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Activist Performance in Antebellum Black Women's Literary Societies A “AM I NOT A WOMAN AND A SISTER?” Activist Performance in Antebellum Black Women’s Literary Societies A thesis submitted by Jennifer Herron in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Drama Tufts University May 2016 Adviser: Dr. Heather Nathans ABSTRACT The 1830s saw a proliferation of black women’s literary societies across the antebellum North. The rise of these organizations coincided with an uptick in anti-slavery activity, and with the dawning of the early women’s rights movement. This thesis explores the work of three such societies and questions how they intervened in the political discourses of their local and national communities. The first chapter explores Philadelphia’s Female Literary Association through the records of their performances as published in The Liberator. The second chapter focuses on Boston’s Afric-American Female Intelligence Society, interpreting the work of this under-documented organization by locating it within the social, economic, and activist cultures of its time. The third chapter examines New York City’s Ladies’ Literary Society through a study of their Third Anniversary Celebration. This thesis argues that the societies listed above used various forms of performance to publicly promote racial and gender equality. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project could not have come to fruition without the help of so many people. First and foremost, I want to thank my adviser Heather Nathans. The initial questions that led to this thesis took shape in her Theatre Historiography course, the very first class of my graduate career. She provided unfailing encouragement as I began to explore the topic of antebellum African American performance while in her class, and her support has never wavered since. Her door was always open throughout my research, writing, and revising process. She often discussed this project with me for hours on end, sharing in my enthusiasm for the subject and adding her own insights and expertise. I cannot thank her enough for her guidance. I am also grateful to the entire graduate faculty in Tufts University’s Department of Drama. Laurence Senelick deserves special thanks for the suggestions he gave during the research phase of this thesis. His comments led me to explore varied and fruitful sources of information as I began to study this topic. Monica Ndounou also provided me with valuable direction as I turned my initial questions into a working hypothesis. Her advice in this early stage helped shape the course of this project. Thanks also to Noe Montez and Kendra Field, whose willingness to read my thesis and share their commentary helped me to strengthen and polish my final draft. In addition, I would like to thank the many research librarians who helped me in my quest to find documentary materials related to the literary societies at the center of this study. I am particularly grateful to the staff at the Boston Public iii Library and the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Chao Chen, one of Tufts University’s research librarians, also provided indispensable assistance. I would not have been able to complete this project without the aid of these dedicated people. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my cohort in the Graduate Program in Drama at Tufts University. I am lucky to be a part of a supportive group of student scholars who take a genuine interest in each other’s work. I deeply appreciate their encouragement and camaraderie, and I feel privileged to call them my colleagues. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii List of Figures vi Introduction 2 Chapter One: “Break Down the Strong Barrier of Prejudice” 21 The Female Literary Association of Philadelphia Chapter Two: “Any Member Becoming Obnoxious, May Be Removed” 59 The Afric-American Female Intelligence Society Chapter Three: “With the Greatest Propriety and Elegance” 95 The Ladies’ Literary Society of New York City Conclusion 128 Bibliography 137 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: “Am I Not A Woman and a Sister?” 2 Figure 2: “Life in Philadelphia [Unnumbered]” 34 Figure 3: “Life in Philadelphia, No. 13” 35 Figure 4: “Life in Philadelphia, No. 12” 35 Figure 5: “Bobalition of Slavery” 79 vi “AM I NOT A WOMAN AND A SISTER?” Activist Performance in Antebellum Black Women’s Literary Societies 1 INTRODUCTION On June 30, 1832, William Lloyd Garrison published an article in The Liberator describing “one of the most interesting spectacles [he] had ever witnessed.”1 This “spectacle” was a meeting of the Female Literary Association of Philadelphia, one of the first known black women’s literary societies in the United States. Garrison explained the group’s mission and practices, accompanying his description with the image of a kneeling black figure in chains. This picture recalled the supplicating black male figure in the “Am I Not a Man and a Brother” icon, one of the most widely-used and recognizable images of Figure 1 the antislavery movement.2 For this article, however, Garrison’s paper amended the well-known piece of abolitionist iconography. The male figure was replaced with a female one, and the words “Am I Not a Woman and a Sister” were added above her kneeling form.3 1 William Lloyd Garrison, “Female Literary Association,” The Liberator (Boston, MA), June. 30, 1832. 2 Library of Congress, “Am I Not a Man and a Brother,” Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalogue, accessed September 29, 2014, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661312/. 3 This article describing the first meeting of the Female Literary Association, along with the “Am I Not a Woman and a Sister” image, were published in The Liberator’s “Ladies’ Department.” The “Ladies’ Department” was a section of the newspaper devoted to covering and publishing the work of women. The written content in this section varied with each publication, 2 This image highlights the doubly-marginalized position of African American women, and the particular challenges antebellum black female activists faced as a result. While their gender often prevented them from full participation in male-dominated anti-slavery forums, they were also routinely shut out of or sidelined within female anti-slavery organizations due to their race. I argue that the “Am I Not a Woman and A Sister” image speaks to the position these women occupied within the activist communities of the antebellum North. The clear reference to the well-known “Am I Not a Man and a Brother” icon links these women to their black male counterparts, positioning them as united by their common racial identity. Yet the substitution of the words “sister” and “woman” for “brother” and “man” linguistically joins these black female activists to white female activists, linking them by virtue of their shared gender. Furthermore, the text itself is phrased as a question, which prompts a response from the reader. In answering this question (“Yes, you are a woman and a sister”) the reader must acknowledge that these women belong to both the black and female communities, despite the fact that they were routinely marginalized within each of them. Finally, as “Am I Not a Man and a Brother” was used as a rhetorical device to promote the recognition of the African American man’s humanity and equality, the use of the question “Am I Not a Woman and a Sister” can be seen as an assertion of African American women’s humanity and equality as well. I argue that the work of antebellum black women’s literary societies posed the same rhetorical question. Philadelphia’s Female Literary Association, formed but the “Am I Not a Woman and a Sister” icon was the standard header art for the “Ladies’ Department.” 3 in 1831, was among the first of these organizations. These women assembled in order to “use [their] utmost endeavors to enlighten the understanding” and “cultivate the talents entrusted to [their] keeping.”4 In Boston, the Afric-American Female Intelligence Society was founded in 1832 by a group of black women who described themselves as being “sensible to the gross ignorance under which [they] had too long labored” and who wished to facilitate “the diffusion of knowledge.”5 In 1834, the Ladies’ Literary Society was formed by a group of black New Yorkers who wanted to “cultivate the powers and dispositions of the mind.”6 In the years that followed, similar organizations sprang up not just in these major urban centers, but throughout the antebellum North and Northwest.7 The rise of African American women’s literary organizations occurred at a critical moment in the political, social, and religious cultures of the United States. In the decades preceding the civil war, the Second Great Awakening prompted a surge in faith-based, grassroots activism. During the first half of the nineteenth century, Americans began to reject Calvinist teachings which posited that “election into heaven depended on the arbitrary will of a severe God.” Instead, Evangelical Protestantism gained prominence. Evangelical philosophy asserted “the possibility of universal salvation through personal faith and devotional 4 Garrison, “Female Literary Association.” 5 William Lloyd Garrison, “Constitution of the Afric-American Female Intelligence Society of Boston,” The Liberator (Boston, MA), January 7, 1832. 6 “Third Anniversary of the Ladies’ Literary Society of the City of New York,” The Colored American (New York, NY), Sept. 23, 1837. 7 Dorothy B. Porter, “The Organized Educational Activities of Negro Literary Societies, 1828-1846,” The Journal of Negro Education 5, no. 4 (Oct. 1936): 557-8, accessed August 2, 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 2292029. 4 service.”8 Thus, for many Evangelical Protestants, participating in moral reform work was an aspect of religious practice. As Carla L. Peterson argues, the theological philosophies of the Second Great Awakening provided a framework through which black women in particular could engage in activism at unprecedented levels.
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