1 Wetlands Are Defined As

Flora of Coastal Wetlands

CHAPTER-1 AN INTRODUCTION TO WETLANDS

Wetlands are defined as ‘lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water’ Wetlands provide many services and commodities to humanity. Each wetland is ecologically unique. They perform important functions in any landscape and are often described as “kidneys of the landscape” (Mitch and Gosselink, 1986).

The wetlands of Karnataka are classified into inland and coastal categories, both natural and man-made. Natural inland wetlands include lakes, ox-bow lakes, and marshes/swamps. Man-made inland wetlands include reservoirs and tanks. Natural coastal wetlands include estuaries, creeks, mudflats, mangroves and marshes. Man-made coastal wetlands include salt pans Wetlands cover about 2.72 million ha, of which inland wetlands cover about 2.54 million ha and coastal wetlands cover 0.18 million ha. The area of 682 wetlands, scattered throughout the state of Karnataka, is about 2718 sq km.

The fresh water ponds are very few along the coast, barring few medium to large ones in advanced stages of silting, and a number of small ones where water dries up in summer or only very little remains, many temple ponds being exceptions. Salinity tolerant species, mainly sedges (members of Cyperaceae), some grasses, Sphenoclea, Hygrophila, Alternanthera sessilis, Bacopa monnieri etc. persist in and around the brackish water wetlands. Of the notable salinity tolerant sedges are Cyperus corymbosus, C. malaccensis, Eleocharis dulcis, E. spiralis, Fimbristylis ferruginea, F. littoralis, Mariscus javanicus, Pycreus polystachyos etc.

1.1 Kinds of wetlands: Wetlands observed during the present survey consist the following: 1. Rice fields (both fresh water and brackish water or gazni fields) 2. Abandoned rice fields – due to brackish water ingression 3. Coastal marshes (seasonal and perennial) 4. Mangroves, estuaries, creeks, mudflats 5. Ponds/lakes 6. Reservoirs 7. Rock pools, ditches, quarries 8. Streams and rivers 9. Canals

1.2 Importance of wetlands: Wetlands play an essential part in the regulation of river flow, they filter pollutants, acts as buffer shorelines against erosion and fertilizers and they are spawning zones for some species of fish. Wetlands are vital to the balance of rivers and crucial for supporting high diversity of animal and vegetable species, can only be preserved through political resolve. They should not be merely abandoned but properly managed like other areas.

1.3 Area under wetlands: India According to the Directory of Indian Wetlands, India has 58.2 million ha of wetlands, including area under wet paddy cultivation. The majority of the inland wetlands are directly or indirectly dependent on the major rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari,

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Krishna, Kaveri and Tapti. Wetlands occur in all parts of India, including in Rajasthan and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Prasad et al., 2003).

Table 1. Area estimates of wetlands of India (in million ha)

Sl. Activity Area (in No. million ha) 1 Area under paddy cultivation 40.9 2 Area suitable for fish culture 3.6 3 Area under capture fisheries (brackish and freshwater) 2.9 4 Mangroves 0.4 5 Estuaries 3.9 6 Backwater 3.5 7 Man-made impoundments 3.0 Total area of wetlands 58.2 (Source: Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN, 1989)

Grouping of Indian wetlands I. Himalayan wetlands II. Indo-Gangetic wetlands III. Coastal wetlands IV. Deccan wetlands (Prasad et al., 2003)

1.4 Wetlands of Karnataka The wetlands of Karnataka are classified into inland and coastal categories, both natural and man-made. Natural inland wetlands include lakes, ox-bow lakes, and marshes/swamps. Man-made inland wetlands include reservoirs and tanks. Natural coastal wetlands include estuaries, creeks, mudflats, mangroves and marshes. Man-made coastal wetlands include salt pans Wetlands cover about 2.72 million ha, of which inland wetlands cover about 2.54 million ha and coastal wetlands cover 0.18 million ha. The area of 682 wetlands, scattered throughout the state of Karnataka, is about 2718 sq km (Ramachandra, 2005).

As such there has been no comprehensive account of the wetlands of coastal Karnataka, except mangroves. The kinds of wetlands observed during the present survey are the following: 10. Rice fields (both fresh water and brackish water or gazni fields) 11. Abandoned rice fields – due to brackish water ingression 12. Coastal marshes (seasonal and perennial) 13. Mangroves, estuaries, creeks, mudflats 14. Ponds/lakes 15. Reservoirs 16. Rock pools, ditches, quarries 17. Streams and rivers 18. Canals

1.5 Value of wetlands  Retain water during dry periods, thus keeping the water table high and relatively stable.

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 Mitigate floods and trap suspended solids and attached nutrients. Thus streams flowing into lakes by way of wetland areas will transport fewer suspended solids than if they flow directly into lakes.  Recycling of nutrients  Purification of water  Maintenance of stream flow  Recharge of groundwater  Important feeding and breeding areas for wildlife and fish and provide a stopping place and refuge for waterfowls.  Wetlands support high diversity of species  Buffer shorelines against erosion  Offer recreation to society (Prasad et al., 2003)

1.6 Threats to wetlands Wetlands are one of the most threatened habitats of the world. Wetlands in India, as elsewhere are increasingly facing several anthropogenic pressures. Prasad et al. (2003), quoting different sources, find various reasons for Acute and Chronic wetland losses. The following are the various reasons for wetland losses:  Agricultural conversion  Deforestation in wetlands  Hydrological alteration  Alteration of upper watersheds  Degradation of water quality  Ground water depletion  Species introductions

1.6.1 Acute wetland losses 1. Agricultural conversion: Rice farming is a wetland dependent activity and is developed in riparian zones, river deltas and savannah areas. Due to captured precipitation for fishpond aquaculture in the catchment areas and rice-farms occupying areas that are not wetlands, the downstream natural wetlands are deprived of water. About 1.6 million ha of freshwater are covered by fresh water fishponds in India. Rice fields and fishponds come under wetlands, but they rarely function like natural wetlands. Of the estimated 58.2 million ha of wetlands in India, 40.9 million ha are under rice cultivation 2. Deforestation in wetlands: Farming in mangrove areas and fisheries production, particularly shrimp farming, have destroyed considerable area under mangroves. The shrimp farms also cause excessive withdrawal of freshwater and increased pollution load on water. 3. Hydrological alteration: The changes in hydrology include either the removal of water from wetlands or raising the land-surface elevation, such that it no longer floods. Substantial increase in irrigated farming in recent times, after an initial increase in crop productivity, has given way to reduced to fertility and salt accumulation in soil due to irrigated farming in arid soils. 4. Inundation by dammed reservoirs: More than 1550 large reservoirs covering more than 1.45 million ha and over 100,000 small and medium reservoirs covering 1.1 million ha in India significantly affect hydrology and wetland ecosystems.

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1.6.2 Chronic wetland losses 1. Alteration of upper watersheds: When agriculture, deforestation or overgrazing removes soil water-holding capacity, erosion becomes more pronounced, affecting the hydrology with adverse consequences on downstream wetlands. 2. Degradation of water quality: Water quality is directly proportional to the human population and its various activities. More than 50,000 small and large lakes are polluted to the point of being considered ‘dead’. Sewage, industrial pollution, and chemicals from agricultural runoff are major polluting factors. 3. Ground water depletion: Draining wetlands has depleted ground water recharge in numerous localities of India. 4. Species introductions: Wetlands in India support around 2400 species and subspecies of birds. But losses in habitats due to exotic weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Salvinia have threatened the wetlands, competing with native vegetation.

1.7 Conservation of wetlands Wetland conservation in India is indirectly influenced by various legislative measures, the important ones are noted below:  The Indian Fisheries Act, 1857  The Indian Forest Act, 1927  Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972  Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 & 1977  Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Marine Zones Act, 1976  Forest (Conservation) Act, 1986  Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991  Wildlife (protection) Amendment Act, 1991  National Policy and Macro Level Action Strategy on Biodiversity, 1990.

India is also a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Lacuna: None of the coastal wetlands of Karnataka has so far met the criteria for consideration under The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Of the many wetlands in India, only 68 are protected. But there are thousands of other wetlands that are biologically and economically important but have no legal status. Estuaries of the Karnataka coast come under the most threatened category of wetlands (Prasad et al., 2003). Indeed an action plan needs to be prepared specially for the wetlands of coastal Karnataka because of their heterogeneity and species richness, despite the heavy population and development pressures the region is subjected to. Moreover, efforts have to be made to integrate even small wetlands of varied nature, in a conservation network.

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Figure 2.2. Alternanthera sessilis Figure 2.1. Hygrophila schulli

Figure 2.4. Sphaeranthus indicus

Figure 2.3. Epaltes divaricata

Figure 2.5. Ipomoea fistulosa

Figure 2.6. Cyperus haspan

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References

1. IUCN, 1989. In: Scott, D.A. (ed) A Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN. Gland and Cambridge.

2. Mitchel, D.S. and Gopal, B. 1990. Aquatic plant invasions in tropical fresh waters. In: Ramakrishnan, P.S. (ed) Biological Invasions in the Tropics. International Scientific Publications, New Delhi.

3. Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New York.

4. Prasad, S.N., Sengupta, T., Kumar, A., Vijayan, V.S., Vijayan, L., Ramachandra, T.V., Ahalya, N., and Tiwari, A.K. 2003. Wetlands of India. In: Venkataraman, K. (ed) Natural Aquatic Ecosystems of India, Thematic Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, India. Zoological Survey of India, Chennai, pp.6-25.

5. Ramachandra, T.V. 2005. Aquatic ecosystems: conservation, restoration and management. In Ramachandra, T.V., Ahalya, N and Murthy, C.R. (eds) Aquatic Ecosystems: Conservation, Restoration and Management. Capital Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp. 26-50.

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CHAPTER-2 FLORA OF THE WETLANDS OF COASTAL KARNATAKA

Under the present study undertaken along the coastal Karnataka for wetland flora, the mangroves have been studied separately, as a category by itself, and not included in the description of wetland species in this report. The rheophytic or river vegetation forms yet another category and is also not dealt with here. The other kinds of coastal wetlands have been surveyed in chosen representative localities covering all the taluks of the coast as well as representing the heterogeneity. In fact the study was carried out as one time visit to each locality and therefore is not a full account the wetland flora. One needs to make at least two years of continuous efforts to prepare a full account of the wetland flora of the coast.

The flowering plants of the wetlands number over 255 species belonging to 40 families. In addition are at least 7 pteridophytes, which are ferns and their allies. The details of the family-wise species surveyed and their occurrence in coastal taluks are given in the next chapter. In the present chapter notable species of the wetlands are briefly described.

2.1 Species of Wetlands Sl. Family description Species description No. 1 Acanthaceae . Hygrophila ringens (Syn: H. quadrivalvis): Annual to perennial herb, Stems creeping and erect, reaching almost 1m height. Elliptical obovate leaves, 2.5-8 cm long. Sometimes margins crenate. Flowers in axillary whorls. Petals white with pink lines or almost pink. Stamens 4. Fruit capsule with 8-12 seeds. Gregarious in shallow wetlands and on stream banks. . Hygrophila schulli: Perennial rigid herbs with opposite, narrow, lanceolate leaves and 6 strong thorns at each node. There are also smaller axillary leaves. Flowers in axillary whorls; petals blue, purple, rarely pink or white. Stamens 4. Fruit a capsule with 4-8 seeds (Figure 2.1) Very common along edges of water bodies. The plant has diuretic properties. 2 Alismaceae Wiesneria triandra: Annual herbs growing gregariously, fully or partly submerged. Leaves in a cluster; petioles 15-60 cm long, often spongy, bearing linear to lanceolate blade 9-16 cm long, 4-10 m wide. Inflorescence a spike; floral axis shorter to leaves. Flowers nearly stalkless in 5-8 whorls; the lower 2-3 whorls female; upper male or sterile. Sepals and petals small. Stamens 3, carpels 3-4. Fruits hard nutlets. Rare: At Delanthabettu and Pannagiri wetlands of Mangalore taluk; seasonal laterite rock pools of Kumta. Endemic to Southwest India. 3 Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis: Spreading herb. Leaves elliptic, linear to lanceolate. Flowers white, sessile in axillary clusters; with scaly perianth and single seed (Figure 2.2) Throughout the coastal Karnataka along the edges of wetlands and in sandy places, sometimes in waterlogged places. Used as vegetable and in medicines. 4 Amaryllidaceae Crinum viviparum: Perennial herbs with onion like bulbs. Leaves partly or fully submerged, basal, linear, thick and fleshy. Inflorescence umbellate on the tip of a fleshy scape. Flowers white; 3 + 3 perianth, lobes linear; stamens 6; filaments red or purple.

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Sl. Family description Species description No. Found in clear water; Kolnadu of Mulki taluk; at Malvuru of Mangalore taluk. Rare: Endemic to Indian sub-continent. 5 Apiaceae Centella asiatica: A perennial prostrate, aromatic herb in wet places, spreading by runners. Leaves from nodes in clusters, each on a long petiole, 5 to 10 cm or longer. Leaf blade reniform. Flowers small in umbels. Widespread in shaded places; plants can withstand waterlogging. Leaves used as potherb and medicinal. 6 Araceae . Colocasia esculenta: Rhizomatous, gregarious herb. Petioles long, leaf blade sagittate, large, upto 40 cm long, 30 cm wide. Flowers in yellow to orange spadix. In marshy places; tubers and leaves used as vegetables. . Cryptocoryne spiralis: Rhizomatous, perennial herb; rhizomes up to 1 cm thick, 30 cm long. Leaves with petioles 5-8 cm long, sheathing below; leaf blade elongate, elliptical, linear 10-20 cm long. Inflorescence spadix; tip of spathe narrow, long and twisted. In shallow wetlands, on wet soil. Widely distributed. Endemic to Southwest India. . Pistia stratiotes: Free floating herb with spreading balancing roots and rosettes of wedge shaped leaves, densely covered with hairs, parallel veined. Inflorescence a small spadix. Found in Nandanvana, Uppunda, Byndore. Spreads fast in water bodies by offsets. Medicinaly used. 7 Asteraceae . Eclipta prostrata (Kan, San: Bhringaraj). Prostrate to erect herb. Leaves 1-6 cm long, opposite, toothed at margin. Flower heads white. Throughout the coast, in varied habitats including around wetlands . Epaltes divaricata: Small erect herb with coarsely dentate leaves, winged stem and head inflorescences with pink to purple flowers (Figure 2.3). Widespread along the coast, can withstand waterlogging. . Sphaeranthus africanus: Annual herb with erect stem, lobed simple leaves, dentate on margins, decurrent at base into wings along the stem. Inflorescence head of heads, somewhat conical. Coastal wetlands . Sphaeranthus indicus: Closely related to previous one but with spinulose margins and globose inflorescence (Figure 2.4). . Vernonia cinerea: (Kan, San: Sahadevi): An erect annual herb with ribbed, hairy stem. Leaves 1.5 to 6 cm long, with short petioles. Flower heads pinkish violet, arranged in corymbs. Achenes with white pappus. Throughout the coast along edges of wetlands, in moist places, sea beaches. 8 Campanulaceae Lobelia alsinoides: Small annual herb with prostrate and erect 3 sided, 3 winged stem, alternate, sessile, broadly ovate leaves, solitary bluish white to violet flowers. Fruit capsule with 3 angled seeds. Abundant in wet places. 9 Commelinaceae . Amiscophacelus axillaris: A herb with fleshy stem, prostrate with ascending branches, rooting at nodes. Leaves sessile, up t0 8 cm long, linear lanceolate. Flowers blue-purple in axillary fascicles arising from leaf sheath. Fruit a capsule with glossy dark brown seeds.

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Sl. Family description Species description No. Found all over moist soils and in marshy places, not common. Medicinal. . Murdannia nudiflora: Herb with prostrate and erect stems; branchlets reddish. Leaf sheaths glabrous with hairy margins. Leaf blades linear below, lanceolate above. Flowers in cymes with scale like bracts. Flowers with blue or pinkish petals; filaments with long blue hairs. Capsule 3 sided, 3 chambered; seeds 2 in one row. In wet places, grassy places and gardens

Others: Murdannia semiteres (rare: at Prabhatnagar, Honavar). M. spirata (rare: Amdalli beach, Ankola). M. vaginata (rare: Katapadi, Udupi); M. versicolor (rare: Thondemakki, Byndoor) 10 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea fistulosa: A shrubby plant with hollow stems. Stems swell when in water. Leaves ovate with tapering apex. Flowers large, showy, funnel shaped, in axillary cymes. Fruit a capsule with 4 hairy seeds (Figure 2.5). Seen on the margins of wetlands; on dry lands and rocks; both fresh and brackish water. Flowering throughout the year. A weed from South America. 11 Cyperaceae . Cyperus compressus: Annual with tufted culms; height 10-40 cm; stems smooth 3-sided. Leaves with reddish-brown sheaths. Involucral racts 2-5, unequal, the lowest overtopping the inflorescence, up to 30 cm long. Inflorescence simple or compound; spikes with digitate or racemose spikelets. Glumes large with silvery margins. Stamens 3. Nuts 3-sided, dark brown to blackish. Wet places, roadsides, in variety of habitats. . Cyperus cuspidatus: Annual with solitary or tufted stems. Leaves do not exceed stem in length. Involucral bracts 3-6, lowest overtopping inflorescence 2-8cm long. Inflorescence with 1 sessile and 1-3 stalked spikelet clusters. Spikelets digitately or stellately arranged. Glumes ending in recurved awns. Wetlands, edges of wetlands . Cyperus difformis: A tufted annual with reddish-purple roots, trigonous stem, up to 40 cm high. Leaves few, equal or nearly so to the stem. Involucral bracts 2-3, longer than inflorescence. Inflorescence a terminal cluster of stalked spikes; each spike globose, with numerous spikelets. Easily identified by orbicular glumes. Nuts yellowish-brown, trigonous. Common in shallow parts of wetlands, in clumps . Cyperus haspan: Perennial or annual. rhizomatous. Culms up to 80 cm, at the base surrounded by bladeless reddish sheaths (Figure 2.6). . Cyperus pilosus: Perennial with stolon like rhizomes. Culms solitary, 25-85 cm or more tall, triangular. Leaves shorter or longer than stem; blades channelled below, flat towards tip. Involucral bracts 3-5, unequal, lower ones overtopping inflorescence, up to 50 cm long. Inflorescence simple or compound, spikelets straw coloured, tinged with red-brown. Stamens 3, nuts dark brown, 3 sided. Wetlands and seasonally flooded places. . Cyperus tenuispica: Usually annual with slender, weak, solitary or tufted culms, 5-40 cm tall. Leaves present. Spikelets arranged

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Sl. Family description Species description No. digitately or stellately; culm leaves with blades; glumes without silvery margins; spikelets not in spherical clusters. Nuts white and visible between glumes. In seasonal or perennial wetlands. . Eleocharis acutangula: A perennial with rhizome and spreading by stolons. Stems spongy, triangular, upto 80 cm high, 2 to 6 mm thick. Leaves absent; leaf sheaths membranous with oblique mouth. Spikelets cylindrical, terminal, with overlapping glumes. Nuts biconvex, dark brown. Common in wetlands. . Eleocharis atropurpurea: Tufted annual with slender, glabrous stem, up to 15 cm high. Spikelets terminal, single, oblong ovoid; nuts biconvex, shining black. Widespread in wetlands. . Eleocharis dulcis: A rhizomatous perennial, with long stolons. Stems up to 1.5 m high, rounded outline, with longitudinal striations and conspicuous transverse septa. Leaf sheaths membranous with oblique apex, purplish. Spikelets terminal, up to 5 cm long, cylindrical, nuts biconvex, shining brown. Gregarious in wetlands . Eleocharis geniculata: Annual, growing in clumps. Culms slender but rigid, variable in height up to 40 cm. Almost spherical head of straw coloured spikelets; perianth bristles purplish grey. Nuts dark smooth, biconvex. Lower 2 glumes large and covering the fertile glumes in bud. Styles 2-cleft, style base conical. In wetlands growing in clumps in fresh and brackish water. . Eleocharis retroflexa: Annual with tufted filiform, curved culms, deeply 5 ribbed; usually not exceeding 15 cm height. Spikelets ovoid to globose, wider than culms; glumes loose; styles 3-cleft, nuts 3 sided with pitted surface. Gregarious in shallow water; but grow outside wetlands also. . Eleocharis spiralis: Perennial with short rhizome and creeping stolons. Culms densely tufted, solid, 3-angled above. Spikelets cylindrical, tapering above, as wide or narrower than culms; glumes without keels. Perianth bristles equal to nut. Wetlands including brackish water. . Fimbristylis acuminata: Perennial with short rhizomes. Nuts with 5-8 transverse ridges; cauline leaves reduced to sheaths. Inflorescence of single spikelets. In muddy places, marshes, rice fields. . Fimbristylis bisumbellata: Annual with densely tufted 3-sided culms. Inflorescence paniculate; glumes ovate to orbicular. Stigmas 2, styles flat. Nuts not parallel sided, with 5-9 longitudinal stripes on either surface. Edge of wetlands, ricefields. . Fimbristylis ferruginea: Gregariously growing perennial. Woody rhizome, tufted, striate, flattened culms, less than a meter in height. Leaves basal, cauline. Inflorescence of several stalked, simple or compound heads. Glumes ovate to orbicular, upper part pubescent. Stigmas 2, styles flat, Nuts flattened, not parallel sided, without transverse ridges (Figure 2.7). Marshy places and brackish water. . Fimbristylis littoralis: Perennial with short rhizome. Stem round,

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Sl. Family description Species description No. narrow towards apex, up to 120 cm. Leaves reduced to sheaths. Inflorescence appears lateral because of a bract that appears like continuation of stem. Nuts unequally biconvex, blackish. Abundant in brackish water wetlands. . Fimbristylis shoenoides: Short lived with densely tufted, filamentous culms, less than 50 cm height. Leaf sheaths membranous; leaf blades narrow, shorter than culms. Inflorescence of 1 terminal spikelet, with or without lateral spikelets. Glumes ovate to orbicular. Stigmas 2, style flattened. Nuts not parallel sided, flattened, smooth. Wet places, grassy places, rice fields. . Fimbristylis tetragona: Annual, rarely perennial. Culms tufted, less than 50 cm long, 4 angled to 4 winged. Leaves reduced to sheaths. Nuts oblong to cylindrical, greater part parallel sided. Inflorescence of a single terminal spikelt. Shallow part of wetlands, rice fields, drains. . Fuirena ciliaris: Annual, Slender, tufted, unbranched culms, 3 or 5 sided below inflorescence; striate, hairy; leaf sheaths hairy, leaf blades flat, very hairy. Spikelets simple, rounded, not flattened; at least upper glumes arranged spirally. Flowers bisexual. Perianth scales with 3-minute teeth, the central the longest. Styles not constricted or swollen at base. Forming small clumps or tufts in wetlands, rice fields etc. . Fuirena umbellata: Similar to previous, but larger and perennial; rhizome with 5-angled culm. Perianth scales not stalked; perianth apex square with the midrib slightly protruding. Wetlands, rice fields. . Lipocarpha chinensis: Annual or perennial. Culms tufted, not exceeding 80 cm, 0.5 to 2 mm thick. Leaf blades flat, reaching half of stem. Inflorescence terminal, head like. Spikelets simple; glumes arranged spirally on the rachilla. Flowers bisexual. Style not constricted at base. . Mariscus javanicus:Rrough perennial sedge, growing in large clumps, reaching almost 1 m or more. (Figure 2.8); also near brackish water. Occasional in wetlands, rice fields. Mulki and Byndoor. . Pycreus polystachyos: Plants with or without rhizomes. Tufted, erect culms, 20-70 cm tall, 1-3 mm thick, smooth, 3-sided. Leaves few, shorter than culm, with somewhat flat blades. Inflorescence panicle, surrounded by 3-5 bracts. Spikelets digitate, flattened. Spikelets falling entire from the rachis at maturity. Glumes arranged in 2 rows with bisexual flowers in the axils. Stigmas 3. In a variety of wetland habitats, including brackish water wetlands. . Pycreus sanguinolentus: Annual or perennial with tufted culms. Leafy in the basal parts. Leaf sheath yellowish, tinged with reddish- brown. Involucral bracts 2-5, lower ones overtopping inflorescence. Inflorescence of few stalked spikes, or contracted into a dense head. Nuts biconvex, laterally flattened with isodiametric markings on surface. Common in wetlands . Shoenoplectus articulatus: Annual or perennial; stems up to 80 cm high, circular, tapering towards apex, transversely septate. Leaves reduced to basal sheaths. Inflorescence a large, sessile head of

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Sl. Family description Species description No. ovoid spikelets, laterally near the base of the stem. Nuts trigonous, black. Widespread. . Shoenoplectus lateriflorus: Annual; tufted stems, 6 cm high. Leaf sheath with or without a short blade. Spikelts in sessile clusters towards the tip, but appear lateral because of a bract that appears like continuation of stem. Nuts black (Figure 2.9). Common in wetlands.

Other species: Bulbostylis puberula (at Prabhatnagar, Honavar) (Cyperus cuspidatus -rare- at Karwar), C. elatus, C. iria, C. malaccensis, C. procerus, C. rotundus, C. stoloniferus, Fimristylis aestivalis, F. argentea, F. crystalline, F. dauciformis (rare- at Karwar); F. dichotoma, F. hirsutifolia, F. microcarpa, F. monticola (Jalvalli, Honavar), F. pubisquama, F. woodrowii, Fuirena uncinata, Kyllinga brevifolia, Mariscus compactus, Pycreus flavidus, P. macrostachyos, P. pumilus, P. stramineus, Rhynchospora wightiana, Shoenoplectus subulatus, 12 Droseraceae Drosera burmanni: Small insectivorous herbs with basal rosettes of leaves, which have spoon like leaves, reddish-green colour. Leaves bear sensitive, sticky, gland tipped tentacles. Inflorescence from condensed stem. In permanently wet soils. Rare. Arasamikere, Honavar. 13 Elatinaceae Bergia capensis: Annual or perennial herbs. Stems erect or creeping, rooting at nodes, red or pink. Leaves stipulate, sessile, blades 1.5-5 cm long, serrate, toothed. Flowers in dense axillary spikes. Sepals 5, petals 5, white or pink. Stmaens 15 or less. Capsules globose, opening by valves. Seeds numerous, curved. Towards edges of wetlands. 14 Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon spp. Perennial or annual. Stems simple. Leaves spiral without petioles, in rosettes, or cauline; filiform in submerged forms. Scapes simple, often twisted, enclosed at the base by a tubular sheath, sometimes exceeding the leaves. Inflorescence a dense head surrounded by involucre. Flowers male and female in the same head, each with a floral bract, hairy towards the tip. Stamens 4 or 6. Ovary 2-3 loculed; stigmas 2-3. Fruit a capsule. Many wetland species found in the genus. . Eriocaulon cuspidatum: Endemic to South-west India (Figure 2.10). . Eriocaulon dalzelli: Endemic to west coast . Eriocaulon eurypeplon: Endemic to South-west India . Eriocaulon heterolepis : Endemic to western India . Eriocaulon lanceolatum: Endemic to South-west India . Eriocaulon richardianum: Endemic to South-west India

Others: Eriocaulon cinereum (Figure 2.11), E. odoratum, E. quinqangulare, E. setaceum, E. sexangulare (Figure 2.16), E. xeranthemum 15 Fabaceae . Aeschenomene aspera: Perennial, somewhat shrubby, trailing on the ground or erect, up to 2 m. Stem develops spongy tissue in water. Leaves pinnately compound, leaflets 30-50 pairs. 1.5-3 mm wide, base asymmetrical. Inflorescence racemes. Flowers yellow. Pod 4-6 cm long, 7-8 mm wide, flat, breaking into quadrangular 1-

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Sl. Family description Species description No. seeded bits on maturity. Perennial, in water bodies. Soft stem used for toys, sunhats, decorative articles etc. . Aeschenomene indica: A thin, tall herb, 80 cm. Leaves pinnately compound; leaflets 15-20, small, narrow, sensitive to touch. Flowers yellow, 1-4 in leaf axils; petals with purple veins. Fruit a long, slightly curved pod with 6-8 joints that separate when mature. Distribution in marshy areas. . Geissaspis cristata: Annual or perennial. Stems diffuse or floating, internodes pithy when stem is in water. Leaves compound with 2 pairs of obovate leaflets. Inflorescence racemes, flowers concealed by large reniform bracts. Fruits also concealed. Fruit has 1 or two joints between I seeded portions. In and near wetlands, sometimes in deep water.

Others: Crotalaria gorrensis, C. lutescens, C. pallida, C. quinquifolia, C. retusa, C. verrucosa, Desmodium heterophyllum, D. triflorum, Smithia conferta, S. salsuginea, S sensitive, Tephrosia purpurea 16 Hydrocharitaceae . Blyxa aubertii: Gregarious submerged herb with condensed stem and flat, ribbon like radical leaves, gradually attenuate to a fine point, up to 60 cm long. Flowers produced under water or emerge from water. In slow running fresh water with muddy/sandy substratum. . Hydrilla verticillata: Delicate, gregarious, submerged herb. Thin fragile, branched stems with whorls of 3-12 sessile, linear leaves at nodes. Flowers submerged. Submerged in ponds, or slow running water. . Ottelia alismoides: Submerged annual plant with contracted stems; petiole up to 50 cm or more long. Leaf blade large, flat, longitudinally veined. Flowers bisexual on long stalks, surrounded by a spathe of 2 united bracts, winged. Stamens 3-12. Ovary 3-10 chambered, each with numerous ovules. Seeds numerous released in pulpy mass. Deeper fresh water bodies still or slow flowing. . Vallisneria spiralis: Submerged plant resembling Blyxa; distinguished by parallel sides with abruptly rounded or pointed tip. Flowers on long stalks. Plants dioecious. Found in fresh water, rare. 17 Hydrophyllaceae Hydrolea zeylanica: An erect or prostrate herb, rooting at nodes. Leaves alternate, entire, elliptic lanceolate. Flowers blue in short terminal racemes. Fruit a capsule enclosed by persistent calyx. Occasional in drying pools. 18 Lemnaceae Wolffia neglecta: Minute floating plant, single fronds or two attached. Rootless. 19 Lentibulariaceae Utricularia spp. Rootless, free floating plants, or fixed to substratum by rhizoids. Leaves with capillary like branches carrying small utricles or bladders adapted for trapping insects. Flowers attractive, bilaterally symmetrical. Sepals 2. Petals 5. Stamens 2. Fruit a capsule. . Utricularia aurea: In tanks, pools, rice fields, along with other aquatic plants. Petals pale yellow with reddish brown veins. . Utricularia gibba: In water bodies, entangled with other plants. Flowers with yellow petals and reddish brown veins.

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Sl. Family description Species description No. . Utricularia lazulina: Small annual on wet soil; shallow rock pools on laterite. Petals blue. Endemic to India. . Utricularia reticulata: In shallow water, and in rice fields. Flowers large, attractive, violet veined. (Figure 2.12). Endemic to India and Sri Lanka. . Utricularia stellaris: Planktonic with emergent flowers. Variety of aquatic habitats. Corolla yellow, covered with gland-tipped hairs. . Utricularia striatula: Forms mats in permanently wet places. Leaves forming a rosette at the base of he inflorescence. Flowers small. Petals white tinged with violet with yellow patch at the base. 20 Lythraceae . Ammannia baccifera: Annual. Gregarious. Stems 25-50 cm or more in height, 4 angled. Leaves opposite, linear-lanceolate. Flowers in axillary cymose heads. Sepal tube bell shaped, 4-5 lobed, purple tipped. Petals minute or absent. Stamens 4, filaments red. Capsule globose, seeds bright red (Figure 2.15) In seasonally wet places. Medicinal . Rotala densiflora: Annual. Erect stem or creeping below; 4 angled to 4 winged. Leaves decussate below, in whorls above; variable. Sepal tube bell-shaped; sepals-4 or 5. Appendages in between sepals. Petals 4-5, pink or white. Stamens 4-5. Forming mats in shallow water. . Rotala indica: Annual with erect or decumbent stem. Leaves decussate, with cartilaginous margins. Flowers solitary in axils or on spike like branches. Sepals 4, petals 4, smaller to sepals; stamens 4. Wide range of wetlands. . Rotala macrandra: Annual to perennial. Stems creeping or floating, 40 cm or more long. Leaves decussate, orbicular. Submerged leaves pale green to pink or red. Inflorescence compact in fruit, spike, stem not seen in between bracts. Coastal wetlands; flowers when the water recedes. Endemic to South India. . Rotala malampuzhensis: Small, tufted annual with narrow leaves. Flowers 3-5 merous. Sepals bright red. Rare in wetlands. Endemic to South-west India; Kerala and Karnataka coast. . Rotala rosea: Annual, with erect or creeping stems. Leaves decussate, narrow. Floral bracts like normal leaves. Flowers sessile. Sepals 5, rarely 4. Petals 5, rarely 4, small. Stamens 5-4. Capsule opens by 3 valves. Seeds yellow to straw coloured. . Rotala rotundifolia: Perennial; sometimes annual. Stems rooted and floating, 40 cm or more long. Leaves deccusate, or in 3’s, variable. Submerged leaves large, tinged with red or purple. Floral bracts smaller than leaves. Inflorescence racemes, becoming elongate while fruiting so that axis exposed in between. Sepals 4, petals 4, bright rose. Capsule opens by 4 valves. Submerged or partly floating (See Figures 2.13 and 2.15 for Rotala spp). 21 Menyanthaceae . Nymphoides hydrophylla: Annual to perennial herb. With short rhizome. Flowering shoots resemble petioles, up to 85 cm long. Petioles up to 2.5 cm long. Floating leaves almost orbicular. 4-13 cm long, sometimes with purplish blotches; deeply cordate to

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Sl. Family description Species description No. hastate at base. Nerves prominent beneath. Flowers bisexual or female, in umbel like clusters. Petal tube with a ring of glandular hairs above; throat yellow, or white. Petal lobes pure white, 5-6 with a longitudinal crest along the centre. Stamens within petal tube. Capsule with yellowish white seeds. Seeds with tubercles (Figure 2.17). Deeply rooted in mud. Roots produce new shoots. Leaves used medicinally. . Nymphoides indica: Petal lobes fimbriate or with or with cotton like hairs. Flowers bisexual. Annual or perennial. Found in fresh and brackish water. Leaves medicinal. . Nymphoides parviflora: Leaves dimorphic. Basal leaves in rosettes, submerged. Fertile leaves not in rosettes, floating, each associated with an inflorescence. Flowers bisexual, anthers yellow. Petal lobes 3-5 mm long; margins toothed. Rare in coastal wetlands. 22 Nymphaeaceae . Nymphaea nouchali: Rhizomatous with floating leaves. Leaf blades large, smooth or bluntly dentate with long petioles; reddish purple underside. Anthers with terminal appendages. Sepals purple streaked, persistent in fruit, day flowering. Day blooming (Figure 2.18). Common in wetlands. Medicinal and food value. . Nymphaea pubescens: Rhizomatous with floating leaves. Lower surface of variable colour, pubescent; margin sharply dentate. Anthers without appendages; sepals with white veined, decaying in fruit. Night blooming. Rhizomes and roots as vegetable. Plant parts medicinal. 23 Onagraceae . Ludwigia adscendens: Annual or perennial, prostrate, ascending or floating herb. Oblong leaves. Bunches of spindle-shaped, white, spongy, floating roots. Petals creamy white, 5. Stamens 10. Gregarious in shallow water-pools. Floating spindle shaped roots characteristic. . Ludwigia hyssopifolia (Syn: L. linifolia): Annual, tall herb (5 – 300 cm), woody at base. Leaf blades lanceolate to oblong. Floating roots white, spongy, thread like. Petals 4, rarely 5, yellow. Stamens twice the petals. Capsules inflated above. In all wetlands or on dry mud. . Ludwigia octovalvis: Stems up to 4m tall, shrubby. Leaf blades linear, subovate, narrowing at base. Capsule uniform from top to bottom, ribbed. Stamens twice the petals (Figure 2.19). Widespread in wetlands. . Ludwigia perennis: Annual herb, up to 1 m., woody at base. Leaf blades elliptical to lanceolate. Sepals, petals 4-5. Petals yellow. Stamens equal to petals. Seeds in several rows in each cell. . Ludwigia prostrata: Annual herb, 10-60 cm tall, reddish tinged. Leaf blades elliptical. Stamens equal to petals. Sepals, petals 4-5. Petals yellow. Capsule 4 angled. Seeds in one row in each cell. 24 Poaceae . Echinocola colonum: An annual, up to 60 cm in height. Leaves 10- 20 cm long. Ligule absent. Inflorescence a raceme of 8-20 sessile spikes. Spikelets paired. Grains plano-convex. Wet soils and shallow wetlands.

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Sl. Family description Species description No. . Eragrostis unioloides: Annual or perennial. Panicles with ovate to oblong spikelets, each 6-40 flowered, glumes tinged with purple. Very common close to wetlands. . Isachne miliacea: Annual or perennial. Erect or creeping. Common in wetlands, sometimes turf forming. . Ischaemum indicum: Annual or perennial, creeping to erect. Reaching maximum size of 1 m. Leaf blade with pseudo-petiole. Spikelets both sessile and stalked. In variety of wetland habitats and outside. . Ischaemum mangaloricum: Grass reaching over 1m, with swollen culms. Confined to wetlands. . Leersia hexandra: Perennial with stolon. Culms attaining 1.5 m. Longer when floating in mats. Inflorescence a panicle; spikelets 1 flowered. Used as fodder, close to Oryza in structure. . Oryza rufipogon (Wild rice): Anthers yellow or brown, spikelets detaching when mature (Figure 2.20) Common weed in rice fields, also in wet places, ponds, rice fields. . Oryza sativa (Rice): Anthers white or yellow; spikelets persisting when ripe. . Panicum repens: Perennial. Irregularly shaped deeply rhizomes present. Aerial shoots 30-100 cm tall. It is a fodder and a weed difficult to eradicate. . Paspalidium flavidum: Tufted perennial or annual. Lower raceme shorter than internode. Found in wetlands and elsewhere. . Paspalidium punctatum: A perennial aquatic grass, up to 120 cm high. Inflorescence of 3 to 8 spike like racemes, arranged alternately. Spikelets in 2 rows. Marshy areas and shallow water. . Paspalum scrobiculatum: Usually perennial. 10-120 cm long culms. Inflorescence of 2 spreading spike like racemes. Spikelets without fringe of long white hairs. Glumes glabrous. . Saccharum spontaneum (wild sugarcane): Rhizomatous perennial forming dense clumps, with sugarcane like panicle. Culm without sugar. Good soil binder and used for sugarcane breeding (Figure 2.21). . Sacciolepis indica: Annual 20-70 cm or more in height, tufted. Inflorescence spike like panicle, up to 6 cm long. Often found in wetlands and also outside. . Sacciolepis interrupta: Annual or often perennial. Culms reaching almost 150 cm long. Basal part inflated and hollow, over 1 cm thick. Panicle interrupted below.

Other species noted: Arundinella leptochloa, Brachiaria miliformis, Cynodon dactylon, Cyrtococcum sp., Digitaria ciliaris, Eragrostis major, Ischaemum rugosum, I. tumidum, Oplismenus burmanni, Oryza sativa var. nivara, Paspalidium geminatum, Paspalum vaginatum, Sacciolepis myosurroides, Sporobolus virginicus, Zoysia matrella etc. 25 Polygonacae . Polygonum glabrum: An erect or decumbent glabrous herb, with reddish stem. Leaves lanceolate, acuminate at apex. Flowers pinkish in terminal racemes.

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Sl. Family description Species description No. Rare: Shallow parts of wetlands. . Species such as Polygonum barbatum, P. chinense (Figure 2.22) are only sparingly associated with coastal wetlands. They are commoner in the interior fresh water wetlands. 26 Pontederiaceae . Monochoria elata: Large perennial. Flowers almost regular. Inflorescence overtopping leaves. Rare. . Monochoria vaginalis: Annual or perennial. Flowers almost regular. Inflorescence contracted, borne below the leaves, almost umbellate. 27 Rubiaceae . Dentella repens: Delicate herb forming mats. Leaves small in pairs. Flowering nodes alternating with flowerless ones. On drying mud around wetlands, in marshy places. . Hedyotis brachypoda: Although a herb of drier habitats, many times this is found close to wetlands. Stems, peduncles and pedicels glabrous. Flowers not more than 2 in a cyme. In wet places and on drier land. Sometimes in 1 m deep water. . Hedyotis diffusa: Annual to perennial. Stems floating erect or prostrate, with small bristle like hairs. At least some flowers in 3 or more flowered cymes.

Other Rubiaceae members sometimes found near wetlands are Anotis foetida, Borreria articularis, B. mauritiana, B. ocimoides, Hedyotis, ciliaris, H. corymbosa (Figure 2.23) H. cuspidata, H. trinervia and Spermacose verticillata. 28 Scrophulariaceae . Bacopa floribunda: Annual herb with 4 sided erect stem. Ring of lacunae present in stem. Flowers pedicillate, 1-3 in leaf axils. Sepals hairy. . Bacopa hamiltoniana: Same characters as previous, but flowers sessile and solitary. . Bacopa monnieri: Stems creeping with erect branches. No ring of lacunae. Pedicels present, sepals not hairy (Figure 2.24). Forming mats in marshy places. Tolerates brackish conditions. . Dopatrium junceum: Annual 10-40 cm tall, usually smaller. Lower leaves larger, upper very small. Flowers in pairs on the axis. Petals pink to blue or purple. Lower flowers almost sessile (Figure 2.25) . Limnophila heterophylla: Annual or perennial. Submerged leaves very dissected. Aerial leaves entire. Flowers almost sessile. Found in fresh or brackish water . Limnophila indica: Submerged leaves pinnatisect, in whorls. Aerial leaves in opposite pairs. Flowers pedicillate. In a variety of aquatic habitats. . Limnophila repens: Decumbent or erect herbs. Leaves in decussate pairs sessile or nearly so. Flowers solitary in leaf axils. Leaves smell and taste somewhat like lemon. Plant widespread in wetlands.

Others: Angelonia zeylancia, Limnophila gratissima, Lindernia anagallis, L. antipoda, L. ciliata, L. crustacea, L. hyssopoides, L. manilaliana, L. oppositifolia, L. pusilla, L. rotundifolia, L. tenuifolia, L. viscose, Microcarpaea minima, Peplidium maritima, Scoparia dulce, Torenia lindernioides etc. 29 Sphenocleaceae (or Sphenoclea zeylaica: Annual. Stem swollen and pithy at base. Up to 1

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Sl. Family description Species description No. Campanulaceae) m or more tall. Leaves alternate, simple. Inflorescence a dense, terminal spike. Sepals united to the ovary. Petals greenish-white. Ovary semi-inferior. Fruit capsule with numerous minute seeds (Figure 2.26). Seasonally submerged, other times emergent, or on edges of wetlands. Found also in brackish water. 30 Typhaceae Typha angustata: Tall, perennial, rhizomatous herbs; up to 3.5 m high. Leaves distichous. Leaves long, linear. Inflorescence a cylindrical 15-25 cm long spike. Female heads in fruit light cinnamon coloured. Seeds small dispersed by numerous light capillary hairs (Figure 2.27). In shallow water, forming gregarious patches 31 Xyridaceae Xyris pauciflora: Small herb with corm like stem base. Leaves radical, linear with sheathing base. Inflorescence a simple terminal bracteate head. Bracts overlapping, persistent. Flowers yellow. On wet soils, and near wetlands

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Figure 2.7. Fimbristylis ferruginea Figure 2.8. Mariscus javanicus Figure 2.9. Shoenoplectus lateriflorus

Figure 2.11. Eriocaulon cinerea

Figure 2.10. Eriocaulon cuspidatum Figure 2.12. Utricularia reticulata

Figure 2.15. Rotala sp

Figure 2.13. Rotala sp. Figure 2.14. Ammannia baccifera

Figure 2.18. Nymphaea Figure 2.17. Nymphoides parviflora nouchali Figure 2.16. Eriocaulon sexangulare

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Figure 2.19. Ludwigia octovalvis Figure 2.20. Oryza rufipogon

Figure 2.21. Saccharum spontaneum

Figure 2.22. Polygonum chinense

Figure. 2.23. Polygonum glabrum Figure. 2.24. Monochoria vaginalis

Figure 2.26. Bacopa monnieri

Figure 2.27. Dopatrium Figures 2.25. Hedyotis corymbosa junceum

Figure 2.28. Sphenoclea zeylanica Figure 2.29. Typha angustata

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References

1. Bhat, K.G. 2003. The Flora of Udupi District. Indian Naturalist, Chitpady, Udupi.

2. Biswas, K. and Calder, C.C. 1937. Handbook of Common Water and Marsh Plants of India and Burma. Health Bulletin No. 24, Malaria Bureau No. 11, Manager of Publications, Delhi.

3. Cook, C.D.K. 1996. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of India. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

4. Cooke, T. 1901-1908. The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Taylor and Francis, London.

5. Prasad, V.P., Mason, D., Marburger, J.E. and Kumar, C.R.A. Illustrations of Some Wetland Plants of India. Salim Ali Institute for Ornithology and Natural Histroy, Coimbatore.

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CHAPTER – 3 WETLANDS OF COASTAL KARNATAKA: SALIENT FEATURES

Coastal Karnataka extends over 320 kilometers. The hill ranges of the Western Ghats run rather close to the coast, especially in Uttara Kannada district. The coast is intersected by 14 west-flowing rivers, which arise in the Western Ghats, in addition to several smaller rivers. The coastal low lands are much influenced by the marine tides, which rise in the estuaries of these rivers and rivulets and several more creeks. The torrential rains, which exceed over 3000 mm per annum, swamp the coast especially during the June to October period. Low lying areas are flooded with fresh water this time, and the salinity of the brackish water coastal marshes is substantially reduced so that the coastal lowlands become excellent habitats for aquatic herbs. This floral richness is also shared by rice fields, temporary pools, ditches and even depressions in the laterite hills, and a number of small and medium ponds.

As the rains taper off by mid October, the amount of fresh water declines. The lowlands are often subjected to tidal surges that run through the river mouths and creeks for several kilometers interior. This causes increase in salinity in many of the coastal water bodies, and their surroundings causing decline of plants intolerant of salinity. By the time several sensitive herbs would be in advanced stages of flowering and fruiting. Their seeds remain unharmed for several months until the South-west Monsoon arrives in early June. Many others also perennate through vegetative propagules such as rhizomes, rootstocks etc.

Even the rock pools on the barren lateritic hills teem with plant life during the rainy season, and form important habitats for several species of Utricularia., Eriocaulon, and the rare Wiesneria triandra, endemic to South-west India. Isoetes, a rare pteridophyte, as far as coastal Karnataka is concerned, was located in a temporary pond in the sandy coast of Kasarkod in Honavar. The fresh water ponds and other fresh water bodies are important habitats for Hydrilla verticillata, Nymphaea spp., Nymphoides spp., Blyxa aubertii, Ottelia alismoides etc. The exotic water weeds Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia spp, have not made notable invasions into the coastal waters of Karnataka, unlike in the neighbouring Kerala.

3.1 True hydrophytes of fresh water habitats: 3.1.1 Free floating: These float on water surface and their roots are not attached to the substratum. Ex: Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia spp., Azolla spp., Wolffia spp. etc. These have poor root system or if roots are well developed they are used mainly for balancing. All plant parts are soft and spongy.

3.1.2 Rooted floating: These plants are attached to the substratum by roots and their leaves are often floating. Of these are the lotus, Nelumbium speciosum, the water lily,

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Nymphaea nouchali, N. pubescens, Nymhoides spp., Marsilia spp. etc. These have long petioles, their floating leaves are usually large. All plant parts are spongy and soft.

3.1.3 Submerged rooted and suspended: Usually this category does not have aerial parts except perhaps flowers and fruits. To this belong Blyxa aubertii, Vallisneria spiralis, Hydrilla verticillata, Utricularia gibba, Ottelia alismoides, Isoetes sp., Myriophyllum spp. etc. The leaves of these plants are narrow, long and ribbon like as in Vallisneria, or narrow linear as in Hydrilla, or finely dissected capillary like as in Utricualria, or quill like as in Isoetes. These plants have extremely tender plant parts and have no supporting woody tissues.

3.1.4 Amphibious hydrophytes (Emergent): Lots of plants, which are habitually not aquatic plants, can tolerate inundation for days or weeks together. These are intermediate between aquatic and terrestrial habitats; many of them are even true land plants. Some of the intermediate species, often referred to as “amphibious plants,” found along coastal Karnataka, are Hygrophila schulli, Colocasia esculenta, Cryptocoryne spiralis, Epaltes divaricata, Commelina spp., Murdannia spp., Cyperus spp, Fimbristylis spp., Eriocaulon spp., Aeschenomene spp., Ammannia spp., Rotala spp., Ludwigia spp., Echinocola spp., Sacciolepis spp., Oryza spp., Polygonum spp., Limnophila spp., Lindernia spp., Typha spp., Xyris spp. etc. Compared to true water plants these are stronger plants. They do not have such delicacy or sponginess in their structure and often are furnished with the woody sclernchyma tissue to varied degrees.

Trees and woody plants such as Pandanus spp., Pongamia pinnata, Ficus spp., Holigarna arnottiana etc. that may be in close association with the wetlands are excluded from the purview of this report, as they are not truly wetland species. Also excluded are the mangroves, as they have been dealt with separately in another report. Rheophytes, the plants associated with river courses for a separate category as such, although some plants might commonly occur along the rivers as well as in the wetlands dealt with here, They too have been excluded.

The details of the localities where the wetland flora has been studied and the type of wetlands and the number of species observed at the time of the one time survey are given in the Table 3.1. The talukwise distributions of wetland species are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.1. Details of wetlands studied for flora (macrophytic) in coastal Karnataka Dist Taluk Locality Village/town Remarks D. Kannada Mangalore 1. Ullal Ullal 36 sp. Seasonal wetland 2. Malvuru Malvuru 53 sp. Semi-permanent 3. Madhya Madhya 32 sp. Semi-permanent 4. Pannagiri Soorinje 36 sp. Semi-permanent 5. Delanthbettu Siboor 33 sp. Semi-permanent 6. Kantige Chalar 43 sp. Semi-permanent Mulki 7. Kinnigati Kinnigati 34 sp. Abandoned rice fields 8. Kolnadu Mulki 36 sp. Semi-permanent 9. Mulki Mulki 42 sp. Abandoned rice fields Udupi Udupi 10. Padubidri Padubidri 48 sp. Semi-permanent 11. Enguddi-1 Katapadi 36 sp. Semi-permanent 12. Enguddi-2 Katapadi 38 sp. Semi-permanent 13.Nerige Kadavur 42 sp. Seasonal wetland 14. Uppur Kalyanpur 43 sp. Seasonal wetland Kundapur 15. Angalige Angalige 38 sp. Seasonal wetland

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16. Kambadkona Kambadakona 45 sp. Seasonal wetland 17. Nandanvana Uppunda 40 sp. Semi-permanent 18. Kalshanka Bijoor 32 sp. Seasonal wetland 19. Durme Durme 37 sp. Semi-permanent 20. Edathribail Edathribail 43 sp. Semi-permanent 21. Paduvari Paduvari 56 sp. Semi-permanent 22. Tondemakki Tondemakki 32 sp. Seasonal wetland U. Kannada Bhatkal 23. Shirali Shirali 33 sp. Seasonal wetland 24. Sanbhavi Bengre 13 sp. Temp. water pool 25. Devikan Kaikini 07 sp. Temp. water pool Honavar 26. Nilekere Gunavanti 17 sp. Small pond 27. Gunavanti Gunavanti 22 sp. Semi-permanent 28. Apsarkonda Kasarkod 13 sp. Seasonal pools 29. Kasarkod Kasarkod 09 sp. Seasonal pools 30. Arolli Ghat Arolli 07 sp. Seasonal rock pool 31. Prabhatnagr Honavar 17 sp. Small pond 32. Jalvalli-Karki Jalvalli 20 sp. Small pond 33. Arsamikere Chandrani 23 sp. Large pond 34. Karki Karki 25 sp. Seasonally brackish 35. Badgani Haldipur 28 sp. Seasonally brackish Kumta 36. Nagoor Cross Mirjan 21 sp. Seasonally brackish 37. Holegadde -1 Holegadde 20 sp. Seasonally brackish 38. Holegadde-2 Holegadde 9 sp. Seasonally brackish 39. Alvekodi Alvekodi 23 sp. Seasonally brackish 40. Kalave Santaguli 20 sp. Small pond 41. Heggerikere Bargi 13 sp. Small pond 42. Madangiri Madangiri 7 sp. Seasonal pool 43. Hosur-1 Hosur 20 sp. Small pond 44. Hosur-2 Hosur 19 sp. Small pond Ankola 45. Taktageri Taktageri 9 sp. Seasonal pool 46. Hunsagi Taktageri 5 sp. Small pond 47. Jangodu Janagodu 7 sp. Small pond 48. Amdalli Mudga 16 sp. Seasonal beach pool Karwar 49. Chitakula Chitakula 29 sp. Seasonal wetland 50. Hankon Gopshitta 18. sp. Reservoir 51. Sailwada Sailwada 24 sp. Large tank

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Table 2.1: Wetland vegetation of coastal Karnataka Sl. No. Species Family MNG MLK UDP KNP BHT HNR KMT ANK KRW Remarks 1 Hygrophila ringens Acanthaceae P P P P P 2 Hygrophila schulli " P P P P P P P P P Diuretic 3 Sesuvium portulacastrum Aizoaceae P 4 Wiesneria triandra Alismaceae P P Endemic - SW India; Rare 5 Alternanthera sessilis Amaranthaceae P P P P P P P P Vegetable, medicine 6 Crinum viviparum Amaryllidaceae P P Endemic- India 7 Centella asiatica Apiaceae P P P P P P Food, medicine 8 Colocasia esculenta Araceae P P P P P P Food, medicine 9 Cryptocoryne spiralis " P P P P P P P P Medicine 10 Pistia stratiotes " P Weed, medicine 11 Ageratum conizoides Asteraceae P P P Medicine 12 Cyathocline sp " P P Medicine 13 Eclipta prostrata " P P P P P P Medicine, black dye 14 Emilia sonchifolia " P Medicine 15 Epaltes divaricata " P P P P P P Medicine 16 Grangea maderaspatna " P P Pain relief 17 Sphaeranthus africanus " P P P P P P P P P 18 Spilanthus paniculata " P P P Toothache, sore throat 19 Vernonia cineria " P P P Medicine 20 Coldenia procumbens Boraginaceae P P Rheumatism, boils 21 Lobelia alsinoides Campanulaceae P P P P P P P 22 Sphenoclea zeylanica " P P P P P P P 23 Amiscophacelus axillaris Commelinaceae P P P P 24 Commelina diffusa " P P P P P P P Burns, itches, boils 25 Commelina hasskarlii " P 26 Murdannia nudiflora " P P P P Asthma, piles 27 Murdannia semiteres " P 28 Murdannia spirata " P 29 Murdannia vaginata " P 30 Murdannia versicolor " P 31 Murdannia sp " P 32 Evolvulus nummularius Convolvulaceae P Medicine 33 Ipomoea fistulosa " P P Serious weed 34 Ipomoea sepiaria " P 35 Ipomoea triloba " P 36 Ipomoea sp " P 37 Bulbostylis puberula Cyperaceae P 38 Bulbostylis sp " P 39 Cyperus cuspidatus " P 40 Cyperus compressus " P P P P P P 41 Cyperus difformis " P P P P P P P P 42 Cyperus elatus " P 43 Cyperus halpan " P P P P P P P P 44 Cyperus iria " P P Roots in medicine, for mats 45 Cyperus malaccensis " P Medicine, fodder, weaving 46 Cyperus pilosus " P P P P 47 Cyperus procerus " P Stems for cordage 48 Cyperus rotundus " P Food, medicine, fragrance 49 Cyperus stoloniferous " P 50 Cyperus tenuispica " P P P P P P P 51 Cyperus sp " P P

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52 Eleocharis acutangula " P P P P P P P 53 Eleocharis atropurpurea " P P P P P 54 Eleocharis dulcis " P P P P P P Weaving 55 Eleocharis geniculata " P P P P P P 56 Eleocharis retroflexa " P P P P P P 57 Eleocharis spiralis " P P P P 58 Fimbristylis acuminata " P P P P P P P 59 Fimbristylis aestivalis " P 60 Fimbristylis argentea " P 61 Fimbristylis bisembellata " P P P 62 Fimbristylis crystallina " P 63 Fimbristyls dauciformis " P Endemic SW India 64 Fimbristylis dichotoma " P P Fodder, mats 65 Fimbristylis ferruginea " P P P P P P P 66 Fimrbistylis hirsutifolia " P Endemic, SW India 67 Fimbristylis littoralis " P P P P P P P 68 Fimbristylis microcarpa " P 69 Fimbristylis monticola " P 70 Fimbristylis pubisquama " P 71 Fimbristylis shoenoides " P P P P P P P 72 Fimbristylis tetragona " P P P P P 73 Fimbristylis woodrowii " P Endemic, India 74 Fimbristylis sp. " P P P P 75 Fuirena ciliaris " P P P P P P P P P 76 Fuirena umbellata " P P P P P P 77 Fuirena uncinata " P P 78 Kyllinga brevifolia " P Medicine 79 Lipocarpha chinensis " P P 80 Mariscus compactus " P 81 Mariscus javanicus " P P 82 Pycreus flavidus " P 83 Pycreus macrostachyos " P P 84 Pycreus polystachyos " P P P P P P P 85 Pycreus pumilus " P P 86 Pycreus sanguinolentus " P P P 87 Pycreus stramineus " P P P 88 Pycreus sp " P 89 Rhynchospora wightiana " P 90 Scleria sp " P 91 Schoenoplectus articulatus " P P P P P P P P 92 Shoenoplectus lateriflorus " P P P P P P P P P 93 Shoenoplectus subulatus " P P 94 Shoenoplectus sp " P 95 Drosera burmanni Droseraceae P Medicinal, insectivorous 96 Bergia capensis Elatinaceae P P P P 97 Eriocaulon cinereum Eriocaulaceae P P P P P 98 Eriocaulon cuspidatum " P P P Endemic, S. India 99 Eriocaulon dalzelli " P Endemic, W. coast 100 Eriocaulon eurypeplon " P P P Endemic, W. India 101 Eriocaulon heterolepis " P P Endemic, W. India 102 Eriocaulon lanceolatum " P Endemic SW India 103 Eriocaulon odoratum " P P 104 Eriocaulon quinqangulare " P 105 Eriocaulon richardianum " P P Endemic SW India

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106 Eriocaulon setaceum " P P 107 Eriocaulon sexangulare " P P P P P P 108 Eriocaulon xeranthemum " P P P P 109 Eriocaulon sp " P P P P P 110 Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae P Medicine 111 Euphphorbia thymifolia " P 112 Phyllanthus debilis " P Medicine, for jaundice 113 Phyllanthus reticulatus " P P P 114 Phyllanthus simplex " P 115 Aeschenomene aspera Fabaceae P P P Decorative articles 116 Aeschenomene indica " P P P P Manure, fodder 117 Crotalaria gorrensis " P 118 Crotalaria lutescens " P 119 Crotalaria pallida " P 120 Crotalaria quinquifolia " P 121 Crotalaria retusa " P P P 122 Crotalaria verrucosa " P 123 Derris trifoliata " P 124 Desmodium heterophyllum " P P 125 Desmodium triflorum " P P P 126 Geissaspis cristata " P P P P P P P P P 127 Smithia conferta " P P 128 Smithia salsuginea " P P 129 Smithia sensitiva " P P P P 130 Tephrosia purpurea " P 131 Canscora decussata Gentianaceae P 132 Exacum pedunculatum " P 133 Hoppea fastigata " P P 134 Blyxa aubertii Hydrocharitaceae P P P P P P P 135 Hydrilla verticillata " P P P P 136 Ottelia alismoides " P 137 Vallisneria spiralis " P P 138 Hydrolea zeylanica Hydrophpllaceae P P P P P P Vegetable, medicine 139 Pogostemon erectum Lamiaceae P Endemic S India 140 Wolffia neglecta Lemnaceae P Endemic Indian S. continent 141 Utricularia aurea Lentibulariaceae P P P 142 Utricularia gibba " P P 143 Utricularia lazulina " P Endemic India 144 Utricularia reticulata " P P P P P P P 145 Utricularia stellaris " P Endemic India-Sri Lanka 146 Utricularia striatula " P 147 Utricularia sp " P P P P P 148 Mitrasacme indica Loganiaceae P P 149 Ammannia baccifera Lythraceae P P P P P 150 Rotala densiflora " P P P 151 Rotala indica " P P P P 152 Rotala macrandra " P P P P P Endemic S India 153 Rotala rosea " P P P P P 154 Rotala rotundifolia " P P P 155 Rotala sp " P P 156 Melastoma malabathrum Melastomaceae P P 157 Nymphoides hydrophylla Menyanthaceae P P P P Medicine 158 Nymphoides indica " P P P 159 Nymphoides parviflora " P P P

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160 Nymphoides sp " P 161 Ficus hispida Moraceae P 162 Nymphaea nouchali Nymphaceae P P P P P P P P Medicine, food 163 Nymphaea pubescens " P Medicine, food 164 Ludwigia adscendens Onagraceae P 165 Ludwigia hyssopifolia " P P P P P P P 166 Ludwigia octovalvis " P P 167 Ludwigia perennis " P P P P 168 Ludwigia prostrata " P 169 Ludwigia repens " P 170 Ludwigia sp " P 171 Pandanus fascicularis Pandanaceae P P P P P P 172 Passiflora foetida " P 173 Arundinella leptochloa Poaceae P 174 Brachiaria miliformis " P 175 Cynodon dactylon " P P P Fodder, medicine 176 Cyrtococcum sp " P 177 Digitaria ciliaris " P 178 Echnochloa colonum " P Fodder 179 Eragrostis major " P 180 Eragrostis unioloides " P P P P P P P P P 181 Isachne miliacea " P P P P P P P P Fodder 182 isachne sp " P P P 183 Ischaemum indicum " P P P 184 Ischaemum mangaloricum " P P P P P 185 Ischaemum rugosum " P P Fodder 186 Ischaemum tumidum " P 187 Ischaemum sp " P 188 Leersia hexandra " P P P P P P Fodder; WR of rice 189 Oplismenus burmanni " P 190 Oplismenus compositus " P 191 Oryza rufipogon " P P P P P P WR of rice 192 Oryza sativa " P Rice plant 193 Oryza sativa var. nivara " P WR of rice 194 Panicum repens " P P P P P Fodder, WR of millet 195 Paspalidium flavidum " P P P P Fodder, millet 196 Paspalidium geminatum " P P 197 Paspalidium punctatum " P Fodder 198 Paspalum scrobiculatum " P P P P P Millet 199 Paspalum vaginatum " P WR of millet 200 Paspalum sp " P 201 Pseudoechinocola sp " P 202 Saccharum spontaneum " P P P WR of sugarcane 203 Sacciolepis indica " P P P 204 Sacciolepis interrupta " P P P P Fodder 205 Sacciolepis myosuroides " P P 206 Sporobolus virginicus " P 207 Zoysia matrella " P 208 Polygonum barbatum Polygonaceae P 209 Polygonum glabrum " P Vegetable, medicine 210 Monochoria elata Pontederiaceae P P 211 Monochoria vaginalis " P P P P P Vegetable, medicine

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212 Acrostichum aureum Pteridophyte P P P 213 Ceratopteris thalictroides " P P P P P P P Vegetable 214 Isoetes sp " P Endemic 215 Marsilia coromandelina " P P 216 Marsilia minuta " P 217 Marsilia sp " P P P P 218 Salvinia sp " P P Serious weed 219 Anotis foetida Rubiaceae P 220 Borreria articularis " P 221 Borreria mauritiana " P 222 Borreria ocimoides " P 223 Dentella repens " P P 224 Hedyotis brachypoda " P P P P P P P P Medicine 225 Hedyotis ciliaris " P 226 Hedyotis cuspidata " P 227 Hedyotis diffusa " P P P P P P P 228 Hedyotis trinervia " P P 229 Spermacose verticillata " P P P 230 Angelonia zeylanica Scrophulariaceae P 231 Bacopa floribunda " P 232 Bacopa hamiltoniana " P P P 233 Bacopa monnieri " P P P P P P Nerve tonic, skin lotion 234 Buchnera hispida " P 235 Centranthera indica " P 236 Dopatrium junceum " P P P P 237 Limnophila gratissima " P 238 Limnophila heterophylla " P P P P P 239 Limnophila indica " P 240 Limnophila repens " P P P P P P P P 241 Lindernia anagallis " P Medicine 242 Lindernia antipoda " P P P 243 Lindernia ciliata " P P P P 244 Lindernia crustacea " P P P P P Medicine 245 Lindernia hyssopoides " P P P 246 Lindernia manilaliana " P Endemic SW India 247 Lindernia oppositifolia " P P Medicine 248 Lindernia pusilla " P P P P P P 249 Lindernia rotundifolia " P P 250 Lindernia tenuifolia " P P 251 Lindernia viscosa " P P 252 Lindernia sp " P P 253 Microcarpaea minima " P P P P P P 254 Peplidium maritima " P 255 Scoparia dulcis " P 256 Torenia lindernioides " P 257 Melochia corchorifolia Sterculiaceae P P P 258 Waltheria indica " P 259 Corchorus aestuans Tiliaceae Fibre 260 Corchorus capsularis " P P Fibre 261 Typha angustata. Typhaceae P Weaving, medicine 262 Xyris pauciflora Xyridaceae P P P P Note: Taluk-wise presence of vascular plants (flowering plants and pteridophytes) Abbreviations: MNG = Mangalore; MLK = Mulki; UDP = Udupi; KNP = Kundapur; BHT = Bhatkal; HNR = Honavar; KMT = Kumta; Ank = Ankola; KRW = Karwar

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