. -
Poland Study Guide Poland Study Guide
Poland Study Guide POLAND STUDY GUIDE POLAND STUDY GUIDE Table of Contents Why Poland? In 1939, following a nonaggression agreement between the Germany and the Soviet Union known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was again divided. That September, Why Poland Germany attacked Poland and conquered the western and central parts of Poland while the Page 3 Soviets took over the east. Part of Poland was directly annexed and governed as if it were Germany (that area would later include the infamous Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz- Birkenau). The remaining Polish territory, the “General Government,” was overseen by Hans Frank, and included many areas with large Jewish populations. For Nazi leadership, Map of Territories Annexed by Third Reich the occupation was an extension of the Nazi racial war and Poland was to be colonized. Page 4 Polish citizens were resettled, and Poles who the Nazis deemed to be a threat were arrested and shot. Polish priests and professors were shot. According to historian Richard Evans, “If the Poles were second-class citizens in the General Government, then the Jews scarcely Map of Concentration Camps in Poland qualified as human beings at all in the eyes of the German occupiers.” Jews were subject to humiliation and brutal violence as their property was destroyed or Page 5 looted. They were concentrated in ghettos or sent to work as slave laborers. But the large- scale systematic murder of Jews did not start until June 1941, when the Germans broke 2 the nonaggression pact with the Soviets, invaded the Soviet-held part of Poland, and sent 3 Chronology of the Holocaust special mobile units (the Einsatzgruppen) behind the fighting units to kill the Jews in nearby forests or pits. -
The Bureaucracy of Annihilation
7 The Bureaucracy of Annihilation RAUL HILBERG We are, all of us who have thought and written about the Holocaust, accustomed to thinking of this event as unique. There is no concept in all history like the Final Solution. There is no precedent for the almost endless march of millions of men, women, and children into gas cham bers. The systematization of this destruction process sets it aside from all else that has ever happened. Yet if we examine this event in detail, ob~ serving the progression of small steps day by day, we see much in the destruction of Jewry that is familiar and even commonplace in the con text of contemporary institutions and practices. Basically, the Jews were destroyed as a consequence of a multitude of acts performed by a phalanx of functionaries in public offices and private enterprises, and many of 'these measures, taken one by one, tum out to be bureaucratic, embedded ih habit, routine, and tradition. It is almost a case of regarding the whole upheaval in all of its massiveness as something incredible, and then ob serving the small components and seeing in them very little that one could not expect in a modem society. One can go further and assert that it is the very mundaneness and ordinariness of these everyday official actions which made the destruction process so crass. Never before had the total experience of a modem bureaucracy been applied to such an undertaking. Never before had it produced such a result. 119 RAUL HILBERG The uprooting and annihilation of European Jewry was a multi, pronged operation of a highly decentralized apparatus. -
Filming the End of the Holocaust War, Culture and Society
Filming the End of the Holocaust War, Culture and Society Series Editor: Stephen McVeigh, Associate Professor, Swansea University, UK Editorial Board: Paul Preston LSE, UK Joanna Bourke Birkbeck, University of London, UK Debra Kelly University of Westminster, UK Patricia Rae Queen’s University, Ontario, Canada James J. Weingartner Southern Illimois University, USA (Emeritus) Kurt Piehler Florida State University, USA Ian Scott University of Manchester, UK War, Culture and Society is a multi- and interdisciplinary series which encourages the parallel and complementary military, historical and sociocultural investigation of 20th- and 21st-century war and conflict. Published: The British Imperial Army in the Middle East, James Kitchen (2014) The Testimonies of Indian Soldiers and the Two World Wars, Gajendra Singh (2014) South Africa’s “Border War,” Gary Baines (2014) Forthcoming: Cultural Responses to Occupation in Japan, Adam Broinowski (2015) 9/11 and the American Western, Stephen McVeigh (2015) Jewish Volunteers, the International Brigades and the Spanish Civil War, Gerben Zaagsma (2015) Military Law, the State, and Citizenship in the Modern Age, Gerard Oram (2015) The Japanese Comfort Women and Sexual Slavery During the China and Pacific Wars, Caroline Norma (2015) The Lost Cause of the Confederacy and American Civil War Memory, David J. Anderson (2015) Filming the End of the Holocaust Allied Documentaries, Nuremberg and the Liberation of the Concentration Camps John J. Michalczyk Bloomsbury Academic An Imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc LONDON • OXFORD • NEW YORK • NEW DELHI • SYDNEY Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway London New York WC1B 3DP NY 10018 UK USA www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2014 Paperback edition fi rst published 2016 © John J.