DOCSLIB.ORG

Risk of Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Among Agrarian Communities of Kogi

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Risk of Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Among Agrarian Communities of Kogi bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/663237; this version posted June 7, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY 4.0 International license. 1 1 Long title: 2 Risk of soil-transmitted helminthiasis among agrarian communities of Kogi 3 State, Nigeria: Evaluated in the context of The Soil-Transmitted 4 Helminthiasis Advisory Committee recommendation 2016 5 Short title: 6 Soil-transmitted helminthiasis in Kogi State 7 8 Joy T. Anunobi1, Ikem C. Okoye2*, Ifeanyi Oscar N. Aguzie2*, Yvonne E. Ndukwe2 and 9 Onyekachi J. Okpasuo2 10 1 Science Laboratory Technology Department, Federal Polytechnic, Idah, Kogi State, Nigeria. 11 2Parasitology and Public Health Unit, Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, 12 University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. 13 *Corresponding authors: 14 E-mail: [email protected] (IONA) 15 E-mail: [email protected] (ICO) 16 Authors’ contributions 17 Conceptualization and Methodology: Joy T. Anunobi and Ikem C. Okoye 18 Investigation: Joy T. Anunobi, Yvonne E. Ndukwe and Onyekachi J. Okpasuo 19 Data curation, formal analysis & software: Ifeanyi Oscar N. Aguzie 20 Writing of first draft: Joy T. Anunobi and Ifeanyi Oscar N. Aguzie 21 Supervision: Ikem C. Okoye 22 Final draft: All the authors approved the final draft. 23 Funding 24 The study did not receive external funding 1 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/663237; this version posted June 7, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY 4.0 International license. 2 25 Long title: 26 Risk of soil-transmitted helminthiasis among agrarian communities of Kogi 27 State, Nigeria: Evaluated in the context of The Soil-Transmitted 28 Helminthiasis Advisory Committee recommendation 2016 29 Short title: 30 Soil-transmitted helminthiasis in Kogi State 31 32 Abstract 33 Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) have remained a major threat to human especially children 34 in developing countries including Nigeria. Interventions have always been geared towards 35 school-aged children, neglecting preschool-aged children and occupational risk adults. The 36 Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Advisory Committee (STHAC) recently suggested 37 incorporating other at-risk groups. In the context of this recommendation, this study assessed 38 the associated risk of STH infection among agrarian communities of Kogi State, Nigeria. A 39 total of 310 individuals of all ages participated in the cross-sectional survey. Stool samples 40 were analyzed using standard Kato-Katz method. A total of 106 (34.2%) individuals were 41 infected with at least one STH. Hookworm was the most prevalent (18.1%); followed by 42 Ascaris lumbricoides (16.8%). Worm intensity was generally light. Prevalence of infection 43 was similar between four age groups considered (preschool, school, ‘women of reproductive 44 age’ and older at-risk group). Poor socio-economic status (SES) was a major risk for STH 45 infection. Using a 20-assets based criteria, 68 (23.1%) and 73 (24.7%) of 295 questionnaire 46 respondents were classified into first (poorest) and fifth (richest) wealth quintiles respectively. 47 Risk of infection with STH was 60% significantly lower in the richest wealth quintile 48 compared to the poorest (Prevalence Ratio (PR) = 0.4843, 95% CI = 0.2704 – 0.8678, p = 2 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/663237; this version posted June 7, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY 4.0 International license. 3 49 0.015). Open defecators were more likely to harbour STH than those who did not (PR = 50 1.7878, 95% CI = 1.2366 – 2.5846, p = 0.00201). Pit latrine and water closet toilet each 51 approximately reduced STH infection by 50% (p < 0.05). Preventive chemotherapy for all age 52 groups, health education and provision of basic amenities especially toilets are needed in 53 order to achieve the goal toward the 2020 target of STH control. 54 Keywords: KAP; socio-economic; soil-transmitted helminths; Ascaris lumbricoides; 55 hookworm; Trichuris trichiura; neglected tropical diseases; wealth quintiles. 56 57 Author summary 58 Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) are major cause of morbidities globally, especially among 59 children in developing countries such as Nigeria. Present World Health Organization 60 recommended control strategy solely require preventive chemotherapy targeting preschool- 61 aged children (PSAC) and school-aged children (SAC), and the recently included women of 62 reproductive age (WRA). The Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Advisory Committee (STHAC) 63 which is saddled with responsibility of evaluating STHs status and providing appropriate 64 recommendations proposed that preventive chemotherapy be extended to other at-risk groups. 65 This study evaluates this and some other recommendations of STHAC 2016 using sections of 66 a state in Nigeria where soil-transmitted helminthiasis is endemic. 67 Findings from this study supports recommendations for extension of preventive chemotherapy 68 to other at-risk groups apart from PSAC and SAC. It supports WASH (water, sanitation and 69 hygiene) as integral part of STH control. This finding emphasizes the need for health 70 education and change in attitude which could promote tenets of WASH. And very 71 importantly, the study emphasizes the role of poverty in the persistence of STH transmission. 72 It is the belief of the authors that there is the need for improved socio-economic status for 73 sustainable gains of control efforts. 3 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/663237; this version posted June 7, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY 4.0 International license. 4 74 Introduction 75 Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) are intestinal worms whose immature stages require a 76 period of incubation in the soil before becoming infective [1]. The most common are Ascaris 77 lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, the hookworms (Ancylostoma duodonale and Necator 78 americanus) and Strongyloides stercoralis [2]. They are transmitted by eggs present in 79 infected human faeces, which contaminate the soil in areas where sanitation is poor. STH 80 infections are included in the list of the world’s neglected tropical diseases, NTDs [3], and are 81 the most common infections among the poorest and most deprived communities [2]. 82 Transmission of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura is primarily through oral-faecal route 83 (usually by ingestion of parasite eggs in faeces), whereas hookworm species and S. stercoralis 84 are through active skin penetration of infective larva. 85 STH infections are among the most common chronic human infections in most regions of the 86 world; with approximately 1.5 billion people infected globally [2]. It accounts for a global 87 burden of 3.3 million of disability-adjusted life years [4]. Approximately 270 million 88 preschool-aged children (PSAC) and 600 million school-age children (SAC) are at risk of 89 infection. They live in areas where transmission of these parasites is intense and are in need of 90 treatment and preventive interventions [2,5]. 91 Intestinal helminthiasis prevalence in Nigeria has remained unchanged since the 1970s [6]. 92 Nigeria has the highest burden and endemicity [3,7]. A larger fraction of those affected are 93 young children of ages 5 to 14 years living in rural areas and urban slums [6-9]. The major 94 contributors to persistence of infections are cultural, socio-economic and environmental 95 factors [6,7]. Unhygienic and common practice of indiscriminate defecation or dumping 96 excrement have persisted in Nigeria [7,10,11]. There has been little success in the 97 introduction of latrines to rural Nigeria [12]. A temporal data available from 1990 through 98 2015 indicate a marginal decrease in the use of improved sanitation facilities from 38% to 4 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/663237; this version posted June 7, 2019. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY 4.0 International license. 5 99 29%, and small increase in open defecation from 24% to 25% [13]. Currently, Nigeria is 100 ranked as one of the nations in the world with the highest number of people practicing open 101 defecation, estimated at over 46 million people [14]. 102 In Nigeria, there are still states where there are limited to no epidemiological information on 103 STH infections; Kogi State is one of those with limited information. Majority of the 104 communities in Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kogi State are 105 farming communities where children and adults are fully exposed to risks of helminth 106 infection. In agrarian communities, practices such as walking on bare feet, open defecation, 107 eating of fallen fruits and raw unwashed vegetables with unwashed hands in farmlands could 108 predispose individuals to STH infections [9,15]. Majority of the agrarian communities are 109 warm and moist for most of the year creating a good environment for the parasites to develop 110 all year round. 111 Therefore the aim of the present study was to ascertain the associated risk factors of STHs 112 among the agrarian communities of Ibaji and Igalamela-Odolu LGAs.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Functional Parasitic Worm Secretome: Mapping the Place of Onchocerca Volvulus Excretory Secretory Products
    pathogens Review The Functional Parasitic Worm Secretome: Mapping the Place of Onchocerca volvulus Excretory Secretory Products Luc Vanhamme 1,*, Jacob Souopgui 1 , Stephen Ghogomu 2 and Ferdinand Ngale Njume 1,2 1 Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biology and Molecular Medicine, IBMM, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Rue des Professeurs Jeener et Brachet 12, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium; [email protected] (J.S.); [email protected] (F.N.N.) 2 Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, Biotechnology Unit, University of Buea, Buea P.O Box 63, Cameroon; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 28 October 2020; Accepted: 18 November 2020; Published: 23 November 2020 Abstract: Nematodes constitute a very successful phylum, especially in terms of parasitism. Inside their mammalian hosts, parasitic nematodes mainly dwell in the digestive tract (geohelminths) or in the vascular system (filariae). One of their main characteristics is their long sojourn inside the body where they are accessible to the immune system. Several strategies are used by parasites in order to counteract the immune attacks. One of them is the expression of molecules interfering with the function of the immune system. Excretory-secretory products (ESPs) pertain to this category. This is, however, not their only biological function, as they seem also involved in other mechanisms such as pathogenicity or parasitic cycle (molting, for example). Wewill mainly focus on filariae ESPs with an emphasis on data available regarding Onchocerca volvulus, but we will also refer to a few relevant/illustrative examples related to other worm categories when necessary (geohelminth nematodes, trematodes or cestodes).
    [Show full text]
  • Extensive Larva Migrans
    Case Report Extensive larva migrans Vandana Rai Mehta, S. D. Shenoi Department of Skin and STD, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, India. Address for correspondence: Dr. S. D. Shenoi, Professor and Head, Dept of Skin and STD, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal - 576104, Karnataka, India. E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Larva migrans is characterized by tortuous migratory lesions of the skin caused by larvae of nematodes. A 26-year-old fisherman presented to us with complaints of an itchy eruption on his back and arms of two months’ duration. Clinical examination revealed multiple wavy serpentine tracts and fork like lesions with a raised absolute eosinophil count of 3800 cells/cmm. Biopsy was inconclusive. This case is reported to highlight the extensive involvement by larva migrans. KEY WORDS: Larva migrans, Fisherman INTRODUCTION Cutaneous larva migrans is a common tropically acquired dermatosis. It presents as an erythematous, serpiginous, pruritic, cutaneous eruption caused by percutaneous penetration and subsequent migration of larvae of various nematode parasites. CASE REPORT A 26-year-old male came with complaints of an itchy eruption on his back and arms of 2 months’ duration. He was a fisherman by occupation and gave a history of sleeping on the beach for long hours. He was treated Figure 1: Wavy serpiginous tracts with fork like lesions with antihistamines, but without any response. Cutaneous examination revealed multiple erythematous The baseline laboratory parameters were normal, with papules, plaques and wavy serpentine tracts on the back a raised absolute eosinophil count of 3800 cell/cmm. A and posterior aspect of arms (Figure 1). biopsy from the lesion showed only spongiosis with How to cite this article: Mehta VR, Shenoi SD.
    [Show full text]
  • Insecurities and Dogs: an Obstacle to the Eradication of Dracunculiasis
    dicine & Me S l u a r ic g e p r o y r T ISSN: 2329-9088 Tropical Medicine & Surgery Review Article Insecurities and Dogs: An Obstacle to the Eradication of Dracunculiasis Aja Kalu1*,Nwufo Amanda2 Department of Care of the Elderly, Barking, Havering and Redbridge University Hospital, NHS Trust, Romford, Essex, UK; 2 Department of Public Health, University of Chester, Chester, UK. ABSTRACT Dracunculiasis is a parasitic worm infection also known as Guinea Worm Disease (GWD). It is caused by a nematode called Dracunculiasis Medinensis. It belongs to a group of communicable disease named Neglected Tropic Disease (NTD). Dracunculiasis is caused by drinking water contaminated with the vector copepods (water fleas). Although the disease is not fatal, the sores caused by the emerging worm in the lower limb can become secondarily infected and complications such as sepsis, tetanus can ensue. Also, the sores can cause abscess and cellulitis, leaving the individual incapacitated for weeks which extends beyond the emergence of the worm. Over the last three decades, the prevalence of Guinea worm disease has reduced drastically through cost effective intervention provided by The Cater Center, WHO, UNICEF with the disease targeted for eradication. Some African countries like Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, and Kenya being the most recent, have eliminated the disease. Guinea worm is still present in Chad, Cameroon, Mali, Ethiopia where political instability, social inequalities and infection of dogs by the worm pose an increasing threat and obstacle to the elimination of the disease. Dracunculiasis represents a disease that can be eradicated without a drug or vaccine but with a cost-effective intervention that involves community efforts.
    [Show full text]
  • Identification and Characterization of the Forkhead Box
    IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE FORKHEAD BOX FAMILY OF TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATORS IN PARASITIC SCHISTOSOMES by MELISSA M. VARRECCHIA Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of philosophy Department of Biology CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY August 2017 CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES We hereby approve the dissertation of Melissa M. Varrecchia candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Committee Chair Michael F. Benard Committee Member Emmitt R. Jolly Committee Member Christopher A. Cullis Committee Member Claudia M. Mizutani Committee Member Brian M. McDermott Date of Defense June 6, 2017 *We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein. ii Dedication I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my Mom and Dad. Mom, thank you for your endless love, support and encouragement throughout the years. Dad, I miss you and I know that you are with me always, cheering me on in spirit. iii Table of Contents Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………...1 List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..6 List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………....8 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………..…11 List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………...13 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………15 Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………..17 1.1 Schistosomiasis………………………………………………………………17 1.2 Pathogenesis and treatment…………………………………………………..18 1.3 Schistosome life cycle………………………………………………………..20 1.4 Schistosome morphology
    [Show full text]
  • Public Health Significance of Intestinal Parasitic Infections*
    Articles in the Update series Les articles de la rubrique give a concise, authoritative, Le pointfournissent un bilan and up-to-date survey of concis et fiable de la situa- the present position in the tion actuelle dans les do- Update selectedfields, coveringmany maines consideres, couvrant different aspects of the de nombreux aspects des biomedical sciences and sciences biomedicales et de la , po n t , , public health. Most of santepublique. Laplupartde the articles are written by ces articles auront donc ete acknowledged experts on the redigeis par les specialistes subject. les plus autorises. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 65 (5): 575-588 (1987) © World Health Organization 1987 Public health significance of intestinal parasitic infections* WHO EXPERT COMMITTEE' Intestinal parasitic infections are distributed virtually throughout the world, with high prevalence rates in many regions. Amoebiasis, ascariasis, hookworm infection and trichuriasis are among the ten most common infections in the world. Other parasitic infections such as abdominal angiostrongyliasis, intestinal capil- lariasis, and strongyloidiasis are of local or regional public health concern. The prevention and control of these infections are now more feasible than ever before owing to the discovery of safe and efficacious drugs, the improvement and sim- plification of some diagnostic procedures, and advances in parasite population biology. METHODS OF ASSESSMENT The amount of harm caused by intestinal parasitic infections to the health and welfare of individuals and communities depends on: (a) the parasite species; (b) the intensity and course of the infection; (c) the nature of the interactions between the parasite species and concurrent infections; (d) the nutritional and immunological status of the population; and (e) numerous socioeconomic factors.
    [Show full text]
  • In Vitro and in Vivo Trematode Models for Chemotherapeutic Studies
    589 In vitro and in vivo trematode models for chemotherapeutic studies J. KEISER* Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland (Received 27 June 2009; revised 7 August 2009 and 26 October 2009; accepted 27 October 2009; first published online 7 December 2009) SUMMARY Schistosomiasis and food-borne trematodiases are chronic parasitic diseases affecting millions of people mostly in the developing world. Additional drugs should be developed as only few drugs are available for treatment and drug resistance might emerge. In vitro and in vivo whole parasite screens represent essential components of the trematodicidal drug discovery cascade. This review describes the current state-of-the-art of in vitro and in vivo screening systems of the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni, the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica and the intestinal fluke Echinostoma caproni. Examples of in vitro and in vivo evaluation of compounds for activity are presented. To boost the discovery pipeline for these diseases there is a need to develop validated, robust high-throughput in vitro systems with simple readouts. Key words: Schistosoma mansoni, Fasciola hepatica, Echinostoma caproni, in vitro, in vivo, drug discovery, chemotherapy. INTRODUCTION by chemotherapy. However, only two drugs are currently available: triclabendazole against fascio- Thus far approximately 6000 species in the sub-class liasis and praziquantel against the other food-borne Digenea, phylum Platyhelminthes have been de- trematode infections and schistosomiasis (Keiser and scribed in the literature. Among them, only a dozen Utzinger, 2004; Keiser et al. 2005). Hence, there is a or so species parasitize humans. These include need for discovery and development of new drugs, the blood flukes (five species of Schistosoma), liver particularly in view of growing concern about re- flukes (Clonorchis sinensis, Fasciola gigantica, Fasciola sistance developing to existing drugs.
    [Show full text]
  • Progress Toward Global Eradication of Dracunculiasis — January 2012–June 2013
    Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Weekly / Vol. 62 / No. 42 October 25, 2013 Progress Toward Global Eradication of Dracunculiasis — January 2012–June 2013 Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm disease) is caused by water from bore-hole or hand-dug wells (6). Containment of Dracunculus medinensis, a parasitic worm. Approximately transmission,* achieved through 1) voluntary isolation of each 1 year after infection from contaminated drinking water, the patient to prevent contamination of drinking water sources, worm emerges through the skin of the infected person, usually 2) provision of first aid, 3) manual extraction of the worm, on the lower limb. Pain and secondary bacterial infection can and 4) application of occlusive bandages, complements the cause temporary or permanent disability that disrupts work four main interventions. and schooling. In 1986, the World Health Assembly (WHA) Countries enter the WHO precertification stage of eradica- called for dracunculiasis elimination (1), and the global tion after completing 1 full calendar year without reporting any Guinea Worm Eradication Program, supported by The Carter indigenous cases (i.e., one incubation period for D. medinensis). Center, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations A case of dracunculiasis is defined as infection occurring in Children’s Fund (UNICEF), CDC, and other partners, began * Transmission from a patient with dracunculiasis is contained if all of the assisting ministries of health of dracunculiasis-endemic coun- following conditions are met: 1) the disease is detected <24 hours after worm tries in meeting this goal. At that time, an estimated 3.5 million emergence; 2) the patient has not entered any water source since the worm cases occurred each year in 20 countries in Africa and Asia emerged; 3) a volunteer has managed the patient properly, by cleaning and bandaging the lesion until the worm has been fully removed manually and by (1,2).
    [Show full text]
  • Transmitted Helminth Infections in Chinese Schoolchildren
    Impact of a video-based health education intervention on soil- transmitted helminth infections in Chinese schoolchildren Franziska Andrea Bieri MSc, BSc A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2013 School of Population Health Abstract Worldwide, more than 2 billion people are infected with soil-transmitted helminths (STH), commonly known as intestinal worms. The STH are a group of parasitic nematodes which include roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides), whipworms (Trichuris trichiura) and hookworms (Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale). Diseases caused by the STH belong to the group of Neglected Tropical Diseases, comprising 17 infections currently targeted for prevention and research by the World Health Organization, the United Nations Development Program and the World Bank. STH are intimately connected with rural poverty, inadequate sanitation and waste disposal, lack of clean water and poor hygiene, as well as limited access to health care and preventive measures such as health education. Even though STH rarely cause death, they impact significantly on public health and cause severe disability in the world’s poorest countries. The worldwide burden of STH has been estimated to be as high as 39 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), with almost half of the global disease burden due to these worm infections afflicting children aged 5-14 years. Nevertheless, STH remain largely neglected by the medical and international community. In China, STH still impact substantially on public health with an estimated 129 million infected people and children aged 5-14 years having the highest rates of infection. Major endemic foci are observed in the central, western and southern provinces.
    [Show full text]
  • Zoonotic Soil-Transmitted Helminths: a Triad of Worms, Animals, and Humans and the Veterinarian’S Role in Community Public Health
    Master of Public Health Field Experience Report ZOONOTIC SOIL-TRANSMITTED HELMINTHS: A TRIAD OF WORMS, ANIMALS, AND HUMANS AND THE VETERINARIAN’S ROLE IN COMMUNITY PUBLIC HEALTH by DEBORAH K. GLAUM, D.V.M. MPH Candidate submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH Graduate Committee: Patricia A. Payne, BS, DVM, PhD Justin J. Kastner, BS, MSc, PgDip, PhD Abbey Nutsch, BS, PhD Field Experience Site: Lawrence/Douglas County Health Department, Lawrence, KS June to December 2013 Field Experience Preceptor: Charles Bryan, BS, MPA KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2015 i Copyright DEBORAH KAY GLAUM, D.V.M. 2015 ii Abstract Deborah K. Glaum, DVM Dr. Patricia Payne Kansas State University, 2015 Major Professor Although mankind has known about intestinal parasites for millennia, it has only been in the last century that scientists have recognized the diseases caused by zoonotic parasites. Soil- transmitted helminths (STHs), including Toxocara canis and Ancylostoma caninum, are an important subset of zoonotic parasites, and they have developed unique characteristics that allow them to infect humans and animals. Overt parasitism is no longer common in many developed nations; however, the subtle and varied symptoms associated with STH infection, along with the lack of experience and interest of the human healthcare industry, mean that many cases of zoonotic infection are missed. These diseases not only affect the health of humans, but they also have poverty-promoting effects. The lack of attention paid to these parasites in recent years has caused the World Health Organization to label them “neglected zoonotic diseases.” Human culture and individual behaviors are important risk factors for these diseases, as well as climate and geography.
    [Show full text]
  • Lymphatic Filariasis
    BiologyPUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE 29 In areas with low or moderate transmission of malaria, in those with advanced health services with well trained and experienced personnel, and in priority areas such as those with development projects, attempts may be made to reduce the prevalence of malaria by community-wide mosquito control measures. In areas subject to epidemic risk, quick-acting and timely vector control mea- sures, such as insecticide spraying, play an important role in the control or prevention of epidemics. Apart from the input of health services in the planning and management of activities, it is also important for communities to participate in control efforts. Sufficient resources have to be ensured for the long-term maintenance of improve- ments obtained. In developed countries with advanced professional capabilities and sufficient resources, it is possible to aim at a countrywide eradication of malaria. Eradication has been achieved in southern Europe, most Caribbean islands, the Maldives, large parts of the former USSR and the USA. As most anopheline mosquitos enter houses to bite and rest, malaria control programmes have focused primarily on the indoor application of residual insecti- cides to the walls and ceilings of houses. House spraying is still important in some tropical countries but in others its significance is diminishing because of a number of problems (see Chapter 9), which, in certain areas, have led to the interruption or termination of malaria control programmes. There has been increased interest in other control methods that would avoid some of the problems related to house spraying. Methods that are less costly and easier to organize, such as community-wide use of impregnated bednets, and methods that bring about long- lasting or permanent improvements by eliminating breeding places are now being increasingly considered.
    [Show full text]
  • Zoonotic Implications of Onchocerca Species on Human Health
    pathogens Review Zoonotic Implications of Onchocerca Species on Human Health Maria Cambra-Pellejà 1,2, Javier Gandasegui 3 , Rafael Balaña-Fouce 4 , José Muñoz 3 and María Martínez-Valladares 1,2,* 1 Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), 24346 León, Spain; [email protected] 2 Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, 24071 León, Spain 3 Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona (ISGlobal), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; [email protected] (J.G.); [email protected] (J.M.) 4 Departmento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 31 July 2020; Accepted: 15 September 2020; Published: 17 September 2020 Abstract: The genus Onchocerca includes several species associated with ungulates as hosts, although some have been identified in canids, felids, and humans. Onchocerca species have a wide geographical distribution, and the disease they produce, onchocerciasis, is generally seen in adult individuals because of its large prepatency period. In recent years, Onchocerca species infecting animals have been found as subcutaneous nodules or invading the ocular tissues of humans; the species involved are O. lupi, O. dewittei japonica, O. jakutensis, O. gutturosa, and O. cervicalis. These findings generally involve immature adult female worms, with no evidence of being fertile. However, a few cases with fertile O. lupi, O. dewittei japonica, and O. jakutensis worms have been identified recently in humans. These are relevant because they indicate that the parasite’s life cycle was completed in the new host—humans. In this work, we discuss the establishment of zoonotic Onchocerca infections in humans, and the possibility of these infections to produce symptoms similar to human onchocerciasis, such as dermatitis, ocular damage, and epilepsy.
    [Show full text]
  • Anisakiosis and Pseudoterranovosis
    National Wildlife Health Center Anisakiosis and Pseudoterranovosis Circular 1393 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cover: 1. Common seal, by Andreas Trepte, CC BY-SA 2.5; 2. Herring catch, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 3. Larval Pseudoterranova sp. in muscle of an American plaice, by Dr. Lena Measures; 4. Salmon sashimi, by Blu3d, Lilyu, GFDL CC BY-SA3.0; 5. Beluga whale, by Jofre Ferrer, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0; 6. Dolphin, National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 7. Squid, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 8. Krill, by Oystein Paulsen, CC BY-SA 3.0. Anisakiosis and Pseudoterranovosis By Lena N. Measures Edited by Rachel C. Abbott and Charles van Riper, III USGS National Wildlife Health Center Circular 1393 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey ii U.S. Department of the Interior SALLY JEWELL, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2014 For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod To order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.gov Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text.
    [Show full text]