Ecology and conservation of the endemic Nicobar flying fox ( faunulus) in the Nicobar group of islands,

Bandana Aul Field Assistants: Saw Ivan, Martin Ton, Emanuel and Samuel

Technical Report for BPCP follow-up grant July 2007

Design: Saravanakumar

Citation: Aul Bandana, 2007. Ecology and conservation of the endemic Nicobar Flying Fox (Pteropus faunulus) in the Nicobar group of Islands, India. Final Report submitted to BP Conservation Programme.

Email: [email protected]

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and instant plans to travel inter and intra The project wouldn’t have been Acknowledgements islands a huge success. possible without the continued support from BP, Flora and Fauna My sincere gratitude to Dr G the Andaman and Nicobar Forest The Team is indebted to the Chairman International, Birdlife International, Marimuthu for his patient Department in particular Mr Jayraj, Mr Tribal Council, Mr Thomas Ton ( Conservation International and guidance and support for training T.C. Nautiyal, Mr Pratap Singh and Mr Island) and Mrs Ayesha Majid (Nancowrie Wildlife Conservation Society through me on the basics about and Graham Dorai. The District Island). The village heads (Captains) are the BP Conservation Programme. The coping with my long absence from Commissioner (Andaman Is.), District specially thanked for their support and Rufford Small Grants and Lubee university. He has been very Commissioner (), hospitality in their areas Mrs. Cecillia, Conservancy- for Old World fruit bats supportive in ensuring that the Assistant Commissioner (Great Nicobar Mr.K.K.Allen, Ms.Leomean, Simon, Joel, supported the radio collaring study of study carries forward successfully. and Nancowrie Is) and the Assistant Urial and Emma are fondly acknowledged. the Nicobar Flying fox. Conservator of Forests Campbell Bay and Mr.Percy and Mrs. Iris Meyers are thanked Mr Harry Andrews, Director Nancowrie Group of Islands, Nicobar for their support Madras Crocodile Bank Trust/ district for issuing Andaman and us the necessary permits. My list would be incomplete without the Environmental Team for mention of the timely and valuable support encouraging my interest in winged The team witnessed the disaster on 26th rendered to my team by the defence forces. and introducing the December 2004, and people in the islands In particular I would like to thank Lt Gen team to the Nicobars. offered great solace and timely help. I and Mrs Aditya Singh, Comd and Mrs T. would like to especially express my Hari, Brig Devados, Brig and Mrs Balbir Dr. John Raswellier IV New York gratitude to Lt Gen B. K Thakur, Pama, Lt Col and Mrs Birender Singh, Col University and Dr. Tigga Commander and Chief Andaman and and Mrs Virender Kapoor, Capt Devinder Kingston, Boston University for Nicobar Command and his team of Chahal, Cdr Yadav, Lt Cdr Gaurav Arora, Lt their comments on the draft officers for passing information of our Supradeep and Lt Prasad. reports and guidance in the safety as soon as they could to our project. Dr Paul J. J Bates, Dr D homes. Also Lt Gen A. N Aul and all Dr Thiruchentil Nathan and Dr H. Harrison, Harrison Zoological officers of 29 Infantry Division for Raghuram for all the help and advice in the Museum, Kent for taxonomic sending us relief material for the tsunami course of the project. Ms.Puneet and clarification and training. Dr Paul affected people in the Nicobars. Their Ms.Geetha are acknowledged for their help. Racey, University of Aberdeen and help came in very prompt and readily. In Dr Allyson Walsh, Lubee field the team acknowledges the support Our project is indebted to Saw Ivan, Conservancy for useful comments of the Assistant Commissioner Kamorta Emanuel, Martin Ton, Amber, Samuel, and inputs on the project. Mr Island and for letting Christopher, Amar, Micca, Saw Johnny, Saw Sujoy Choudhary, Ecollage, Pune the team participates in the relief activities. Jonathan and Naveen who assisted us for valuable inputs in data The team is forever indebted to Prof during the project and without whom this interpretation and maps. Mr Francis Xavier, Officer on Special Duty to would have been an impossible feat. Saravankumar, Ecotone for final the Lt Governor Andaman and Nicobar edition and design. Mr Suresh Administration for his unconditional Babu, University of Delhi for support. identification of the flora in the Central Nicobar Islands. A special thanks to Mr Veeraya, Deputy Director Shipping Services, Andaman and The Chief Conservator of Forests Nicobar Islands for making our unplanned / Chief Wildlife Warden Dr Alok Saxsena, Shri Khazan Singh and Shri S. S Chowdary and officials of

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Contents 5. Implications for conservation in the Andaman and Nicobar Island 26 Summary 5 5.1 Hunting of flying foxes in the islands 26 1. Introduction 6 5.2 Conservation measures – solution to the existing problem 27 1.1 General introduction 6 5.2.1 Education and awareness -- present and future 27 1.2 Global scenario 6 5.2.1.1 Target Groups 27 1.3 Regional scenario 7 5.2.1.1.1 Group 1 – hunters 27 1.4 Studies in the past 7 5.2.1.1.2 Group 2 – Village heads 27 1.5 Studies undertaken by the team 8 5.3 Threats to fruit bats and other fauna in the islands 28 1.6 Fruit bats in the Central Nicobar Group of Islands 8 5.3.2.3 Legislative imperfections 28 1.7 The Stakeholders 8 5.3.1 Direct threats 28 5.3.1.1 Hunting in the islands 28 2. Study Area 9 5.3.1.2 Habitat loss 29 2.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 9 5.3.2 Indirect threats 29 2.2 Central Nicobar Group of Islands 10 5.3.2.1 Disturbance of caves -- bat habitat under pressure 29 2.2.1 Habitat description 11 5.3.2.2 Introduced species 29 2.2.1.1 Mangrove forest 11 5.4 Discussion 29 2.2.1.2 Littoral forest 11 2.2.1.3 Evergreen forest 11 6. Tsunami and its aftermath 32 2.2.1.4 Grassland 11 6.1 Diary of Events 32 2.2.2 Climate 12 7. Literature cited 37 3. Material and methods 12 3.1 Phase I: Determining foraging area and fruits in the diet of the Pteropus 12 8. Appendix I spp Species consumed by fruit bats and their fruiting/ flowering months 41 3.2 Phase II: Radio collaring studies and foraging range estimations 13 3.2.1 Data analysis 14 List of Maps 3.3 Phase III: Identification of threat to the bat fauna in the islands and 14 Map 1: Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands 10 awareness campaigns Map 2: Central Nicobar Group of Islands 10 4. Ecological studies on the fruits bats 15 4.1 Identification of foraging areas 15 List of Tables 4.2 Radio-telemetry studies of the Nicobar flying fox 15 Table 1: Weather conditions in the Central Nicobar Islands 12 4.2.1 Day roost characteristics and foraging ranges of P. faunulus 16 Table 2: Foraging sites of Megachiropterans on Kamorta, Nancowrie and Trinket 15 4.2.2 Feeding habits of Pteropus faunulus 17 Islands 4.2.3 Fruit preference of Pteropus faunulus during Jan 2006-April 2006 19 Table 3: Details of radio-collared Pteropus faunulus collared at 15 4.3 Niche separation among three species of fruit bats 36-44 19 Table 4: Plant species consumed by Pteropus faunulus in Kamorta, Nancowrie and 15 4.3.1 Niche separation by roost site characteristics 19 Trinket islands 4.3.2 Niche separation by foraging time and habits 20 Table 5: Roost characteristics of the fruit bats on Kamorta Island 20 4.3.3 Niche separation by diet 20 Table 6: Foraging time of three species of fruit bats in Kamorta Island (n>20 20 4.4 Fruit size and colour preference by the fruit bats 23 observation nights) 4.5 Vertical differentiation – height and strata used by the fruit bats 23 Table 7: Tabulation of food items used by the three fruit eating bat species in 22 4.6 Discussion 24 the Central Nicobar Islands based on personal observation, interviews and radio collaring of P. faunulus

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Summary

Table 8: Wildlife threatened and hunted in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands 28 Action Tayam-peh is a community based the Central Nicobar Group (P. conservation project in the Nicobar Group melanotus, P. faunulus and Cynpoterus List of Figures of Islands which aimed to determine the brachyotis) was examined via direct Fig 1: Box-plot sex-based differences observed in daily shifts between day 16 ecology and threats to the Nicobar flying observation in the foraging areas as well roost and centre of 50% utilization density kernels for seven radio-collared individuals (2 females) fox (Pteropus faunulus), an endemic species of as through interviews with bat hunters. Fig 2: Box-plots of sex-based differences in foraging range sizes estimated 16 flying fox restricted to the North and Seasonally occurring fruits were from (a) 50%, (b) 75% and (c) 95% utilization density kernels for eight radio- Central Nicobar Group of Islands. In a preferred by the two flying fox species collared individuals (n=2 females) survey funded by BPCP in 2003, the to more easily available perennial Fig 3: Foraging ranges of 8 Pteropus faunulus individuals on Kamorta Island 17 Nicobar Flying fox was rediscovered after fruiting species like Ficus as against the Fig 4: Estimated foraging range of the entire sample of eight collared 18 almost a century. They survey also C. brachyotis which foraged on all the individuals of P.faunulus confirmed that the species was locally available fruits in a season. Of the 37 Fig 5: Fruit trees in bat ordinal space, grouped by habitat types 23 extinct in its type locality ( species of fruits used a 21% overlap was Fig 6: Proportion of fruits of different colour in the diets of P. melanotus, 23 Island). observed among the three fruit bats. P. faunulus and C. brachyotis Roost location, fruit colour preference Fig 7: (A) Proportion of fruit trees foraged on by the three bats, categorized 23 by height As a follow to the survey, eleven individuals along with vertical and temporal Fig 7: (B) Proportion of trees at different heights exploited by the three fruit 23 of P. faunulus were radio collared to foraging distinctly separated the two bats determine foraging ranges and for locating Pteropus spp from the . The the day roost in the Central Nicobars. two Pteropus spp revealed much stronger List of Plates Foraging range size, calculated from 50% dietary overlap (76% shared species) Plate 1: Morphological differences between the two Pteropus spp 13 Utilization Density Kernels, ranged from and P. faunulus favoured gaps and trees Plate 2(a): Pictorial representation of the diet of the fruit bats in the Central 21 31.63ha to 1,602.03ha. Males (n=6) at lower heights while P. melanotus Nicobar Islands appeared to use smaller, more contiguous favoured the canopy and heights. Plate 2(b): Pictorial representation of the diet of the fruit bats in the Central 21 areas (range: 31.63-643.69ha) than the two Nicobar Islands Plate 3: Threats to bats in the Central Nicobar Islands females (416.19ha and 1602.03ha). Roost Direct threat due to hunting and habitat 31 sites were distinct from foraging areas, loss and indirect threat due to poor Plate 4: Education programmes and local involvement of the inhabitants 31 Plate 5: The scenario on the fatal day- view of submerged Jetty in Kamorta 32 separated by a maximum distance of legislative measures and human Plate 6: The mangrove habitat converted into swamps of debris- Galathea 33 12.35km (mean: 7.05km; min: 2.11km). Day intrusion in cave for nest collection Bay roosts of Pteropus faunulus were located for attributed to the declining populations Plate 7: Teams participation in Tsunami relief work 36 the first time during this study and of bats in the islands. Most of the approximately 25 fruit trees were recorded hunting of fruit bats is carried out in the in its diet. P. faunulus is a solitary roosting foraging sites and few in the day roosts. species and selects roosts well camouflaged Hunting of other fauna was also in the canopy. Day roosts may not be recorded most of which are schedule I permanent (two males shifted roosts during species. Education programmes in the the study) and foraging areas might shift local language were carried out in 11 according to fruit availability and season. villages in the Central Nicobar Islands The dietary habits and niche overlap of the in three islands (Nancowrie, Kamorta three species of fruit bats found in and Katchal Islands). Target groups included hunters and villagers living close to the roost sites. The education programmes addressed the need to minimise hunting and disturbance to the bats in the area.

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vegetation because of the relative stability of IUCN 1996). An understanding of the 1. Introduction plant communities. (3) Flying fox home impact of extinction processes on ranges can cover hundreds of square different species is vital for ensuring kilometres of area, and thus large that viable populations of native species 1.1 General introduction time (Fleming 1982) and few studies megachiropterans can serve as “umbrella” can be conserved and maintained. have examined how and when plant- species, in the sense of species whose home Comparative studies of birds and Bats are important members of visiting bats exploit these resources. In range encompasses the home ranges of mammals species have suggested that tropical ecosystems, and in South part, this also reflects the difficulty of many other species sharing the same general conservation attention should be East Asia comprise of one-third of directly observing behaviour of free habitat (Liat 1966; Marshall 1983; focused on large species that reproduce the mammalian fauna (Cranbrook ranging bats as they forage (Law 1992; McWilliam 1985-86; Pierson and Rainey slowly and that are restricted to small 1987). The genus Pteropus lives Banack 1998). They perform important 1992; Suter et al. 2002). Lastly, (4) given the geographical areas. However the mainly on islands (Cheke and Dahl ecological functions that contribute to social nature of the conservation effort, importance of these biological 1981; Banack 1998). Large flying forest maintenance and renewal, through large megachiropterans can fill the role of characteristics for predicting species foxes (Megachiroptera, pollination and seed dispersal (Rainey et “charismatic megafauna”, or “flagship” extinction risk may be dependent on Pteropodidae; forearm length > 110 al. 1995). Their large size, colonial species, due to their size, conspicuousness, type of environmental disturbances mm) are a group of species roosting habits, and large foraging areas and interesting appearance and habits. prevalent in the area (Jones et al. 2002). particularly worthy of conservation make them susceptible to hunting and Habitat fragmentation deserves special attention. Old world fruit bats eat habitat degradation, which are leading attention as a potential cause of the decrease Of the 58 species and numerous the fruit, nectar or flowers, and causes of their decline (Mickleburgh et of biodiversity in tropical forests (Myers subspecies in the Pteropus genus five occasionally on leaves with a small al. 1992; Mildenstein 2002). In fact, large 1988; Janzen 1994; Laurence and are thought to be extinct, Pteropus amount of insects (Fujita and Tuttle flying foxes are one of the most Bierregaurd 1997) and studies conducted on brunneus and P. tokudae having become 1991; Marshall 1983; Dumount threatened subgroups of bats, species playing crucial roles in ecosystems Extinct (EX) within the last 50 years. 2003). More than 300 plant species particularly in functioning are particularly useful because Hunting bats for food has long been from 59 families, and these plants (Mildenstein 2002). any change in their diversity or abundance practiced in most of the areas where rely on the bats for seed dispersal may cause ecological dysfunction and fruit bats and man coexist. They can be and pollination (Fujita and Tuttle Their role in forest development, and subsequently result in a cascade of found for sale, alive or dead, on markets 1991). rely on fruits to typically large foraging areas, means that secondary extinctions inside fragments in and Malaysia where they supply all or part of their nutritional conservation efforts aimed at flying (Cosson et al. 1999). are eaten by the Chinese and requirements, so in addition to a foxes can benefit both the forests and Manadonese communities. Some variety of external fruit characters the creatures inhabiting them. The Bats are particularly important in oceanic communities believe eating fruit bats such as colour, size, and phenology, relatively strong interactive role of flying islands where they are often the only flying can cure such diverse ailments as the nutritional quality of fruits taken foxes in the forest ecosystem has made big enough to transport larger seeds. asthma, kidney complaints and even is essential for them (Thomas 1984; them attractive for conservation Fruit bats have been shown to be the sole tiredness (Fujita and Tuttle 1991), but in Hall and Richards 2000). The natural research; megachiropterans are thought pollinator and seed disperser of the silk most places they are simply seen as diet of most species of Pteropus is to be a relatively important species cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra) on the island of good eating. The market for fruit bats poorly known, although the reverse group to forest regeneration processes, Samoa in the south Pacific (Elmqvist et al. (Pteropus spp. and spp.) for sale is true of their utilization of due to their role in pollination and seed 1992). Fruit and nectar feeding bats play a on islands like the Commonwealth of commercially grown fruits (Richards dispersal (Rainey et al. 1995). Dietary pivotal role in the ecology of the rain forests North (CNMI), 1990). When selecting food studies of threatened tropical species can where they live, sharing the role of seed and Saipan, where they are eaten as a resources, plant visiting bats make at provide information helpful for dispersal and pollination with birds and luxury food item, has boomed over the least four choices: (1) the kind of conservation and management purposes insects. last 3 decades, placing great pressure on plant foods that are available; (2) as (1) what animals eat is important. the populations of bats on those and how much of each food type is Foraging habitat is one of the most 1.2 Global scenario neighbouring Pacific islands. Bat available, (3) where the food is fundamental limiting resources for populations have been hit hardest on located and (4) how long the food is wildlife, including bats (Findley 1993). About 25% mammals and 11% bird species the islands of Palau, Chuuk and available (Elangovan et al. 2000). (2) Wildlife managers can manage plant are currently threatened with extinction ( Pohnpei, which have become the main Fruits of many tropical plants are communities, rather than the wildlife patchily distributed in space and that ultimately depends upon the 6

exporters of fruit bats in the region the islands, this study does not attempt unprotected (Pande et al. 1991).The patterns 1.4 Studies in the past (Pierson and Rainey 1992; Wiles to comprehensively characterize the diet of species distribution and endemism have 1992). A number of case studies of the two sympatric species in the field not been taken into account while designing Much of the existing information on have proved that flying foxes all work restricted to a year. However, it is the current protected areas. The proportion bats were derived from general faunal over the world are threatened with intended to provide detailed information of habitat loss is greater on North Nicobar explorations, especially birds, in the past extinction due to habitat loss and of at least some of the food plants and a and Central Nicobar; with an average of (Abdulali 1976a) and from sporadic hunting pressure. This impact is description of the potential day roosts of 45% and 21% of the natural forest cover listing of bats primarily in the Andaman especially prominent on islands. The the Nicobar flying fox, a firm basis for loss over the past few decades (Sankaran group of islands (Abdulali 1976a, b; Das Mariana’s fruit bat (Pteropus marianas) initial conservation action. Locally 1998). Furthermore the Andaman and 1998; Deb 1998). Some of the major was reported to be in serious danger extinct from its type locality the Nicobar Nicobar protection of Aboriginal Tribes studies were by Miller (1902) who listed of extinction if its population decline Flying Fox was the focus in the present Regulation (1956) deters government 12 species of bats including other small was not halted. This arose due to the study to initiate a community based officials from taking strong decisions that mammals including the first description demand for personal consumption conservation programme in its narrow would endanger their own positions in case of the endemic Nicobar flying fox. Hill and commercial exploitation by geographical range. of any repercussions. Thus, it is important (1967) listed 25 species of bats collected market hunters. They are a delicacy that a local community based conservation by Humayun Abdulali, from the with the native Chamorro cultures 1.3 Regional Scenario initiative backed by an intensive ecological Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rao (Lemke 1986). These bats are native research on the Nicobar flying fox, to help (1992) reported the Andaman to the Mariana Islands and today Legal protection of bats in India has conserve this only endemic species of flying horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus cognatus), an <500 individuals have been long been ignored. The Fruit bats with fox in India and to develop a feeling of endemic species in the Andaman reported. These bats are presently the exception of Latidens salimalii are still ownership so that the success of survival of Islands and the Nicobar bat (Pteropus under strict protection laws. The listed in the Schedule V of the Wildlife the species will be insured even after the faunulus). Rao et al. (1994) reported the Philippine fruit bats, Pteropus (Protection) Act, 1972, classifying them research team leaves the study area. presence of Pteropus melanotus and P. vampyrus and Acerodon jubatus are as vermin. This is irrespective of the fact giganteus foraging at dusk in North Reef faced with the same plight today that some species are endemic to either The present study opened avenues for Island and an insectivorous bat, most of which are essential to the mainland India or to the Andaman and addressing questions rising due to the Rhinolophus sp. Das (1998 and 1999a) forest as pollinators and dispersers. Nicobar Islands. Such is the plight of the diseases due to the consumption of bat reported three species of which two They were also victims of habitat Nicobar flying fox, listed under Schedule meat. This could be a deterrent for the were insectivorous bats and a loss due to an increase in population. V and as vulnerable (VU) in IUCN. Very locals who eat this species. Cox et al. (2003) frugivorous species from Mount Harriet Although the case studies provided little is known on the ecology of this and Banack (2003) have discussed the National Park and seven species of bats here present a very bleak picture, the species. Being restrictive in distribution biomagnifications of cyanobacterial from the Rani Jhansi Marine National need for conservation of these these species might become extinct if neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disease Park in the Ritchie’s Archipelago, two “winged keepers of the forest” has current trends of hunting and habitat among the Chamorro people of Guam. of which were new records to the not been ignored and a number of loss continue in the islands. The These ethnic groups boil the bats (Pteropus islands (Rhinolophus reflugens and conservation efforts have provided a previous study (Aul & Vijayakumar sp) in coconut cream and eat them whole, Hipposideros cinerus). The past sporadic silver lining for these species, to 2003, Aul 2006) elucidates the including the wing membranes and brain. studies give a presence/absence name a few – Action Comoros, Save inadequacies in the current protected They were reported to die of amyotrophic indication of the species only in specific the Roddy Project have been quite area network for the conservation of lateral sclerosis/ Parkinson-dementia island and clearly indicate that there successful in their attempts. Since no bats assemblages in the islands. Only complex (ALS-PDC), a neurodegenerative were no efforts to determine the status, information exists on the diet of three islands Battimalv, Tillangchong disease similar to amyotrophic lateral distribution and conservation priority of flying foxes in the Nicobar Group of and Megapode islands are wildlife sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and any of the species present in the islands. Islands, the present study was sanctuaries and one (Great Nicobar) is a Alzheimer’s disease. This was related to the The taxonomic identity of these species conceived to gather basic biosphere reserve, with two national consumption of by fruit bats in the needs to be verified as no method was information on the flying foxes in parks. None of these protected areas area. The presence of cycads in the Nicobar described and reports claimed of the Nicobar Islands. Being the encompass the range of Nicobar flying may lead to similar effects in the people who sighting P. melanotus and P. giganteus pioneer attempt to gather fox. All the larger Islands in the Central eat Nicobar flying fox, though this needs to foraging at dusk on North Reef Island information of the flying foxes in Nicobar and North Nicobar remain be investigated. (Rao et al. 1994). The exact 7

distributional data for many species the Nicobar Flying fox. The effort was to access if there is any dietary overlap range according to secondary sources. is also ambiguous and no exact to “educate the causal agents: The between the species. If there is an overlap Habitat loss, hunting and locations were provided for a Nicobarese” rather than providing short- how do the species maintain a distinct niche agricultural/urban disturbance are the number of species recorded. term solutions. in the islands? Secondly, we have attempted most serious and common threats to P. to answer the probable reason for a small faunulus. The increasing human 1.5 Studies undertaken by the 1.6 Fruit bats in the Central Nicobar geographical range of the P. faunulus. population is rapidly decreasing the team Group of Islands Thirdly, the lack of any past information on available habitat, as the native forest is the day roosts or population of the P. cleared for agriculture and trees are The first phase of the survey on the In the Nicobar Group of Islands, the faunulus as well as the P. melanotus, radio felled for timber and firewood. In bats of was frugivores (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) telemetry was used to track 7 individuals of most Islands, the low land evergreen conducted in 2002- 2003 and are represented by Pteropus melanotus, P. P. faunulus to their day roost. The damage forests have already been converted to resulted in the identification of 17 faunulus, Cynopterus sphinx and C. brachyotis caused by tsunami has resulted in the coconut and areca nut plantations. species of bats and the discovery of (Aul 2002; Aul and Vijayakumar 2003; destruction of the mangrove habitats in the Tsunami has resulted in the disturbance an un-described bat species, on Aul 2006). P. vampyrus though reported Nicobar group, whether the destruction of of the species in the islands by causing which taxonomic work is in progress to be a seasonal migrant to the Nicobar the mangrove resulted in loss of prior day large scale destruction of the coastal (Aul 2002). Phase II of the work was Islands (Hill 1967) was not recorded in roosts is uncertain. habitats and settlements. The to survey the Nicobar Group of the survey by our team. Pteropus melanotus immigration of the coastal settlements islands for determining the bat fauna and P. faunulus are the largest bat species Pteropus faunulus is the only endemic fruit bat further inland has resulted in the in the islands (BPCP bronze award) in the Nicobar Group. C. sphinx occurs in the Nicobar Group of Islands and is clearing of prime forest land for and this was successful in in the South and North Nicobar group restricted geographically to a group of six settlements and thus increasing the identification of 12 species of bats of islands while C. brachyotis is present in islands in the Central Nicobars (Aul & pressure of habitat loss of the species. (Aul and Vijayakumar 2003; Aul the Central Nicobar group of islands. Vijayakumar 2003; Aul 2006). It is listed 2006). The survey of both the island Little is known about their movements under the Appendix II of the CITES and 1.7 The stakeholders groups was clearly indicative that within the islands and no information has been assigned VU (Vulnerable) status in lack of information of each faunal exists on their diet and roost the IUCN assessment (Ballie and The Nicobarese make up for the largest group, including bats was adding on characteristics. Study on the movement Groombridge, 1996). Pteropus faunulus was indigenous group in the archipelago to the decline in the species within the islands will provide important described in for the first time in 1902 from Numbering around 30,000 (ANI populations in the islands. A total of understanding of spatial and temporal Car Nicobar, the northernmost Island in the Census report, 2001), the Nicobarese 3 new records and 1 new species was patterns of habitat use and possible gene Nicobars (Miller 1902) and after almost a have their origins in the Austro-Asiatic the outcome of the survey apart for flow, and thus enhance the conservation century was rediscovered during the survey cultural complex with sometimes identifying > 300 day-roosts of the efforts for island species. P. faunulus is an conducted in 2003 (Aul & Vijayakumar strong, and sometimes subtle inter- species in the Andaman and Nicobar endemic species of flying fox 2003; Aul 2006). During the past survey in island variations in cultural expressions Islands (Aul 2002; Aul and geographically limited to the North and the year 2003-2004 the team was unable to as well as dialect. Vijayakumar 2003; Aul 2006). Phase Central Nicobar Islands only. In the locate the species in its type locality (Car III of the study was to study the diet Central Nicobar Group (Map 2), the Nicobar) and its absence in Car Nicobar The Nicobarese at present represent an and roost characteristics of Pteropus pteropodids are represented by P. suggested a local extinction. Car Nicobar is economic portfolio that combines faunulus (Nicobar Flying fox) and melanotus, P. faunulus and Cynopterus P. also the worst affected island in the Nicobar subsistent activities (such as fishing, identify the threats to the species in melanotus is the largest fruit bat with an Group of Islands primarily due to the hunting and gathering) with that of a the islands and the aim was to average fore arm of (165.5±8.03 mm) current developmental activities and large- market based economy mainly in the involve the local communities in the followed by the P. faunulus (118.5±11.5 scale habitat alterations (ANI Census report, export of copra (dehydrated coconuts) conservation of the Nicobar Flying mm) and C. brachyotis with a fore arm of 2001). Even in other Islands of the Central in exchange for rice, sugar, cloth, fossil fox (BPCP follow up project). Our (73.25 mm). P. melanotus and P. faunulus Nicobar group less than 10 individuals were fuels and other products. The Indian team facilitated the present project are sympatric species occurring in the sighted over a period of 10 months of welfare and development programmes which integrated scientific research, same geographical area. We have extensive survey 8 of which were hunted and efforts to mainstream the education and community collected information on the diet of the and 2 were pets. The population of this fruit Nicobarese have had inevitable participation for the conservation of three fruit bats in the Central Nicobars bat appears to have declined in its entire consequences on the ecology of the 8

2. Study Area islands. 2.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands Grasslands are a unique feature in only few islands in the Nicobar Islands. They The advent of air guns from Port The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (06° 45’ occur as patches on low hillsides, Blair and mainland India provided a N to 13° 41’N and 92° 12’ E to 93° 57' E) interrupted in some places by pristine quicker and more efficient way to sprawl in a crescent from south off the forest patches, on the islands of Car hunt birds and bats. In contrast to Myanmar coast to near (Map 1). Nicobar, Chowra, Bompuka, Tressa, the traditional way of hunting using Politically most of the islands are a part of Trinket, Kamorta and Nancowrie. crossbows where the hunt was the Republic of India, with a few northern These islands make up the Northern limited, the presence of air-guns has islands are administered by Myanmar. and Central Nicobar group of islands triggered an increasing trend to Biogeographically the islands have been with the exception of Katchal and shoot bats and birds. Most of the divided into two major divisions, the Tillangchong in the central Nicobar, hunting is carried out at the foraging Andaman archipelago consisting of more which lacks grassland habitats. sites and few in the roosting areas. than 500 islands and islets and Nicobar The seasons of the fruiting of the archipelago consisting of around 23 islands These islands contain some of the last silk cotton tree and a number of (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The Andaman remaining pristine rainforest habitats, preferred fruit trees by bats Islands are considered to be extensions of with unique assemblage of flora and coincides with the reproductive time the Arakan Yomas range, a southward fauna distinct from the mainland of the fruit bats. trending branch of the eastern Himalayas (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The that merges in the north with the ranges in islands, along with northeast India, The hunters shoot down these bats north-eastern India, forming a complex of form the western boundary of the Indo- and adopt the orphaned babies. To sub parallel north-north-east trending ridges. Burma biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. prevent the bat from flying away the The same ridge rises 135 km south of the 2000). The mammalian fauna of the forearm bone is removed and the Ayeyarwadi ridge in the . The Andaman and Nicobar Islands wings are clipped in some instances Nicobar group is the continuation of the comprises of a rich assemblage, of (Aul and Vijayakumar 2003). The Mentaweri Islands to the south and south rodents and bats (Miller 1902; Hill belief that its meat is a cure for west of Sumatra (Rodolf 1969; Das 1999b). 1967; Saha 1980; Pande et al. 1991). asthma encourages hunting in the Endemism is high among many groups islands. Even the bones and other The Andaman and Nicobar Islands exhibit a of vertebrates including mammals, part like wings find place in the diversity of forest types, each with its own birds, amphibians, reptiles and traditional medicine use. The distinctive floral components ( and invertebrate such as earthworms, concept of the trade of these flying Seth 1968). Some of the larger islands arachnids, molluscs and termites (Rao foxes is not prevalent in the islands display a veritable mosaic of forest types. and DebRoy 1985). Very little yet. There is no legal protection for The tropical forest ecosystems continuously information exists on the ecology and the fruit bats as they are listed in recycle water. Since most islands have very distribution of most faunal groups schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife few perennial rivers and streams, inland (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). (Protection) Act, 1972, classifying wetlands are restricted. Small ponds are them as vermin. The Nicobarese are formed by rainwater accumulating inside the Biodiversity loss is an important also currently exempted from the forest. Mangroves are found in both the conservation issue facing the scientific Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, island groups but are more extensive in the community over recent years. Greater 1972. Andaman group. The mangrove cover in the portion of the earth’s biodiversity is Andaman Islands is approximately 929 km² restricted to the “biodiversity hotspots”, and about 37 km² in the Nicobar Islands a network of eco-regions of extreme (Anon 1986; ANI FD 1999). diversity and endemism (Myers et al. 9

2000). But unfortunately these Andaman masked palm civet (Paguma regions are also centres of high larvata tytlerii), Dugong (Dugong dugon), human population density, making Dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Whale them highly prone to species (Balenoptera musculus), Spotted deer (Axis extinction (Cincitta et al. 2000). This axis), Andaman spiny shrew (Crocidura problem is acute in the tropical andamanensis), Nicobar tree shrew (Tupaia islands of the world, where the nicobarica nicobarica), Nicobar Flying fox species extinction due to (Pteropus faunulus), Andaman horseshoe anthropogenic activities is forecasted bat (Rhinolophus cognatus) and Lesser short to be relatively high (Vitousek 1988; nosed bat (Cynopterus brachyotis Fritts and Roda 1998). Although brachysoma). Very little information exists only five percent the earth’s surface on the ecology and distribution of most is covered with Islands, they faunal groups (Rodgers and Panwar contribute a greater percentage to 1989), including the bats, the taxonomic the earth’s biodiversity (Simberloff group for the study. Baseline 1974). The Andaman and Nicobar information for most bat species of Islands of the Indian region is no Andaman and Nicobar Islands is exception, they contain some of the virtually nonexistent and the information last remaining pristine rainforest on the species distributional patterns and habitats, with unique assemblage of ecological requirements would be of flora and fauna distinct from the great theoretical interest besides being mainland (Rodgers and Panwar crucial for management and design of 1988). Increasing human population, protected areas in the islands (Das 1997, habitat conversion, , 1999b). exotic species introduction and other development activities are causing a 2.2 Central Nicobar Group of Islands great threat to the faunal and floral diversity of these Islands (Nair 1989; The Central Nicobar Islands comprise of Map 2: The Central Nicobar Group Saldanha 1989; Sankaran 1995). Nancowrie, Kamorta, Trinket, Katchal, of Islands Tressa, Bompuka and Chowra Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Map 2). The present study was are rich in terms of biodiversity. conducted in Nancowrie, Kamorta and

Large mammals are absent in both Trinket islands, in the Central Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar Islands Group. Kamorta Island (188.2 sq. km) is (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). the largest island among the three islands Geographic isolation of these islands chosen for the study (Nancowrie: 66.9 has resulted in high degree of sq. km; Trinket: 36.3 sq. km). Trinket endemism. Endemism is more Island has been vacated after tsunami as pronounced in land animals. Out of it has been declared as unsuitable for Map 1: The Andaman and Nicobar 55 terrestrial and 7 marine inhabitation by the Andaman and Islands species reported so far, 32 species Nicobar Administration. The habitat in are endemic. Common mammals the three islands is similar and is found here are Andaman wild dominated by grasslands, evergreen (Sus scrofa andamanensis), Crab eating forests interspaced with coconut and macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), areca nut plantations. 10

2.2.1 Habitat description The tall mangrove trees and N. fruticans Most of the fruits consumed by the Nicobar Islands with a few exceptions serve as excellent perches for waders and frugivores in the Central Nicobar Islands like Katchal and Tillangchong Islands Although, the islands themselves are also as potential roosts for Pteropus were recorded within the evergreen forests which do not support the grassland type not very large in terms of area, they melanotus. Much of this habitat has been and the canopy heights varied from 5 m to vegetation and the topography of these are marked by high levels of habitat lost due to tsunami, and therefore is now 30 m and fruit colour from green to yellow islands is undulating as compared to the diversity. The major habitat types a drastically modified habitat with only a to red to purple in some of the fruit bearing flat topography of the rest of the observed in these islands are: (i) few surviving trees. species. An abundance of lianas, canes and Nicobar group which has a relatively Mangrove forests, (ii) Littoral climbers constituted the lower strata in these flat topography. Katchal and forests, (iii) Evergreen forests and 2.2.1.2 Littoral forest forests. Tillangchong islands are hilly and bear (iv) Grasslands. Each of these The littoral forest formation in the more resemblance with the southern habitat types is unique in floristic Central Nicobars is dominated by group of islands. composition and community Terminalia bialata, T. catappa, Syzigium structure. A brief description of each javanicum, Thespesia populnea, Dillenia and their occurrence and pentagyna, Barringtonia asiatica, and Ficus distribution in the Central Nicobar benjamina. These forests are usually Islands is given below. These found in low elevation and flat areas descriptions have been sourced from along the coast. The largest patches of unpublished data . these were located in Nancowrie bay, Kamorta east coast and on Trinket 2.2.1.1 Mangrove forests Island. Tsunami has damaged these The mangrove forest of these islands forest and lone few survivors were seen is dominated by different species of in select areas in Nancowrie and Rhizophora sp, Bruguerea gymnorrhiza, Kamorta. Tillangchong however did not support Sonneratia caesolaris and Nypa fruticans. mangrove creeks prior to tsunami Extensive tracts of mangrove forest 2.2.1.3 Evergreen forests though it supported large areas of Nypa dominated by Rhizophora apiculata and The evergreen forests in the Central fruticans swamps. These were potential R. mucronata are observed on the Nicobars have very high tree species roosting sites for Pteropus melanotus. west coast of Kamorta Island diversity (richness in Kamorta 82 per ha Amongst all the Islands in the Central namely in Bandar Khadi, Derring and 108 per ha) which is a remarkable and Northern Nicobar group (Map 2), Harbour and select area of feature considering the size of The Tressa Islands has the largest grassland Nancowrie harbour close to evergreen forest patches bordering the habitat and the least in . Champin and Hitui Villages and grasslands are typically stunted and are as compared to the other Trinket Bay in Trinket. All the markedly taller in the gentle slopes and 2.2.1.4 Grasslands islands in the group supported stunted creeks running in to the mangroves valleys. The grasslands of Central Nicobars form a vegetation and most of the forest was are bordered by Nypa fruticans and unique habitat with annual and perennial extracted with the economically Pandanus leram andamanesium swamps. In the evergreen forest tracts the grass species forming climax vegetation. important and useful trees extracted for commonly encountered species are Commonly observed grasses include construction activities in the Myristica andmanica, Knema andamanica, Themeda spp, Heteropogon contortus and settlements. Nancowrie, Chowra and 1 Description of habitats has been Sandoricum koetjape, Chisocheton sp., Chrysopogon spp. These grasslands are Car Nicobar Islands have practically no mentioned in Champion and Seth (1968) Bentinckia nicobarica, Barringtonia racemosa, scattered with stands of Pandanus odoratissmus primary evergreen forests and the same but detailed information on vegetation Fagrea spp and Ficus spp. and Bentinckia nicobarica. have been converted to plantations. have not been carried out in the Central Some pristine patches of evergreen Nicobar Islands. Suresh Babu, provided The described habitat is common forest are still present in small areas in the preliminary inputs for habitats in the 2 Pers. comm. Suresh. throughout the Central and Northern Central Nicobars. Kamorta (north: New Laful area); Katchal (West Bay and Southern areas);

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Bompuka (mostly all); Tressa (Central, 2.2.2 Climate , Minuk area). Habitat shrinkage 3. Materials and Methods due to loss in tsunami as well as The wet season in the Central unsustainable forest clearing for the Nicobar Islands extends from April new settlements is on the rise. to mid October with the dry season Field investigations were conducted in three in the forest that had a probability of also receiving rains intermittently. phases. . Phase I (October 2005- February being consumed by bats. The Cyclones were also observed in 2006) was to identify the foraging areas and observations were made of the fruits February and April with little prepare a check list of fruits consumed by P. available, colour of the fruit, taste, damage to some places in Kamorta. faunulus and P. melanotus in the islands. Phase odour and accessibility of the fruit. The seasonal variation in the II (January 2006 - March 2006) was to Visual observations in the night of Nicobars based on observation as estimate foraging range size for P. faunulus. fruiting trees were made to determine well as local information is depicted A total of 11 individuals belonging to P. the bat species utilizing the resource in Table 1. faunulus were radio collared and released at available. Confirmation of fruits

the point of capture. Phase III was to consumed by P. faunulus resulted in

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec identify the threats prevalent to the bat permanently tagging the trees with Dry fauna with emphasis on the flying foxes in engraved aluminium tags as a reference Light the islands. Key members were identified point for setting mist nets for capturing showers from different villages and hunters were individuals for radio telemetry studies. encouraged to join the team for education The codes were in number following Heavy rains campaigns and surveys. Phase III went the initials PF i.e. a P. faunulus tree. along with Phase I and II and information Repeated observations were made in Table 1: Weather conditions in the Central Nicobar Islands was gathered collectively regarding the diet the same area to rule of the possibility and threats to the flying foxes in the islands. of a fruit being consumed only on a We relied on local information, natural chance basis and to check for history characteristics and visual and consistency. telemetric observation of collared Pteropus faunulus individuals to estimate behaviour, Observation were made by four foraging range and reaction to the radio tags. individuals in teams of two each equipped with flashlights and binoculars 3.1 Phase I: Determining foraging area (Bushnell 10X40). Pteropus and fruits in the diet of the Pteropus spp spp were distinguished from each other by the pelage colour of the head and Two main methods were used in the back. The difference in pelage determination of foraging areas and for patterning and colouration is the easiest preparing a checklist of the fruits consumed diagnostic field characteristic available by the Pteropus spp on Kamorta, Nancowrie to distinguish the two species. The and Trinket Islands. (1) Foraging areas – number of individuals of P. melanotus Extensive surveys of the islands of Kamorta, and P. faunulus, height (m) of foraging, Trinket and Nancowrie was conducted to time of arrival at the feeding site (h) and prepare a checklist of the fruits available behaviour with other individuals was recorded. The number of bats feeding at the same time were recorded only by a single individual

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from each team placed in separate area closure of ephiphyseal growth plates of the to avoid an over counting of number of phalanges (Kunz et al. 1996). Each bat was individuals. (2) Bat hunter interviews - fitted with necklace bands and a number code Local information and interviews with unique for each individual. All the individuals bat hunters were conducted in 11 were also given a unique colour code P. different villages in 3 islands and 4 melanotus was fitted with a yellow colour ring follow up interviews with one key in the necklace band while the P. faunulus was informant from different villages was fitted with a white colour ring in the necklace. conducted. A total of 25 individuals of Pteropus spp were were sampled and given necklace bands, 7 of The purpose of the interview was also which were P. melanotus and 18 were P. to collect information on the dietary faunulus. Eleven individuals’ P. faunulus (9 components as well as any known males and 2 females) were fitted with radio roosts of the flying foxes, the frequency transmitters. with which bat meat appeared in the diet, any medicinal use of the species The transmitters used were not equipped with and preference of hunters between the activity sensors and would function even if the two sympatric species. The interview was stationary. At the time radio followed an informal discussion about transmitters were fixed no female was the bat species in the area, during which recorded to be either lactating or pregnant. the hunters information was evaluated Transmitters were fit around the neck of the based on photographs of each species animal using two methods (1) two individuals and descriptions. The interviews were were attached with wire bands and (2) nine evaluated for their degree of certainty individuals were attached with crochet thread. based upon the distinction made This was to ensure the wearing of the collar in between each species, the clarity and time and also to minimize the damage that depth of their information by the might be caused by wire bands. informant. The interviews and discussions were critical in determining All collars had a weak link designed to wear key people and target groups in the area off with time. Collars weighed 3.25 g (Type as well as identifying the threats to the PD -2C), had a battery life of 12 weeks Flying foxes in the islands. (Holohill Systems Ltd, Canada). We monitored the output with a TRX 2000 3.2 Phase II: Radio collaring studies receiver (Wildlife Materials Ltd, Illinois USA) and foraging range estimations and 3-element Yagi antennas (Wildlife Materials, Carbondale, Illinois). The body P. melanotus and P. faunulus were sampled weights of the individuals ranged from 110 g using mist nets with mesh size 25 mm to 220 g, and the weight of the transmitter set up at the foraging sites in Kamorta package represented from 2.8 to 1.4% of the Island. Morphometric details: weight (g), animals weight. This was well within the sex, forearm length (mm), wingspan recommendation of 5% of the body mass for length (m) and the details of the small michrochiropterans weighing less than Plate 1: Morphological differences between the two Pteropus spp metacarpal measurements were recorded 100 g (Aldridge Brigham 1988). Bats fitted for the two flying foxes. Age class (adult with radio transmitters were released in 2 days or sub adult) was based on the degree of from the day of the capture at the point of

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capture and were intensively monitored At the maximum 2-3 bats were monitored in a 3.3 Phase III: Identification of threat The second group was the village from the following night. To ensure re- single night. With the exception of FREQ 017 to the bat fauna in the islands and heads and communities who are the hydration of captives, bats were offered ♂ and FREQ 082 ♂, loss of radio contact awareness campaigns authorities and it was critical that 15% honey solution and were fed on with the collared bats was rare. In case of they be sensitized about the wildlife fruits consumed by it in the wild in case disruption of radio contact with a moving bat, Direct observation in field and Bat problems in the Islands. The village of prolonged captivity. The release of contact was re-established by walking towards hunter interviews identified the threats heads were crucial in implementing a the transmitter fitted bats was not done the bearing of disappearance or from an to the flying foxes in the islands as well no hunting season in their villages. on the date of capture itself to ensure elevated point close to the same. as to the other fauna in the Nicobar We organized education programmes that the collar was comfortable on the Group. Two main target groups were in the villages in the Central Nicobar individual and it did not make an Only on locating the species to a particular identified with which our team worked Islands with emphasis on the attempt to destroy it. point, such as a fruiting tree was taken as closely. Group I included the “hunters” importance of the fruit bats in the positive fix. The time of exit was the time the in the Nicobar Islands. The hunters in islands as well as the other fauna in Receivers were moved as necessary to individual took flight and headed off to its day the Nicobars are the local community the islands. These programmes were track the individual and sometimes to roost at the end of its foraging bout. The members who hunt the fruit bats for imparted using slide shows, some improve reception or to record multiple individual was followed till the signal grew meat. The hunting communities were games and talks in local language. bearings on a stationary bat. Bearings faint and was no longer received. This point critical as they have the most extensive Youth were encouraged to give talks were taken by a hand held geographic was used to ascertain the direction the information on the location of day roost to their villages after they were positioning system (Garmin, 12 channel individual was headed in and day searches for of flying foxes as well as caves in the trained by us and this was extremely GPS unit). Many positions were initially the day roost commenced from this point. islands. successful in increasing the local determined by triangulation when a bat Two days were allocated to each individual to participation. was stationary long enough for bearings ascertain which direction it exited and the to be sighted from two or more points. same direction was used as the starting point The exact positions were recorded from for the search of day roost. single bearings along which distance was estimated from signal strength and gain 3.2.1 Data Analysis (Law and Lean 1999; Winkelmann et al. Various probability density estimation 2000). Bearings were taken when we methods can be used to measure the home were <120 m to <2m from the range of both individuals and populations of a transmitter. On most of the nights the species: in this study, estimates of foraging radio collared bats were monitored ranges were made by drawing 50%, 75% and between 1800 and 0200 h. 95% utilization density kernels from positive fixes obtained for each individual using the Because P. faunulus did not spend much Animal Movement Extension to ArcView3.2 time in flight in the foraging area and (Hooge and Eichenlaub 2000). The Kernel continued feeding on the same tree for Utilization Density method is used based on a more than 3-4 h and because all the non-parametric statistical procedure to radio-collared individuals foraged in the calculate the probabilities of an animal being same foraging area it was possible to at various locations in space at a particular monitor more than 1 individual in the time. We used a Non-metric Multidimensional same area. The observer switched the Scaling procedure (McCune and Mefford frequencies on the receiver to record 1999) to explore gradients along which the presence of any other radio-collared three species separate themselves. individual in the same area while tracking the radio collared bats in the island.

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4.2 Radio-telemetry studies of the a house in Chota Enak, Kamorta 4. Ecological studies on the fruit bats Nicobar flying fox Island); another (M1) never returned to the area (it is possible that the 4.1 Identification of foraging areas Seasonally occurring fruits were A total of 18 P. faunulus individuals were latter was either hunted or moved preferred by P. melanotus and P. faunulus netted, tagged and released during the away from the island) and only three Foraging areas of the Pteropus spp and to the more study, but no recaptures were noted fixes were obtained for one individual Cynopterus brachyotis were recorded in a number easily available perennial fruiting species during the three months of radio (M9), preventing use of these three of sites on Kamorta and Nancowrie Islands like Ficus sp whereas; C. brachyotis collaring and trapping in foraging area. bats in further analysis. The eight (Table 2). Trinket Island was not used as a foraged on all the available fruits in a Only 8 of the 11 individuals collared remaining individuals showed normal foraging area by the two flying foxes during season. Of the 37 species of trees (Table 3) could be tracked through the behaviour in comparison to non- the survey months. In the past survey in 2003 exploited, a 21% overlap was observed study period - one individual (M3) was collared individuals, and were (pre tsunami), P. melanotus and P. faunulus had in fruits (and nectar) foraged on among hunted (the team retrieved the tag from observed to return to their foraging been observed to forage at Trinket. Cynopterus the three bats, but roost type and grounds (the point of capture) and brachyotis was observed to forage and roost on location, fruit colour preferred and 3 Hunting was observed to be at its peak forage with the individuals that were Trinket Island (n=5) apart from using vertical and temporal foraging distinctly during this time as the trees being utilized by present in the foraging area but not Kamorta and Nancowrie Islands. The survey separated the two Pteropus spp from the the individuals were clustered around villages tagged. Details and codes of the radio where local inhabitants used air guns to hunt resulted in the identification of more than 30 Cynopterus. The two Pteropus spp collared individuals are provided in the two flying foxes. The presence of the Table 3. species of fruit available in the forests revealed much stronger dietary overlap team in these areas served as a deterrent to (Appendix I). The Pteropus spp fed on 24 (76% shared species) but P. faunulus the hunting community but it cannot be species of fruits and the nectar of Ceiba appeared to favour gaps and trees at confidently stated that the species will be at pentandra. lower heights than P. melanotus. lesser risk once the team is away from field especially in the villages close to southern part of Kamorta. Freq Sex and Date of # Positive Island Locality* Species Month Code (mHz) No. release fixes Remarks Kamorta Kamorta jetty P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis November-March Y24 17 M1 06.01.06 0 Lost after release New Laful P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis April-June Y32 41 M2 08.01.06 41 Successfully tracked Munack P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis May-June /March-April Hunted, tag Y30 82 M3 08.01.06 0 retrieved Bada Enak P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis Jan-March Y31 104 M4 08.01.06 38 Successfully tracked Pilpillo P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis April-May Y25 127 M5 12.01.06 33 Successfully tracked Nancowrie Champin P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis December-Feb Y27 148 F1 18.01.06 10 Successfully tracked Hitui P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis December-Feb Y34 165 M6 18.01.06 21 Successfully tracked P. melanotus, P. faunulus, C. brachyotis June-July Y33 187 M7 16.01.06 22 Successfully tracked Trinket Tapiyang Cynopterus brachyotis June-July Y35 205 M8 25.01.06 22 Successfully tracked Trinket Cynopterus brachyotis November-Feb Y37 226 F2 30.01.06 18 Successfully tracked

Y38 245 M9 30.01.06 2 Successfully tracked

Table 2: Foraging sites of Megachiropterans on Kamorta, Nancowrie and Trinket Table 3: Details of radio-collared Pteropus faunulus collared at Kamorta Island Islands * see Map 2

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4.2.1 Day roost characteristics and (M2) that was roosting in a Calamus sp foraging ranges of P. faunulus took flight as soon as Day roosts of Pteropus faunulus were it was detected to a higher tree 15m located for the first time during this study away from the first sighting. The species using radio telemetry. Day tracking was moves very silently through the forest successful in locating 7 of the tagged bats and its flight cannot be detected by to their day roosts (5 males and 2 sound of the wings as P. melanotus. females). Collared individuals did not roost in clusters or groups but were found Proximity to the villages did not appear individually and confirmed the hypothesis to overtly affect selection of day roost of these bats to be living solitarily. The sites: three individuals (M2, M7 and F2) seven day roosts were distributed along roosted at sites within 1-2 km of the western side of the island and in Pulo habitation. (Bunder khari) and Daring Harbours just Fig 1: Box-plot of sex-based differences Fig. 2 (b) 75% utilization density behind the mangrove creeks and on the observed in daily shifts between day Collared individuals were observed to kernels eastern coast of Kakana Bay and New roost and centre of 50% utilization move between foraging and day roosts Laful Coast on Kamorta Island itself (see density kernels for seven radio-collared daily, maintaining day roosts sites Fig. 3 and 4). individuals (2 females) throughout the radio tracking season. Only two individuals (M2 and M4) Unlike other flying foxes, Pteropus faunulus a short, hovering flight over the roost tree abandoned their day roosts following is a solitary rooster selecting roosts among before heading straight towards the foraging the cessation of Ceiba pentandra flowering well camouflaged trees in the canopy. area, returning only during early morning in mid-March and we could not locate Foraging range size (Fig 1 and Fig 2), hours (0345-0400 h). On resurveying the day their new roost sites (see Fig. 4). calculated from 50% Utilization Density roosts during the second month (after 60 Kernels, ranged from 31.63 ha to 1,602.03 days) two previously located day roosts of Fig 2: Box-plots of sex-based differences in ha. Males (n = 6) appeared to use smaller, M2 and M4 were found relocated. Though foraging range sizes estimated from (a) 50%,(b) 75% and (c) 95% utilization density Fig. 2 (c) 95% utilization density more contiguous areas (range: 31.63- the sample is biased heavily in favour of kernels 643.69 ha) than the two females (416.19 males, there is evidence of significant sex- kernels for eight radio collared individuals (n=2 females) ha and 1602.03 ha). Roost sites were based differences in the distance travelled Foraging ranges of the eight distinct from foraging areas, separated by between day roost locations and the centre individuals were estimated from a maximum distance of 12.35 km (mean: of foraging activity, with the two females distributions of positive fixes obtained 7.05 km; min: 2.11 km). Males appear to tending to move further than the males (see by telemetric tracking for each roost closer to foraging areas (range: 2.11 Fig.3). After the foraging time, the individual (see Fig. 3). Though the to 12.35 km; mean: 6.20 km; median: 5.92 individuals would fly in a straight path sample is biased heavily in favour of km) than females (7.49 and 10.82 km; towards their roosts. males (n = 6), use of the 50% mean: 9.16 km). utilization density kernels show some Physiognomically, roost sites appeared to be evidence for sex-based differencing in Individuals left their day roots for similar: individuals roosted high up in well home range size, with males appearing foraging after sunset (1745-1800 h), taking camouflaged canopy layer trees, often with to occupy smaller, more contiguous dry leaves between foliage that reduced areas (range: 31.63-643.69ha) than the 3 The sunset in the Andaman and Nicobar spotting probability from the ground (field two females (416.19ha and islands ranges from 1715 – 1730 h. It is pitch assistants climbed up neighbouring trees to 1602.03ha). dark by 1730 – 1745 h. confirm the specific tree the individual was roosting in). On one occasion an individual Fig 2 (a) 50% utilization density kernels

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Despite the marked separation between to fruit throughout the year, and are possibly day roosts and foraging areas, the 50% an important food source during crunch kernel for all individuals was calculated at periods when seasonal fruiting ceases. only 97.85 ha, concentrated towards the southern end of Kamorta, between the 4.2.2 Feeding habits of Pteropus jetty area and the local veterinary hospital faunulus (Fig 3; Fig 4). The observed activity A detailed list of plant species consumed by patterns are most likely related to the the Nicobar flying fox is provided (Table 4). cluster of Ceiba pentandra, Psidium guajava Diet across collared individuals was not so and Ficus sp5, all of which were in fruit/ varied and comprised of both native and bloom in this area during the study planted fruits, with six of the individuals interval. Between the end of February and showing an apparent preference for planted mid-March a shift in flowering species species not native to the area, despite the (cessation of Ceiba pentandra, onset of Ficus occurrence of fruiting native species nearby. sp, Artocarpus lakoocha, Dillenia sp, Diospyros sp) and spatial location of flowering Feeding bouts occurred from 1830 h to (northwards) was observed and three 0330 h and .. individuals feed on till dawn individuals (M7; F1 and F2) were and were then observed to head straight for observed feeding on Artocarpus lakoocha , the day roost location. Within the foraging Ficus sp, Diospyros sp during this time, area, individuals selected specific trees on having shifted away from the southern which repeated feeding bouts were part of the Island. observed. On some occasions (n=4) the individuals feed on a single tree for between All collared individuals were trapped from 15 min and 2-3 h and then head to another this area. An asynchronous pattern of feeding tree nearby or far removed from the fruiting was observed for fruit trees on the tree it was first observed to feed on. three islands surveyed. For e.g. Dillenia Overlapping of both foraging areas and andamanica, a preferred fruit of Pteropus individual trees was observed but did not faunulus with a strong peach smell starts appear to cause any fights amongst fruiting in April and then again in individuals. November in an asynchronous pattern. Fruiting starts in March on north Radio collared as well as other individuals of Kamorta, May on Trinket and October on Pteropus faunulus displayed mating behaviour Nancowrie. A similar cyclic pattern was during January and February. The observed in most of the other species. individuals (M2; M5; M6; M7; M8 and F2) Ficus sp appeared in maximum diversity were observed to aggregate on Casuarina sp among the different family of plants in the in the study area and a courtship display was diet of the flying foxes, occurring in low observed which lasted for 60-90 min (n = elevation forests, coastal patches, 10) from 2000 to 2130 h. The flight of two plantations, forest edges and elevated bats resulted in chase and flight before Fig 3: Foraging ranges of 8 Pteropus faunulus individuals on Kamorta Island forests. These Ficus species were recorded settling back down on the tree, courtship lasting for 1-1.5 h. Flight between males and 4 Artocarpus lakoocha was not found near display was observed to be dominant during settlements, and is a canopy layer tree, located this time as well. After the courtship display within inland forest a little north of the the individuals returned to the foraging Kamorta Jetty area. areas. 17

Ht Fruit Vernacular Species (m) Location Strata colour Re- name Artocarpus lakoocha 30-40 Forest edges Canopy Green Fruit Lea Bentinckia nicobarensis 15-20 Inforest, slopes Gaps Red Fruit Jungli supari Red- Huksuak/Jungli Bentinckia sp1 15-20 Inforest, slopes Gaps Purple Fruit supari2 Buchnania sp 30-40 Forest edges Canopy Purple Fruit Kanap Necta Ceiba pentandra 30-40 Plantation Canopy White r Didu Dillenia andamanica 20-25 Forest edges Gaps Yellow Fruit Luinch Inforest, elevated Diospyros sp 30-35 areas Canopy Green Fruit Hinlanch Elaeocarpus Inforest, elevated macrocerus 30-35 areas Canopy Green Fruit Kumlang Inforest, elevated Ficus sp4 15-20 areas Middle Red Fruit Pong Ficus sp5 15-20 Forest edges Canopy Yellow Fruit Lanup Ficus sp6 20-25 Forest edges Canopy Red Fruit Pong yaniaak Forest-grassland Ficus sp7 20-25 edges Canopy Yellow Fruit Lanup (big tree) Mangifera camptosperma 30-35 Inforest Canopy Yellow Fruit Flat mango Inforest, elevated Myristica sp 20-25 areas Gaps Red Fruit Aukceya P. leram 5 to andamanesium 10 Grassland Middle Red Fruit Big pandanus 5 to Psidium guajava♦ 10 Plantation Middle Green Fruit Planted guava Semecarpus 5 to anacardium♦ 10 Plantation Middle Fruit Magifera indica♦ 20-25 Plantation Canopy Yellow Fruit Manga Inforest, elevated Sando ic m koetjape 25-30 areas Canopy Yellow Fruit Khutta Phal Forest-grassland Syzigium sp2 25-30 edges Canopy Purple Fruit Epoh Syzigium sp3 25-30 Inforest Canopy Purple Fruit Epoh tahane UID sp2 20-25 Inforest Canopy Green Fruit Amai Inforest, elevated UID sp4 20-25 areas Canopy Green Fruit Taminion Mitai/Coastal UID sp5 25-30 Coastal forest Canopy Green Fruit Badam 10 to Hihiluia/Kump UID sp6 15 Inforest Gaps Purple Fruit a

Table 4: Plant species consumed by Pteropus faunulus in Kamorta, Nancowrie and Trinket islands

♦planted species; UID: Un-identified species Fig 4: Estimated foraging range of the entire sample of eight collared individuals of P.faunulus

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4.2.3 Fruit preference of Pteropus 4.3 Niche separation among three 4.3.1 Niche separation by roost site A roost located on Tillangchong faunulus during Jan 2006-April 2006 species of fruit bats characteristics Island where P. melanotus was Radio tracking was conducted during the The day roosts of the three fruit bats in roosting on Nypa fruticans was months of Jan 2006-April 2006 and the Niche separation among the three fruit bats the islands were distinct and showed a destroyed by Tsunami. A following species were fruiting during was broadly seen in three categories (1) clear demarcation in the tree species subsequent survey in April 2006 these three months. Ceiba pentandra, Ficus separation in terms of roost sites, (2) selected for roosting on as well as habit. survey showed that this roost had sp7, Ficus sp3, Artocarpus lakoocha, Psidium separation by foraging time and habits and It was postulated before the start of the been re-established, probably guajava, Diospyros sp were found during the (3) separation by diet. In terms of roost sites project that the two species of flying because the Nypa palms are fast radio tracking of P. faunulus. In January C. the differences between the tree fruit bats foxes roosted together in the same roost growing and were almost restored pentandra and P. guajava were in maximum was distinct with P. melanotus using roost in in the islands but field data collected to normal in their original areas, abundance and by mid February A. Nypa fruticans swamps in colonies ranging proved otherwise. A distinction of unlike mangrove species which take lakoocha and Ficus sp 3 started to fruit. from 400-500 individuals while P. faunulus is niches was observed between the two more time to recover. The Diospyros sp fruiting was seen in April. a solitary species roosting well camouflaged sympatric flying fox species in the roosts population of this roost (>500 Individuals were seen to forage in the in the canopy. C. brachyotis was observed to used. Cynopterus brachyotis too was individuals) was the largest I same area (Fig. 3) and the territories exploit the fronds of Cocus nucifera and live in observed and the results are represented encountered post tsunami. None of overlapped (M2, M4, M6, M7 and M8) a group of 5-6 individuals in a single roost. in Table 5. P. melanotus roosts in large the day roosts were located close to were tracked to use the same tree (C. The foraging time of the three fruit bats was colonies in mangrove trees deep inside habitation. On Kamorta Island, P. pentandra) together. No interferences were separated as C. brachyotis was the earliest the creek and in the evergreen forests on melanotus pups were observed in seen in between individuals of the same (1745-1800 h) to reach a foraging site and tall and robust trees. The prime habitat December and February. On three species or between the two sympatric continue (0200-0300 h) for a much longer used as day roost were mangrove trees occasions pups were found to have species of flying foxes for a common time while P. faunulus arrived around 2000 h and Ficus sp in the Andaman Islands been dropped from roosts in three resource. Each individual used a separate and continued till 0300-0400 h. P. melanotus while in the Nicobars the day roosts villages on Kamorta Island in flowering branch for feeding and returned was a late arriving (2300 h) at the feeding were located in the mangrove trees as February and March. (Changua to its daily during the tracking period till sites and left at 0400 h. There was very little well as Nypa fruticans. A maximum of ca. village, Bada Enak and 8 km village). the cessation of the flowering and onset difference between the two Pteropus species 2000 and a minimum of 20-30 Pups appeared to be 3-4 months old of the fruit of C. pentandra. P. guajava was in terms of the diet as they fed on similar individuals were observed at a single and it is probable that the mating also consumed more regularly by (M4, M6 species at different height with P. melanotus roost. No day roosts were observed in season was initiated during May or and M8) and the individual would stay feeding in the upper canopy level heights the forest of the Nicobars except a rare June at the onset of the monsoon. and feed on the fruit of P. guajava the and P. faunulus exploiting the middle canopy sighting of a single individual in the Day roosts of Pteropus melanotus whole night alternating it with a short level height and gaps. C. brachyotis was evergreen forest of Kamorta Island. No located on Tillangchong Island had foraging bout to C. pentandra tree and then distinctly foraging in the lowest level among other sighting of such roost was pups clinging to mothers in April. P. returning to the same tree for feeding. M3 the three. Based on the date it was observed observed on the Island. This sighting faunulus on the other hand roosts in had been hunted and was tracked to a the P. melanotus preferred to forage in the was post tsunami in the month of the forests fringing the mangrove hunter’s house in Kamorta. With the inland forest as compared to the agro forests February. Tsunami destroyed all of the creeks and does not roost in large onset of A. lakoocha mid February a shift while P. faunulus was sent to select species potential roosts used by P. melanotus colonies. None of the attempts in of some specie to the new fruit was seen not native to the islands (Psidium guajava, including those located in mangrove and the survey by me were successful in (M2 and M5). Diospyros sp fruiting was Mangifera indica) in the case where options of on Nypa palms. Immediately after the locating the day roost of this ready by end March early April and a sole both native (Artocarpus lakoocha, Ficus sp) tsunami (January 2005) ca. 10-15 endemic flying fox in the islands. M5 was recorded in Munack, south east were also fruiting at the same time. C. individuals were observed to temporarily Radio collaring studies of the of Kamorta Jetty area (Fig. 4). brachyotis did not show any specific use the littoral forest of Kamorta Island, species was successful in locating preferences to the location and could be selecting to roost on Casurina sp. A re- the day roost of 6 individuals of the termed as a generalist feeder. survey of the same site in March 2005 11 individuals’ radio collared. It showed that the roost had been usually roosts singly in the day and abandoned. aggregates in the feeding areas for

5 Based on information obtained about the capture of the pup and estimation. 19

interaction and mating. The six individual Cynopterus brachyotis has been well studied 4.3.2 Niche separation by foraging I). Local names have been provided roosts that were located were on Kamorta across mainland India, but no detailed time and habits and some species which remain Island itself. The individuals roosted high information exists on its distribution in the C. brachyotis generally began feeding at unidentified are mentioned as such A up in the canopy and were well concealed Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The dusk (1800 h) and carried on gregariously total of 43 species of fruiting plants when observed from the base of the tree. species was observed to roost in Cocos sp till dawn (0330 h) while P. faunulus started were encountered in the study area They appeared to prefer tall trees of about fronds and in the entrances to caves in the after dusk, peaking at between 2000 h and of which 37 species were used by the 20-30 m height. The dominant species Andaman Islands, while in the Nicobar 2300 h and then again at ca. 0200 h while three species of fruit bats. Most fruits that appeared in its roost were Sandoricum Islands it roosted within either Cocus sp or P. melanotus started at 2300 h and peaked at found in a particular season belong koetjape, Fagrea racemosa and Buchnania sp. Areca nut fronds on trees located in 0200 h. C. brachyotis rarely stayed for a long to the families Meliaceae, Three of the six day roosts located was plantations or in the forest, in groups of 4- time in any one fruiting tree, hovered Anacardiaceae, Rubiaceae, sited within 2 km of village settlements, 5 individuals at each site. These were around near the fruit, bit off bits and flew Melastomataceae, Sapotaceae and while the others were at safer distances. observed roosting under thatch roofs of to nearby feeding roosts. P. faunulus Palmae. The number of plant species The preference of the species appeared to houses. The proximity to human preferred to feed on fruits by staying at the consumed by fruit bats is represented roost in areas with a number of lianas, settlements did not have any impact on fruiting tree itself. P. melanotus on the other in Table 7. climbers and Calamus sp in the understory the location of the roosts of this species. hand would bite off pieces of the fruit, if which prevented their easy detection from larger, and fly to nearby feeding roosts and Pteropus spp accounted for 27 of the the ground. The trees the individual was feed on the pieces. If the fruit was smaller, species (71%) while Cynopterus roosting in were either canopy trees like fruits of the species Syzigium spp and brachyotis accounted for 18 species in located in partial open canopies or gaps. Ficus spp the individual stayed on the its diet (47%). Among the 37 fruit fruiting tree and consumed the fruit there trees recorded only 8 species (~21%) itself. The time for foraging of all the three were observed to be consumed by all species in the study area begun at different the three species of pteropodids times but overlapped in between and then these included Ceiba pentandra, ended at separate times. The time of Mangifera camptosperma, three Ficus Type of Numbe foraging varied for all the three species of spp, two Syzigium spp and Semecarpus Species Island roost rs Remarks fruit bats in the islands (Table 6). anacardium. P. melanotus exclusively Roosts in aggregations in the island. fed on two species and P. faunulus on Commonly seen in the mangrove Pteropus 4.3.3 Niche separation by diet another 6 species and C. brachyotis Kamorta Foliage 150-300 creeks and upper canopy trees melanotus Interviews and visual observation in field exclusively fed on 8 species of fruits throughout Andaman and Nicobar Islands confirmed the diet and seasonality of fruits not appearing in the diet of the Roosts solitarily during daytime, appearing in the diet of the fruit bats in Pteropodids. P. melanotus and P. observed to camouflage well into the the islands in different months (Appendix. faunulus jointly fed on 19 species of Pteropus canopy in the day roost. Roosts fruits not shared by C. brachyotis. Kamorta Foliage 1-2 faunulus located on the mangrove fringes 02.0 0 .0 towards the forests on Kamorta Hours → 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 23.00 24.00 01.00 0 04.00 05.00 Island P. melanotus Roosts in small groups, seen to P. roost under coconut / areca nut leaf Cyanopterus Foliage/tha faunulus Kamorta 5-6 fronds and thatch leaves in houses brachyotis tch roofs C. throughout the Andaman and brachyotis Nicobar Islands Table 6: Foraging time of three species of fruit bats in Kamorta Island (n>20 observation Table 5: Roost characteristics of the fruit bats on Kamorta Island nights) Note: The shaded areas indicate the foraging activity

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Plate 2(a): Pictorial representation of the diet of the fruit bats in the Central Nicobar Plate 2(b): Pictorial representation of the diet of the fruit bats in the Central Islands Nicobar Islands

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Only three species of planted fruits Tree species used (n = 37), general Plant species P.m P.f Resource Source of Degree Vernacular name were found in the diet of the fruit height (seven ordinal categories: <5 m, information of bats in the study area; namely Musa 5-10 m, 10- 15 m, 15-20 m, 20-25 m, certainty Artocarpus lakoocha X x Fruit 1,2 C Lea/ Thompeing paradisiaca, Psidium guajava and 25-30 m and >30 m) and occurrence Musa paradisiacal - - x Fruit 1,2 C Hipu Mangifera indica. M. paradisiac was only within vertical strata (four ordinal Bentinckia nicobarensis - x - Fruit 1,2 UC Jungli supari consumed by C. brachyotis and Psidium categories: gaps, lower storey, middle Bentinckia sp1 - x - Fruit 2 UC Huksuak /Jungli supari guajava exclusively by P. faunulus while storey and canopy), fruit colour (green, Buchnania sp X x - Fruit 1,2 C Kanap M. indica was shared by P. melanotus yellow, purple, red or white) and Calamus andamanicus - - x Fruit 1,2 UC Moota beth and P. faunulus. Most of the fruits habitats they were located in (five C. palustris - - x Fruit 1,2 C Chotta beth consumed by the flying foxes were categories: Inland forests, Plantations, Ceiba pentandra X x x Nectar 1,2,3 C Didu small, oval and pulpy, strongly Grasslands, Edges and Coastal-forests) Dillenia andamanica X x - Fruit 1,2 C Luinch Diospyros sp X x - Fruit 1,2 C Hinlanch aromatic and sweet tasting, P. faunulus were recorded and analyzed using a Elaeocarpus macrocerus - x - Fruit 1,2 C Kumlang however fed on Taminion (UID sp 4) Non-metric Multi-dimensional scaling Fagrea sp - - x Flower/Fruit 1,2 C Mallock which was sour tasting. method (PC-ORD version 4.0; Ficus glomerata - - x Fruit 1,2 C Ficus sp7 McCune and Mefford, 1999), resulting Ficus sp1 - - x Fruit 1,2 C Ficus sp1 C. brachyotis is a generalist and in a 2-dimensional solution that Ficus sp2 - - x Fruit 1,2 C Ficus sp2 voracious feeder, flying in and out of cumulatively accounted for 95.3% of Ficus pendula - - x Fruit 1,2 C Ficus sp3 plantations and forested areas in the variance in the original tree bat use Ficus sp4 X x - Fruit 1,2,3 C Pong search for fruit. A distinct click-click matrix (r2 Axis 1=0.221, r2 Axis Ficus sp5 X x x Fruit 1,2,3 C Lanup Ficus sp6 X x x Fruit 1,2 C Pong yaniaak sound confirms its presence in the 2=0.732). This result is presented in Ficus sp7 X x x Fruit 1,2 C Lanup (big tree) foraging areas. Cynopterus brachyotis is Fig 5. Axis 1 is interpreted as a weak Mangifera camptosperma X x x Fruit 2 UC Flat mango oblivious to which other species was gradient representing habitat strata Myristica sp - x - Fruit 1,2 C Aukceya feeding on the same fruit. The two (Kendall’s r=-0.319, tau = 0.006) and P. leram andamanicum x x - Fruit 2 UC Big pandanus sympatric species of flying foxes fed separating the P. melanotus and P. Pandanus odoratissmus x - - Fruit 2 UC Hikai on the plant species and individuals faunulus based on P. faunulus more Psidium guajava - x - Fruit 1,2,3 C Planted guava which were (1) easily accessible; (2) prevalent use of trees in canopy gaps. Semecarpus anacardium x x x Fruit 2 UC Planted cashew greater than 15 m in height; (3) Axis 2 represents a strong gradient of Mangifera indica x x - Fruit 1,2 C Manga Sandoricum koetjape x x - Fruit 1,2 C Khutta Phal strongly aromatic; (4) sweet tasting tree height (Kendall’s r = 0.622, tau = Semecarpus kurzii - - x Fruit 1,2 C Jungli Kaju and smooth textured. 0.494) and fruit colour along which the Syzigium sp1 x - - Fruit 1,2 C Matmuang two Pteropus sp are separated from the Syzigium sp2 x x x Fruit 1,2 UC Epoh Cynopterus. Syzigium sp3 x x x Fruit 1,2 UC Epoh tahane UID sp1 - - - Fruit 1,2 C Jipach Table 7: Tabulation of food items UID sp2 - x x Fruit 2 UC Amai used by the three fruit eating bat UID sp3 - - x Fruit 1,2 C Cynopterus b spp (trinket) species in the Central Nicobar UID sp4 x x - Fruit 1,2 C Taminion UID sp5 x x - Fruit 2 UC Mitai/Coastal Badam Islands based on personal UID sp6 x x - Fruit 2 UC Hihiluia/Kumpa observation, interviews and radio collaring of P. faunulus

Note: 1 visual observation; 2: interviews and secondary information; 3: Radio collaring studies; C: reasonable certainty; UC: reasonable uncertainty; UID: Un- identified species; х denotes consumed or fed upon. P. m: Pteropus melanotus, P. f: Pteropus faunulus, C. b: Cynopterus brachyotis.

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4.4 Fruit size and colour preference by 4.5 Vertical differentiation – height and the strata used by the fruit bats fruit bats The pteropodids were not seen to feed on Fruit size did not appear to be a the species that constituted the middle determining factor for a plant species to strata of the forest and even if it was a be a preferred food item for the flying species that occurred in the diet of the foxes as a majority of the fruits consumed flying foxes: heights of fruiting trees by the flying foxes range in size from 12.3 appear to be a critical element in to 15.5mm in length , with the exception determining whether a tree is exploited. of the Psidium guajava which was about 40- Cynopterus however seen to feed on the 45 mm in length. Psidium guajava is a Ficus sp which were in the middle strata planted species and is preferred by P. with a height of 10 m or less as well as on faunulus and C. brachyotis and not by P. individuals which were not easily melanotus. In terms of fruit colour, C. accessible. brachyotis appears to favour lighter coloured fruits than either of the two Though there was an overlap in the Pteropus sp, among which fruit choice is species consumed by the two sympatric more evenly distributed by colour (see Fig flying fox species, while feeding on the 6). fruit species Pteropus melanotus fed on the same species in different areas and at different heights (> 20 m) while P. faunulus fed at a height between 15-20 m, C. brachyotis on the other hand fed at lower heights (Fig. 7 A and Fig. 7 B). P faunulus was also observed to use fruiting trees in canopy gaps more than P. melanotus.

Fig 5: Fruit trees in bat ordinal space, grouped by habitat types

Fig 6: Proportion of fruits* of different colour in the diets of P. melanotus, P. faunulus and C. brachyotis

*Note: White refers to flowers of Ceiba pentandra, from which nectar is extracted by all three bats.

6 The unconsumed fruit was measured for Fig 7: (A) Proportion of fruit trees determining its length by dial vernier callipers. foraged on by the three bats, This was an estimation of the size of the fruit categorized by height consumed by fruit bats. C.b, Cynopterus brachyotis, P.f, Pteropus faunulus, P.m, Pteropus melanotus 23

individual responses on overall home pentandra, Psidium guajava and Ficus sp5, all This could also explain its small range size can be determined (Getz et al. of which were in fruit/bloom in this area foraging ranges as compared to 2005). A during the study interval. A compact home Pteropus melanotus. Through the number of studies on rodents to range often is accompanied by small intra- period of telemetric observations, determine the effect of population density specific overlap in core-use area used for no individual was recorded moving on home ranges concluded that feeding. However, significant overlap in between islands: telemetric fixes for population densities should have a home ranges within and between bat eight individuals were concentrated negative influence on home range size species often occurs if shared food species in an area under 100 ha across three (Gaines and Johnson 1982; Rodd and produce large crops that are highly months (January-March). This Boonstra 1984). In tropical forests, the clumped (Bonaccorso et al. 2005). The however doesn’t confirm the home ranges of frugivorous and black bellied fruit bat, melanops, absence of inter island migration Fig 7: (B) Proportion of trees at nectarivorous bats that roost singly or in is the largest obligate nectarivore (45-55g) and may only reflect the seasonal different groups of <20 individuals are usually of the family Pteropodidae in the South nature of these observations and the heights exploited by the three fruit smaller than 15 ha. This has been Pacific region (Bonaccorso 1998). fact that P. faunulus may aggregate bats demonstrated in pteropodid bats in Papua Bonaccorso et al. (2005) in an attempt to within small patches of

New Guinea, including australis determine the home range of Melonycteris fruiting/flowering trees. Day roosts C.b, Cynopterus brachyotis, P.f, Pteropus (Winkelmann et al. 2000), minor melanops radio collard 15 individuals and were separate from centres of faunulus, P.m, Pteropus melanotus (Bonaccorso et al. 2002), and observed that the movement of individual foraging activity, and some evidence

minimus (Winkelmann et al. 2003). black-bellied fruit bats was not random, was found of greater loyalty to roost 4.6 Discussion but highly clumped within small home site by females, that appear to use

Small home ranges in bats living in topical ranges that varied from 0.5 to 9.2 ha. Small larger, more distributed foraging Radio-tracking is an important, commonly forests select the high production of fruits home ranges are characteristic to solitary areas located at a greater distance used technique for research on bats. 17 and flowers throughout the annual cycle foliage-roosting pteropodids. from day roosts than males. studies published in the Journal of (Smythe 1970; Bonaccorso 1979). In the Anderson (1986) and Desy et al. Mammalogy over the past decade applied radio tracking of P. faunulus we observed P. samoensis, is an endemic species to the (1990) found that home ranges of radio collars to bats involving 338 that the roost sites were distinct from Samoan and Fijian archipelago exists along some species of aricoline rodents to individuals of 15 species, most of which foraging areas, separated by a maximum with P. tonganus on Tutuilla Island, be smaller in sites where the risk of were insectivorous bats (Neubaum et al. distance of 12.35 km (mean: 7.05 km; min: American Samoa. The Samoan population predation was higher (i.e. habitats 2005). The American societies of 2.11 km). Males appear to roost closer to was believed to be near extinct as a result with sparse cover), suggesting Mammologists (1998) recommend that in foraging areas (range: 2.11 to 12.35 km; of habitat loss and extensive commercial predation risk may also influence such studies, the mass of radio mean: 6.20 km; median: 5.92 km) than hunting. P. samoensis is a solitary roosting home-range size. transmitters should not exceed 5% of the females (7.49 and 10.82 km; mean: 9.16 species with the males roosting on dead body mass of the tagged bat. This km). Despite the marked separation branches that jutted out of the canopy After foraging the radio collared P. recommendation is based on the findings between day roosts and foraging areas of while the females and dependent young faunulus flew close over the canopy of Aldridge and Brigham (1988). the radio collared P. faunulus, the 50% roosted below the canopy, hidden within heading straight to their day roost

kernel for all individuals was calculated at vegetation. Adult male-female pairs were whereas P. melanotus was observed to A number of factors potentially influence only 97.85 ha, concentrated towards the seen together only in the mating season take a high flight over the canopy variation in home-range size of individuals southern end of Kamorta, between the (Brooke 2001). The Nicobar flying fox probably towards their roost. Wiles within a population. Each individual jetty area and the local veterinary hospital. Pteropus faunulus is a solitary roosting et al. (1997) reported while studying adjusts its use to best suit its own survival species, and this was confirmed by radio the feeding ecology of the bats in and reproductive strategies. By analyzing The observed activity patterns are most collaring. Palau islands that bats making short movement distances of all individuals in likely related to the cluster of Ceiba flights in the early evening indicated the population, evaluation of impact of

24 that foraging often occurred within 1-2 was observed (including one species At the time of two fruit-bearing species Cultivated fruits like Mangifera indica, km of the day roosts and bats regularly exploited for nectar) between all three Ficus sp which is a ‘steady-state’ species Psidium guajava and Ceiba pentandra seen at dusk flying in relatively straight bats, but fruit colour preferred, vertical producing fruits over an extended period were more common in the diet of P. paths above the landscape, suggested that and temporal foraging pattern distinctly of time and Ceiba pentandra a ‘big-bang’ faunulus. A total of 37 plants were some animals travelled greater distances to separated the two Pteropus sp from the species producing a large number of identified of which 19 were shared by reach foraging sites. Cynopterus. In terms of fruit colour, C. blossom over a short time P. faunulus went the two Pteropus sp in the island. Our brachyotis appears to favour lighter in for the fruit-bearing species which results were consistent with Foraging habitat is one of the most coloured fruits than either of the two represented the ‘big-bang’ phonological predictions of Flemings (1986) for fundamental limiting resources for Pteropus spp, among which fruit choice is characteristics. P. melanotus showed more frugivorous bats, Pteropus spp eat a wildlife, and management of foraging more evenly distributed by colour (Fig.15). territorial behaviour than P. faunulus, which non random subset of fruits. habitat often creates the largest response Among vertebrate frugivores, fruit colour, did not show any territorial behaviour in a of changes in wildlife populations display and odour have been of particular shared resource. Trewhella et al. (2001) In terms of vertical stratification the (Leopold 1933). The importance of interest. It has been demonstrated in observed resource defence behaviour of P. Pteropus sp did not favour middle and foraging habitat for bats has particular studies that birds preferred small, dark livingstonii on the kapok flowers to be lower strata trees as against the relevance in the case of large flying foxes, coloured fruits that are displayed for either common in large pteropodids feeding on Cynopterus, which was a dominant a threatened group of species generally perching or reaching birds (Wheelwright patchy resources. Elmqvist et al. (1992) in the lower and middle suffering from habitat loss (Mickleburgh and Janson 1985; Moermond et al. 1986; observed similar behaviour when P. strata. Though there was an overlap in et al. 2002). Many dietary studies on flying Willson et al. 1989). tonganus was feeding on kapok trees in the species consumed by the two foxes provide only tabulations of diet Samoa. In studies of sympatric species of sympatric flying fox species, while items used with no quantification of that The classical view of bat fruits is that they Pteropus samoensis and P. tonganus it was feeding on the same fruit species used (Marshall 1983; Richards 1990). are drab or light in colour, displayed determined that P. tonganus and P. samoensis Pteropus melanotus fed on the same These studies are however used little in openly by plants and have a distinct odour both foraged on fruits, flower resources species in different areas and at designing focused restoration projects. (van der Pijl 1957). Bollen and Elsacker and leaves in varying amounts. P. samoensis different heights (> 20 m) while P. Pteropus species feed on a wide variety of (2002) studied the feeding ecology of and P. tonganus fed on 36 and 42 plants faunulus fed at a height between 15-20 fruits, flowers and leaves (Pierson and Pteropus rufus in Madagascar and concluded respectively with 22 overlapping species m. In a study on the nectar-feeding Rainey 1992) and individuals show a that odour was the feature of most (65%) (Banack 1998). activity of three species of fruit bats, preference for certain foods on a seasonal of the fruits available in the forest. In our the larger P. giganteus foraged at a basis and can be regarded as ‘sequential results the two Pteropus spp did not show The differentiation between the resources height of about 25 m of the Ceiba specialists’ (Marshall 1985). any particular affinity to the colour of the used by the two Pteropus spp was not easily pentandra tree. The medium sized bat fruit but the odour of the fruits consumed accomplished. The differences were in the leshenaulti foraged at a height In the present study the effort has been to by them might have been a significant way the two Pteropus used the resources in of about 15 m, whereas the smaller gather base line information and assess factor in choosing the resource as all the the secondary forests. There was an bat Cynopterus sphinx foraged at a the separation of the two sympatric flying fruits consumed in the diet of the fruit overlap in the diet between the two height of about 10 m (Singaravelan foxes on Kamorta Island. In the absence bats in the study were strongly aromatic. species, P. tonganus foraged more often in and Marimuthu 2004). It appears that of any such information in the past it was This has been proved that fruit bats use the agroforest than the P. samoensis larger the size of bats greater the vital to determine the foraging habitat for olfactory cues to locate fruits (Marshall (Banack 1998). P. tonganus was also heights of their foraging. In another the flying foxes in the islands. Amongst 1983; Laska 1990; Oldfield et al. 1993; observed to feed more on the cultivated study of the dietary habits of Acerodon the two Pteropus spp, P. faunulus appears to Kalko et al. 1996; Bloss 1999). C. sp has species than P. samoensis. Our observations jubatus and P. vampyrus lanensis it was use a distinct niche compared to the two been known to be a common species in of the two sympatric flying fox species in concluded that Acerodon jubatus was a other species of fruit bats found within most parts of India. This bat visits fruit the Nicobar showed that P. faunulus was forest obligate foraging on fruits and the study area (Pteropus melanotus and bearing plants that have both ‘steady-state’ more commonly seen in agro or secondary leaves of plant species restricted to Cynopterus brachyotis). Of 37 species of trees and ‘big-bang’ phonological patterns forest whereas, P. melanotus preferred lowland, mature natural forests in exploited by the three fruit bats in the (Elangovan et al. 1999; 2000). canopy trees in primary forests. contrast to P. vampyrus lanensis which Central Nicobar Group, a 21% overlap had a broader diet, including fruits,

25 leaves and flowers and foraged in both While more detailed studies will need to be natural and agro forests (Stier and conducted in order to confirm this 5. Implications for conservation of Mildenstein 2005). finding, there was also some evidence of niche differentiation by season selected for the Nicobar Islands – Threat Though there was a preference for certain breeding and rearing between the two fruits which were cultivated there was no Pteropus sp. A more intensive collaring apparent preference of the Pteropus spp in effort is required spreading across Assessment and Awareness our study to limit feeding in only a different seasons to state the foraging specified area. Since the spatial habitat of the pteropodids in the islands. It campaigns distribution of the fruit trees is not will also then be able to depict habitat uniform it is possible that the species is utilization by this species more A total of 11 villages from the three information available on the species, driven more by the fruit-bearing species comprehensively. islands were surveyed in the three islands secondary source information and bat rather than location in the primary forest. and 4 randomly chosen or previously hunter interviews with the local Though the Pteropus spp revealed a much reported hunters in the villages were inhabitants were done to access the stronger niche overlap P. faunulus assessed via questionnaires and informal hunting pressure on the endemic appeared to favour gaps and fruits at discussions. Questionnaires and Nicobar flying fox in the Central lower heights on the shared tree. Studies discussions revealed that the preference group of islands. on the feeding ecology of P. rufus also for either of the Pteropus spp in the diet revealed that it did not prefer to feed only was non-existent and it was depended 5.1 Hunting of flying foxes in the on large trees and 40% of its diet solely on the species easier to hunt or islands consisted of the smaller trees and shrubs. readily spotted. Hunting was seasonal restricted to the foraging areas only. Only Day time hunting of the Nicobar in 4 interviews did hunters claim to have flying fox (Pteropus faunulus) was shot P. faunulus and P. melanotus in the day opportunistic, whereas the Island roost. Ceiba pentandra or Kapok trees are Flying fox (Pteropus melanotus) is planted in all the villages on Kamorta and hunted deliberately in the day roosts, Nancowrie. Trinket villages were especially during rainy season when inundated in tsunami and C. pentandra is large aggregation of P. melanotus no longer found on it. Hunters used occurred in the mangroves. Night airguns and catapults to hunt the Pteropus hunting was deliberate and not species sp. The dependency on bat meat for food specific. In a single night during the was not established and it was seen that fruiting of Ceiba pentandra, hunting was conducted only for game. approximately 40 bats (Pteropus Apart from 2 hunters interviewed, none of melanotus and P. faunulus) were sighted the others were aware of the day roosts of on a single tree. Ceiba pentandra or the P. faunulus. Commercial hunting was kapok trees are in full bloom in the not recorded in the Nicobar Islands during months is January – March and are the study period. usually planted for extraction of the cotton by the local inhabitants. P. The present project chose the Nicobar faunulus and P. melanotus consume the flying fox Pteropus faunulus as the key or nectar of the kapok blossoms and the “flagship” species in the Central Nicobar local inhabitants hunt these bats Islands. Being a shy and solitary roosting during foraging. Air guns, catapults species and lack of background and old fishing nets were seen to be used for hunting the bats in the

26 villages. On an average in a single night using side projectors as well as games to included the “hunters” in the Nicobar People like Martin were encouraged two bats were killed per person. At a illustrate the importance of flying foxes in Islands. The hunters in the Nicobars are to give a talk to the others regarding single time we have observed 5-10 hunters the islands as well the effect of the local community members who hunt the Nicobar Flying fox and its during the night. The hunters were seen unsustainable hunting in the islands. The the fruit bats for meat. The hunting ecological importance in their islands. to hunt in pairs as one aims the torchlight slide shows were given in Hindi as well in communities were critical as they have the Talks by the local inhabitants in their to the individual being hunted while the the locally spoken language by the team most extensive information on the vernacular language were very popular other shoots the air-gun. A single bullet members. It was observed during the location of day roost of flying foxes as and aroused a lot of interest in the sometimes wasn’t too well aimed and course of this activity that the acceptance well as caves in the islands. The second team’s endeavour in the islands. would either leave the bat injured or even of such talks was wider when delivered in group was the village heads and if it was killed in one shot the Pteropus the local language. The games introduced communities who are the authorities and it 5.2.1.2 Group 2 – Village heads would cling on to the branches of the tree. in the programme were simple games is critical that they are sensitized about the Our second target group for bats Among the two flying foxes the heaviest which involved the entire community in wildlife problems in the Islands and are awareness in the islands was the impact was on the Nicobar flying fox finding out about the equipment we use also crucial in implementing a no-hunting village captains. These are the heads being a medium height (<20 m) forager it and the behaviour of the flying foxes in season in their islands. In the follow up of villages and are elected by the foraged at a height that was relatively the islands. The participants would be study the necessity was to curb the people. Discussion with them and the closer to the hunters aim thus increasing divided into two groups where one was an hunting and introduce a “No hunting people was effective in raising an the chances of getting shot with greater observer and the other was a bat with a season” rather than establish legal awareness of the research activities ease. Also the time of arrival in the radio collar. The group with the radio impositions on the local inhabitants. The and the loss to the islands due to the foraging area was earlier for the Nicobar collar would hide and the other group hunters were aged from 17-30 yrs and current unsustainable trends of forest flying fox (2000 h) as compared to the would try and locate them in the forest. schools were not included in the education use. The village heads can decide Island flying fox (after 2200 h). The onset The ecological role of the species was programmes as the education camps in the whether a certain act was to be of modern amenities like electricity in related to the conditions prevalent in the villages covered all the age groups and implemented in the village or not and some of the new villages established post- islands as indirect effects or ecological were more wide spread in their they are the key element in case we Tsunami have proved fatal for the Pteropus roles often go unnoticed. acceptance. needed to initiate a “closed season” sp, particularly P. melanotus which were for hunting. During our radio seen electrocuted on these high volt 5.2.1 Target Groups 5.2.1.1 Group 1 – hunters collaring efforts, an unfortunate cables (n = 10 in 3 months). A well- In our previous survey in the year 2002- This group is our focus group as they are incident occurred where one of the designed conservation education coupled 2003 the team identified the stakeholders the cause of the present plight of the bats (FREQ 82) was hunted. On with community participation and further in the islands namely the Nicobarese and Nicobar flying fox. In an attempt to tracking the signal we recovered the studies on the species population the threats caused by them on the flying minimize the hunting pressure on the tag from a hunter’s home in Kamorta. estimates, breeding ecology and habitats foxes in particular the Nicobar Flying fox. flying fox and other fauna in the islands Since we had been informing the use is essential to mitigate the effect of The special hunting rights given to the our team worked closely with this group. people and villages of our activities, over hunting coupled with the increasing indigenous tribes in the Nicobar Islands Hunters from various villages and occurrence of such an incident spread habitat loss in the islands. under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, settlements were included in the team and in the entire island and the 1972 coupled with an unsustainable forest encouraged to share information as well as sensitization of people of their 5.2 Conservation measures – solution and wildlife use was threatening the bats in question the aims of the project. A activities was much more than what to the existing problem the wildlife. The past survey identified landmark achievement was the we expected, to the maximum that in three main target groups – The involvement of Martin in the project who Kamorta Island at present, the village 5.2.1 Education and awareness – Nicobarese, The Forest department and was an ace hunter in Munack, a village in captains have instructed hunting to be present and future other officials and the school children as Kamorta Island. After having been minimized in the villages. Of the 11 villages identified in Kamorta well as the educationists. During the involved in the research project, Martin is Island, slide shows and informal talks with follow up project our team worked closely the sole custodian for 5 villages under him the village heads or “captains”, hunters with two groups during the study namely where hunting has reduced dramatically and the general public were conducted the hunters and the village heads. Group I and we have a network of bat observers as well as roost protectors in Kamorta Island.

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5.3 Threats to fruit bats and other provides strength. fauna in the islands Group Species Distribution Purpose Belief Hunting in the islands was not restricted Fruit Bats Flying foxes Pteropus Meat and Believe that bat Past surveys by the team as well the to bats alone (Table 8). During the study melanotus medicinal meat gives strength present follow up study was critical in the other fauna that often appeared in throughout the purposes and cures asthma. determining the threats to the flying fox local menus were birds (Caloenas nicobarica ANI, P. faunulus restricted to CNI. populations as well other faunal groups in nicobarica, Ducula aenea and Megapodius Insect Bats All species Andaman and Indirect threat None the islands. A summary of the information nicobarensis), reptiles (Chelonia mydas, Python Nicobar Islands due to gathered is compiled and discussed in the reticulatus, Varanus salvator and Crocodylus disturbance by following paragraphs. Threats were porosus), crabs (Birgus latro) and Dugong humans classified as (1) Direct; when they were dugon. Among these Dugong dugon, entering the directly committed on the species, and (2) Crocodylus porosus, Chelonia mydas, Python caves Indirect; when the impact was due reticulates and Megapodius nicobarensis are Birds Nicobar Pigeons Meat None activities not directly aimed at the species. Schedule I species in the Indian Wildlife Pigeon throughout ANI, (Protection) Act, 1972. The establishment Caloenas Megapod is 5.3.1 Direct threats of a sanctuary or protected areas for the nicobarica endemic to the nicobarica, Nicobar Islands same might not be an effective remedy for Ducula aenea 5.3.1.1 Hunting in the islands the same as the aborigines of Nicobar and Megapod Hunting appears to be the major threat Islands are given a special hunting right. Megapodius for the islands’ fruit bats affecting both Establishment of a protected area might nicobarensis the species of fruit bats, Pteropus melanotus only deter any research on the species in Reptiles Salt water Throughout ANI Skin , meat, None and P. faunulus. The advent of air guns the event of permit requirements. crocodile claws & teeth from and mainland India brings Crocodylus a quicker and more effective way to hunt 5.3.1.2 Habitat loss porosus bats and birds. This is in contrast to the Forest fragmentation increases the area of Lizards Water monitor Throughout ANI Meat None primitive crossbows that were used for forest edge habitats, the most altered zone Lizard, Varanus hunting prior to the air guns use. Most of of a fragment (Murcia 1995). Forest salvator the hunting is carried out in the foraging fragment may control the influx of Turtles Green sea Throughout ANI Meat & eggs None sites and few in the roosting areas. The organisms between forest and non forest turtle Chelonia seasons of the flowering of the silk cotton fragments. Edges are the point of entry of mydas tree (Ceiba pentandra) and a number of external influences such as exotics and the Snakes Reticulate Endemic to the Meat None preferred fruit trees (e.g. Psidium guajava, invasion of exotic species including python Nicobar Islands Artocarpous lakoocha) coincide with the pathogens to the remaining forests (Janzen Python reproductive time of the fruit bats. The 1983; Gelbard and Belnap 2003). The reticulatus hunters shoot down these bats and adopt biodiversity of the Andaman and Nicobar Crustaceans Giant coconut Found in South Meat Medicinal use in the orphaned babies. To prevent the bats Islands is experiencing a rapid crab Birgus sentinel Island in some islands in latro Andaman only and CNI from escaping, the forearm is removed transformation. Since the time when the in the South and and the wings are clipped in some land was “clothed from the coast to the central Nicobar instances. On some occasions we were summit by virgin forest and the natives Group of Islands able to see the locals rear the babies seem to amuse themselves by taming Sea Dugong Nancowrie Meat None belonging to P. melanotus (4 occasions) and pigeons, doves, and parrots and bats. At mammals Dugong harbour P. faunulus (2 occasions) in the Nicobar that time, the Nicobaries co-existed dugon Islands (Aul and Vijayakumar 2003). The harmoniously with the natural Sharks Hammer head Ritche’s Meat and Fins Fins are used for bats are eaten for their meat and for the environment, which met all of their needs. and other Archipelago medicinal purposes belief that it is for asthma cure and species as an aphrodisiac Table 8: Wildlife threatened and hunted in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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The trees provided housing and utensils, manmade. Human intrusion in the caves native populations to extinction. The they are especially more vulnerable the soil provided for cultivation and the has been documented to have adverse menace caused by the introduced species to over exploitation even in the wildlife provided food . The demands of a impact on the bat populations (Culver is phenomenal with direct impact on the islands. Another important fact to modern society have rapidly changed the 1986). The caves in the Andaman and endemic flora and fauna. The mammalian note in the Indian Wildlife environment, particularly over the last Nicobar Islands are of economic value to fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar (Protection) Act, 1972 is the three decades, and resources have been the owners as they harvest the nest of the Islands comprises of a rich assemblage of inclusion of the whole group in an increasingly exploited in an unsustainable edible nest swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga). largely rodents and bats, besides the only otherwise species specific listing in manner. Forest clearance for agriculture, The nests are an important item in the three large species, the Andaman wild pig the Schedules of the Act. There is no commercial development programmes Chinese cuisine and pharmacy. The Sus Scrofa andamanensis, the civet cat Paguma provision for the fact that a species have virtually and collectively contributed medicinal properties of the nest have larvata tytlerii, the Nicobar crab eating might not be a vermin in a certain to environmental degradation. Very little made them extremely valuable and at the Macaque Macaca fascicularis umbrosa (Miller area. For example in the Andaman lowland forest remains and pressure on same time they have been exploited 1902; Hill 1967; Saha 1980; Pande et al. and Nicobar Islands, the flying foxes the mid-slopes and upland areas is now throughout the swiftlets range (Sankaran 1991; Tiwari and Biswas 1969). The other may play a major role in pollination increasing. Anti-encroachment drives in 1998). In the Andaman and Nicobars the mammalian fauna represented are the and dispersal of important fruit trees. the Andaman Islands was successful in edible nest swiftlets roost only in the spotted deer, Asian elephant, goats, cows, Since they do not enjoy any putting a brake on the extensive logging caves. This is a serious problems faced by dogs, and cats all of which have been protection under the Wildlife Act activities as well as forest clearing bats, including some endemic species and introduced in the islands. Spotted deer indiscriminate hunting is affecting its activities in the islands, but the Nicobar sub species (Rhinolophus cognatus, (Axis axis) are now widespread throughout numbers in the islands. The absence Island still remains protected from legal Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis, Myotis dryas the Andamans, as is the African giant snail of orchards and orchard damage in interference. Tsunami occurred on 26th horsfieldii and Pipistrellus coromandra) were (Achatina fulica). Elephants (Elephas the islands suggests that they are not December 2004 but the after effects are also observed to cohabit the day-roost maximus) have been introduced to vermin in the islands. An area wise still visible as unplanned activities and with the birds. Some of these caves are Interview Island and North Andaman (Aul specific schedules and conservation forest clearances for settlements are privately owned i.e. the caves are located 2002b; Andrews and Sankaran 2002). A practices might lessen the impact of leading to a strain on the already shrinking in the plantation and the person owning recent of introduction of horses on hunting on some species all across habitats in the Nicobar Islands. the plantation by default owns the caves. Kamorta Island for load bearing was India. Lack of adequate information Conversion of grasslands and other Private ownership has in some cases brought to our notice, two of which died and quantitative data on the species unique habitats for agriculture activities restricted the access to outsiders, thus enroute . is another deterrent to conservation are planned and these were witnessed in reducing the visitation rate. But the trend practices in India. More extensive the settlements in all the villages, New is changing as evidenced in some islands. 5.3.2.3 Legislative imperfections field surveys need to be conducted to Laful (Trinket Island, inhabitants), Guided by the local people, settlers at Legal protection of bats in India has long obtain an area wise species Tapong village (Nancowrie Island), Bada some islands like Katchal have been been ignored. Bats are nocturnal and distribution list. As reported from Enak (Safeed Ballu, Trinket Island). reported to regularly visit caves for swiftlet habitat specific and are considered difficult the previous section on hunting, it is Vegetables and coconut plantations were nest collection. Another fact for to locate and study. The fruit bats are evident that the hunting of species being planned out and are awaiting consideration is the accessibility to the listed in Schedule V of the Wildlife by people is irrespective of the execution. caves. Many caves are located on the coast (Protection) Act, 1972, which classifies schedule they are placed. The making them easily accessible by locals as them as vermin, the amendment in 2002 credibility of the Act could be 5.3.2 Indirect threats well as settlers. Monitoring of bat maintains the status of the fruit bats as questioned as to who these populations in some of the caves is needed vermin. IUCN and the Red Data Book Schedules are actually formulated 5.3.2.1 Disturbance of caves -- bat to assess the magnitude and intensity of classified them as not assessed and for. habitat under pressure these anthropogenic activities. vulnerable. Most of the species are poorly The insectivorous bats in the islands are known and very little information is 5.4 Discussion poorly described in past literature of the 5.3.2.2 Introduced species present on their status, ecology, behaviour islands (Hill 1967; Abdulali 1976a, b). Due Species not native to a place thrive better and distribution (Anon 1994). While the Wildlife conservation in tropical to their patchiness in space caves are more than native species in the absence of fruit bats do not enjoy protection under forests has become a challenge prone to disturbances, both natural and competition and may even drive out the the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 in India recently. Hunting is one of the

29 serious factors that currently threaten flying foxes have been an important Dugoung creek in Little Andaman while of several reserves or non hunting almost all the medium and large source of folk medicine and food for local Tillangchong is an uninhabited island in areas to safe guard the population vertebrates. Several neotropical studies people (Rainey 1990; Mohd- Azlam et al. the Central Nicobar group and is further. Andaman and Nicobar have shown that hunting activities have a 2001). In South East Asia P. vampyrus is considered a sacred island by the Islands too have several protected detrimental effect on wildlife populations valued as a remedy for asthma, kidney Nicobarese and no hunting is carried out areas encompassing many islands but by reducing their abundance (Reya- ailments and fatigue, especially among by the local inhabitants from the no consideration is given to the Hurtado and Tanner 2005). Subsistence people of Chinese origin (Fujita and Tuttle surrounding islands. Krueger and Donna species inhabiting these protected and commercial hunting have a profound 1991). Among aborigines of the Australia, (1999) in a study on the Mariana Fruit bats areas. A number of islands are effect on the forest and wildlife Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, flying in Tinian observed that the densities of present, which are home to endemic populations, while leaving the physical foxes are harvested for curing respiratory Marianna fruit bats was the highest on species of birds and other fauna but structure of the forest unaltered (Peres ailments (Hall and Richards 2000). In most islands where few people live and there is are currently not in the protected area 1990). Although a number of studies have of the places intensive hunting is reported little hunting. Excessive hunting has been network. It is essential to design a documented the hunting of wildlife, there to occur during the reproductive season, a primary factor in significant declines of network of protected areas in the are few data on the of or the ‘batseason’ that coincides with the fruit bats on many Pacific Islands Andaman Islands instead of isolated hunting activities. fruit peak fruiting and flowering periods (Fujita (Wodzicki and Felton 1975, 1980; Wiles single island sanctuaries or national bats are indigenous to the Pacific and and Tuttle 1991). The fact that the and Payne 1986; Wiles 1987; Wiles et al. park. A network would ensure the Indian Oceans, Australia and South East endemic Nicobar flying fox is already 1989; Rainey 1990; Pierson and Rainey protection of corridors protection for Asia (Rainey and Pierson 1992). Fruit bats locally extinct from its type locality raises a 1992; Craig et al. 1994). The local the safe movement of certain fauna in Pteropus spp are eaten by humans lot many questions on our conservation involvement in the Nicobars is critical for the Islands. Currently there is no throughout the geographic range of the priorities and methods. Wiles (1987) determining zones of no-use and no provision to protect such corridors genus (Wodzicki and Felton 1975; estimated the status of the fruit bats in logging. Seasons for non hunting (Sankaran 1997). Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Racey 1979; Guam and counted only 425-500 especially in the breeding time of most of Prater 1980; Cheke and Dahl 1981; Cox individuals in 1984. He concluded that the faunal groups is needed to be 1983; Tideman 1985). over-hunting and forest clearing may be observed. It was concluded that detailed the contributing factors. P. tokudae, a studied are required to determine the Hunting of bats was a common smaller species known to be rare was not community patterns as well as the occurrence in the islands and hunting was found in the study and is thought to be interaction and interdependence between primarily carried out in the foraging areas extinct. The Nicobar flying fox is a good different faunal groups in the islands. This in the Nicobar Islands. Observation and example for the same, it is restricted to the is to say that conservation in the Andaman interviews with bat hunters revealed that Central Nicobar Islands and none of the Islands like in the Nicobar Islands will hunting was not for food supplement and islands it is recorded from is a protected have to be a community study instead of it was seasonal coinciding with the area. The lack of previous information on single species or isolated habitat blossoming of Ceiba pentandra which was a the same prevented any immediate protection. Wiles et al. (1997) studied the species restricted to the presence of assessments for its ecological needs. abundance, biology and human settlements, some also claimed that the Similar declines have occurred in the exploitation of bats in the Palau Islands elders in the villages used flying fox bones southern, inhabited portion of the Mariana and observed that Palauns were hunting as a traditional medicine for asthma. P. Islands where two species of Pteropus Pteropus mariannus pelewensis extensively for faunulus and P. melanotus exploit the species occur, the P. m. mariannus and P. tokudae commercial and personal use. About 10, for nectar. On small isolated islands with (Wheeler and Aguon 1978). The day 000 – 16, 500 bats were shipped to Guam low biodiversity, flying fox population roosts of P. melanotus located in areas like and the Commonwealth of Northern may have a cascading effect on native Barren Island (Middle Andaman Group), Marianna Islands annually and another forest ecosystems (Cox et al. 1991; Rainey Dugoung creek (Little Andaman Island); 2,000 to 5,000 animals were estimated to et al. 1995). Many pteropodids face severe Tillangchong Island (Central Nicobar be taken per year for local consumption. threats from unregulated hunting around Group) were the largest. No hunting is The study also suggests that consideration the world. In many areas, flying foxes carried out by the Onge’s who inhabit should be given to the establishment

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Plate 3: Threats to bats in the Central Nicobar Islands Plate 4: Education programmes and local involvement of the inhabitants

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Plate 5: The sceanrio on the fatal day- view of submerged Jetty in Kamorta

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“Nicobaren” Ships are a life line for the islands as was how the Danish referred to the they carry messages from near and friendly people who live in the remote dear ones, provisions for the shops Islands of Nicobar archipelago. A group and people and also some of 23 Islands & few rocky outcrops lie researchers like us who have found a scattered on the Bay of Bengal Sea: the home so away from home! southern tip less than 100 kms north of the Island of Sumatra. Travelling With all the team and fellow downwards from North to South, the first passengers we stepped off from the Island encountered is the Car Nicobar; ship and as usual got stopped by the the most developed also the most S.H.O for our tribal area permits, a disturbed of the lot. Car Nicobar Is and permit issued by the District Battimalv, a small uninhabited Island Commissioner, Nicobar Islands. located further south of Car Nicobar Entry into the Nicobar Group of forms the Northern cluster. Further south Islands is limited primarily to the we would encounter a group of 10 Islands people who often carry tribal passes. scattered from North to South and East Our team visits the islands so to west. They are known as Nancowrie regularly but somehow we are always group of islands and form the Central checked by the ever watchful S.H.O. cluster. Further around 50 Km south, after sailing through a deep Sombrero Anyways the thrill to step foot on ground after almost 50 hrs of ship channel we would reach the Southern Plate 6: The mangrove habitat converted into swamps of debris- Galathea Bay cluster. The southern cluster is a group of journey our spirits were not more than 10 Islands and islets which The cast off was at 600 hr and we reached channel that separates the Andaman dampened. It was late in the evening includes the largest Island in the Nicobar, Little Andaman at 1630 hr where there Group of Islands from the Nicobar Group by the time we settled down into our Great Nicobar Island and the smallest was a 7-8 hr halt where we all got down to of Islands. Early noon we were safely newly hired field base. The next few inhabited island namely Pulo Milo. explore the local restaurants and discussed across the channel and a flat island of Car days were busy in getting organized about how the following field work might Nicobar, the northernmost island in the and setting up an agenda for the next 6.1 Diary of Events turn out. The tempo was high and all Nicobar Group. The halt here would be phase of the field work. It was a bit believed that we will definitely get what we for 8- 10 hrs and the ship would sail at strange that there were a few things It was the same time every year when had so firmly set out for. A team like this night for Katchal just 45 min away from we did away from our normal celebration was in the air, the music of where so much of enthusiasm is abundant our destination. Towards the end of the routine, for example we bought all carol singing had commenced long before is highly contagious and there is no scope journey everyone was just waiting to get our provisions from Port Blair unlike we got into field and festivity marked of thinking of failure. There was no off the ship and head to the field base. It the usual where we came to Kamorta every village and household in the islands. indication that within a couple of days our had been two and a half days by the time and then made all the purchases for M. V. Chowra set sail from Port Blair on lives would change so drastically and we we reached Kamorta jetty where we were the essentials. A thought had crossed 15th December 2004 and began its usual would witness something so devastating to get off. The ship came alongside the my mind that we might not get journey. Our team (Martin, Thope, that it would bind us to the people and jetty and we were welcomed with same provisions in Kamorta when we Jonathan and Joel) and I were heading to islands more firmly. We saw the island of familiar faces and expectant look when a reach so we catered for a month in Nancowrie with new objectives and the Little Andaman fading out as the ship ship comes into these remote islands. It advance and also since we had hope of finding the elusive Nicobar Flying headed away from the Andaman’s and is quite an event when the ships come to shipped all our equipment in advance fox. closer to our destination, it was 2230 h such remote islands. by the cargo ships, I had enquired and we were crossing the 10 degree from our liaison in Kamorta as to where he had kept all out luggage and he said it was close to the jetty in Kamorta, upon which I requested

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him to keep it away from the water in Everything around was swaying to 45° was picked up by the out boats searching well being it was inappropriate for us higher ground. In retrospect it seems like either ways. Though it was 6 minutes by for survivors in the bay. The first 161 to head home, and thus the decision we all had an intuition of some event the watch it seemed like forever and once survivors from Trinket swam into to stay and ensure that the team and occurring but could not really place what it got over we all strolled down till the jetty Kamorta and Nancowrie islands and were their villages were not deprived of the event was. Christmas celebrations and it was within 15 min from the picked up by the country boats moving their rightful claim encouraged us to were in full swing and the villages were earthquake when people started rushing within the bay. Since the debris was so abandon our research and participate preparing for a night of a festivity in back from the jetty screaming, “Tide’s much the bigger ships could not enter the in the relief operations in the islands Champin village, where the church was rising!!” which was strange as the high tide bay and even the smaller boats were facing for the following few months. Having located and a common ground for most time was not coinciding with the the risk of being struck by hidden logs in worked in the islands for so long and of the main celebrations in the Nancowrie phenomenon and then it struck us that it a the water under the debris. The debris was seeing the people who had made us Group of Islands. We were also invited to tidal wave and we are witnessing what we so thick that one could easily walk on it feel so at home within their villages the village for the celebrations, but little had only read and heard about, we urged without sinking. A disaster of such made us work for their well being. It did we to know that those celebration and the people to find a place in higher ground magnitude left all of us worried as to what was a tricky situation as we had to that day would be one night to remember and to get away from the water edges. It is the situation would be in the other parts of deal with an over confident set up as a last happy occasion for a long time in worth mentioning Ramana, a boat the islands and also whether we would be who thought they could decide the near future and the next day would operator and his friend who took the risk able to reach those in need for immediate everything for the people without change the lives of the local inhabitations and went to get the boats to safer waters. attention well within time? The boat crew considering the relevance of their so drastically that we would not recognize If it had not been for these two we would of M.V Ramakrishna, an inter island ferry actions and had to face a lot of the villages we were so at home for so not have had the chance to travel to the boat not suitable for traversing in high opposition. Media came in to the many years. The evening was splendid but nearby village and rescue the stranded seas, took the risk and we were able to get Central Nicobar Group only by the had such stillness about it that it was people there the same day. The water more than 500 people to safe ground from second month and all the news of the unnerving to be back alone in the base as came and went and the height of the Changua, Derring, Bunder Khari, Pilpillo disaster was limited to Car Nicobar not a single sound could be heard in the waves was more than 6 ft when it first villages in Kamorta Island along with the Island, in the Nicobar Group and to forest it was if the silence was forewarning stuck. The media reports that only three assistance from M.V. Rangat in the next Port Blair in the Andaman group. Our us about the danger awaiting. The night waves struck were not entirely true for the two days. In the absence of team participated in relief operation passed but it was one of the most Central Nicobar and the water kept rising communication and supplies there was a for the next two months and this uncomfortable nights in field and the and receding every half an hour till mid- constant effort by the Junior Engineers extended from Tressa Island to Great stillness around was unnerving. No bats, day (1200 hr). Only after the water level and Public work department officials to Nicobar Islands in the Southern no sound of insects and not even the stabilized were we able to move from get at least communication and electricity Group. A team of doctors from St people around seemed to be talking. A Kamorta to Champin Village where there working within the islands. It was John’s Hospital, Banglore were silence had engulfed the islands and it were some 250 people stranded and remarkable that they worked 24X7 and we brought in on the 29th December and reminded us of the storm that usually fortunately there were minimal causalities had electricity, phone and water supplies we decided to help them with the followed such a silence. as the people had all rushed up to higher up by the same evening. Communication local information and assistance. In ground. The relief camp in Champin was to the outside world was totally cut out for the southern group Suresh, I and our On the 26th December 2004 at 0630 hr, established in Mark Paul’s house which a week and it is only after the first ship team in the islands were the first to do there was a strange rumbling noise we was on elevated ground and had some M.V. Kalighat sailed into Nancowrie a land search in the west coast of heard as we slept on the floor of our base open space to accommodate people in the harbour that the first communication of Great Nicobar Islands after 36 days of and then the first shake came which ground. That’s when the first survivor the outside world and message of well the disaster. Our suspicions were well caused everyone to scuttle out of their from Trinket, a local resident named being could be sent home. The Defence in place as we found signs of 9 homes and the earthquake of the intensity Nepus swam in to Nancowrie. Trinket was forces Commander and Chief had flown survivors from PuloBhabi, one of the 9 on the Richter scale followed which the most severely affected island amongst into Kamorta 3 days after the event and he populated villages on the west coast shook the islands for 6 minutes was felt. the three namely Kamorta, Nancowrie and carried the message from home to us and of Great Nicobar Island. This was No one was able to remain standing and Trinket. The first survivor from Trinket to about our well being to our homes. Since critical in making the administration was forced to sit on the ground. reach Kamorta was a 4 yr old girl named most of the team members were local pull up their socks and begin a Nisha who clung onto a floating log and inhabitants and we were awaiting the thorough search of the west coast in message of their and their families 34

Great Nicobar Islands. Previously Our presence in the islands was an and serving platters. Apart from this the affected by Tsunami, it is hosting the attempts of aerial searches did not really opportunity for us to learn how to cope material included clothes for children, neighbouring affected smaller villages. serve any purpose as the canopy cover with such a disaster and the actions taken ladies and gentlemen and some stationary Thanks to the pretext of distribution was too thick for sightings from sir. While were enough to safely known what not to articles including copies, pencils, erasers, of relief material which was done by searching the west coast we never thought do next time such an event were to sharpeners, colour pencils and pens. There the captain’s husband and brothers in that we would see the villages we saw so happen. Socially they islands have faced a was also some general material which was the most organized manner we ever full of life nothing but masses of dead huge transformation and it might be the sent which we distributed to families we witnessed in the islands, we were also wood and debris and a few lone coconut beginning of a whole new system in the knew as well as some families who had not treated to the most scrumptious meal trees partially submerged. The setting sun villages, joint families have split and been able to get anything from the we had had in quite some time. added to the eerie feeling that we were kitchens are no longer one for a family. administration on the pretext that they walking in ghost villages. Megapode Money has been looked at with power to were employed or that they were non Some individuals worked very Island, a wildlife sanctuary located in the buy things and actions that would not be natives to the islands. I also have to dedicatedly for others all through the Southern Nicobar Group on the west ideal for the place. The togetherness that mention that I did not expect such a warm tough times and deserve special coast is now totally submerged under used to exist in the people is slowly response in terms of the amount of mention in spite of having lost their water. The coastal dwellers were now diminishing and the feature of material that was sent and that also so families. These people were Sunil, a forced to move inland and a fear for the comradeship that set apart these islands promptly. The village captains of Trinket mechanic by profession but now has sea had crept in, no one wanted to and their people is now on the decline. and Daring decided to separate the no shop and profession left but if venture into the sea and fish seemed to be The traditional houses of wood and leaves material into sets for each family; this helping organizing things in the a taboo. It was a phase and we were glad also known as “Ngyo-pul” or round huts helped us avoid the problems of giving to administration; Elango, a forest that it has now worn out, life is returning are replaced with asbestos sheets and the one and not giving to another. The first department labourer who has lost his to normal in some villages and some are cultural shift from a joint family to nuclear priority was given to Trinket and the children in tsunami in Campbell bay, modified beyond recognition. As the families is evident. The temporary shelters village captain, Amber did the needful of Great Nicobar Island – the weeks passed and an influx of NGO’s and that came up were built and are so sorting the items into sets to be distributed southernmost island in the Nicobar social missioners was observed an inappropriate for the climate and area but to each family. Apart from this we Group; Amber, the Second captain of incoming ship was no longer looked at the decision for such homes was not with distributed the schools books, notebooks, Trinket Island has lost all his family with expectation, each worker and the the people and now after almost three pencils and other stationary to schools set except his three year old son Yash. A each NGO’s came with the agenda of years permanent shelters are coming up up in remote islands like Aleurong village lot many more unsung heroes are still doing good to the society without any which are semi wooden but nothing which on the west coast of Tressa Island and working for others in the island and foresight and without any consideration as will remind us of the villages and incidentally they were the first to begin we all wish we could do something to what was it that the people really traditional architecture that used to exist. classes under tent age just four days after special for them when they would wanted. It appeared to us that it was only the December 26th 2004 tragedy. The really want us too. a gimmick to mark their presence in a My team comprising of a senior colleague distribution of material to such villages disaster struck zone. Each one competed Suresh Babu and two assistants Amber also served as an encouragement and From an ecologists point of view the and tried to outdo the other and in the and Raphel, contacted the village heads or motivation for the other to follow suit. impact of tsunami was particularly bargain the main purpose of being in an “captains” they are popularly called in the Some mats were distributed to the first evident in the coasts where the area like this and helping the affected was islands. These Captains are in full power camp that was re established on Chowra mangrove forest are now totally defeated. Unplanned and uncoordinated to decide for the villages and based on our Island, these people were relocated on destroyed and in the Central Nicobar relief articles cluttered the store houses inputs about the amount of material that Tressa Island but chose to go back to their Group alone the islands have lost 3-4 and jetties, material like woollen blankets, had come from a division of the Indian own island. Villages like Munack in the km of land all along the coasts in the small utensils and things catering enough Army located all the way in the North of eastern bay of Kamorta island are model islands apart from the damage to for a small family came in as relief India. The Captains decided which village villages where one can see team spirit and property and life. Mangrove habitats material and no consideration was given needed what item and how the material togetherness and so was chosen to are a critical ecotone between the to the fact that the communities followed should be distributed. We selected two distribute some children’s clothes and terrestrial and marine ecosystems was a joint family system with the minimum in villages for the household items which stationary articles as well as towels that completely destroyed. Mangrove each family being 15 members. included cooking utensils, plates, glasses had been sent. Though Munack was not habitat was critical for our study as

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they were a potential day roost for the Large scale clearing in some areas on Pteropus melanotus in the islands. P. melanotus Kamorta Island for settlement has also used Nypa fruticans swamps, which expedited the already shrinking forest were completely destroyed in the incident. resource in the same. Hunting activities Even after 2 years the regeneration of has not reduced and species like pigeons, mangrove was observed only in a few wild boar, turtles, crocodiles and bats still places on the coasts of Kamorta and find their way into the kitchen in a number Nancowrie. Nypa fruticans have re- of villages. generated and bats were seen to return to their old roosts in Tillangchong Island (Pers. obs). This however will be a deterrent for the bats in the present scenario as these palms are used as thatch and due to construction activities and increased demand for thatch these roosts will be continuously disturbed by the local inhabitants.

7 Nypa fruticans is used by the local inhabitants as thatch for their homes in the Nicobar Group of islands.

Plate 7: Team’s participation in Tsunami relief work

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Appendix I:

Species consumed by fruit bats and their fruiting/ flowering months

Species Vernacular Name Islands Month Artocarpus lakoocha Thompeing K, N, T Feb-April; Sept-Nov Bentinckia nicobarensis Jiphack K, N, T May-June Bentinckia sp1 Huksuak K, N,T Oct -Dec; April-May Buchnania sp Kanap K, N,T Fruits April-May; Calamus andamanicus Moota beeth K, N April-May Calamus palustris Pintang K, N April-May Ceiba pentandra Didu K, N Nov-Feb Dillenia andamanica Luinch K, N, T Fruits April-June Diospyros sp* Hinlaien K April-May Elaeocarpus macrocerus Kumlang K, T April-June Fagrea sp Mallock K,T May-June; Oct-Feb Ficus glomerata Pong sp3 K, N All year round Ficus pendula Tuanth K, N, T Oct-Dec; May-June Ficus sp4 Lanup (big tree) K, N July-Nov Ficus sp1 Tuanth K, N, T Oct-Dec; May-June Ficus sp2 Tuanth K, T April-May; Oct-Dec Ficus sp3 Pong K Jan-Feb; April-May Ficus sp5 Pong sp2 K, N, T May-June; Ficus sp6 Lanup K, N Jan-Feb; June-July Ficus sp7 Lanup sp2 K, N All year round Mangifera camptosperma Flat mango K April-May Mangifera indica♦ Manga K Sept-Nov Musa paradisiaca♦ Banana K, N Year round Myristica sp Aukceya K, N, T Jan-Feb; April-May Pandanus odoratissmus Hikai K, N, T Jan-Feb; April-May P. leram andamanicum Big pandanus K, T Dec-Feb Psidium guajava♦ Guava K Oct-Feb Sandoricum koetjape Hinsai K, N May-June Semecarpus anacardium Planted cashew K Flowering, Nov; Fruits April Syzigium sp1 Mat mu-ang K, N, T Fruits April-May Syzigium sp2 Epoh K, N, T April-May Syzigium sp3 Epoh tahanane K, N, T April-May UID sp1 Jafat K, T Jan-Feb; May-June UID sp2 Kindrial K Unripe fruit May-June UID sp3 sp (trinket) T Oct-Feb UID sp4 Taminion K July-Aug UID sp5 Mitai K May-June UID sp6 Hihiluia/ Kumpa K, N, T Feb-April

*species was recorded only from one site in Munack, Kamorta Island. ♦ planted species; K: Kamorta Island; N: Nancowrie Island; T: Trinket Island. UID: Un-identifies species

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(Footnotes) 1 Positive fixes are referred to as the points the tracked animals was located and the point which is used for the calculation of the range of the animal. 2 Insect Bats cohabit the day roosts with the edible nest swiftlet, the nest of this is used in traditional medicine and is exported out of India (Sankaran 1998). 3 Crocodiles in the Nicobar group are not hunted for skin. The value of the skin is unknown to them till date. Commercial hunting in the Andaman might be taking place. 4 T he distribution of Dugong dugon is not known as no studies have been carried out for ascertaining its population or distribution. The sighting here is pers. obs. 5 The meat of Dugong dugon is sold for Rs 50/kg. This was observed in Nancowrie Island when fisherman (non-tribal) brought it in to sell to the local inhabitants. 6 Shark fishing was observed during the survey on Outram Island, where fisherman had camped to fish.

Action Tayam-peh is a community based conservation project in the Nicobar Group of Islands which aimed to determine the ecology and threats to the Nicobar flying fox, an endemic species restricted to the North and Central Nicobar Group of Islands. In a survey funded by BPCP in 2003, The Nicobar flying fox was rediscovered after almost a century. The survey also confirmed that the species was locally extinct from its type locality (Car Nicobar Island).

As a follow-up to the survey eleven individuals were radio collared on Kamorta Island in the Central Nicobars. The Nicobar flying fox, unlike other flying foxes, is a solitary rooster selecting roosts among well camouflaged trees in the canopy. Day roosts of were located for the first time during this study and approximately 25 fruit species were recorded in its diet. Seasonally occurring fruits were preferred to more easily available perennial fruiting species like Ficus.

There are three species of fruit bats in the Central Nicobars, Niche separation between them was also recorded. Of the 37 species of food plants used, a 21% overlap was observed among the three bats. Roost location and fruit colour preference along with vertical and temporal foraging patterns distinctly separated the two Ptreopus spp from the Cynopterus sp. The two Pteropus spp revealed much stronger dietary overlap (76% shared species) but P. faunulus favoured gaps and trees at lower heights than P. melanotus.

Direct threats due to hunting and habitat loss and indirect threats due to poor legislative measures and human intrusion in cave for nest collection attributed to the declining populations of bats in the islands. Most of the hunting of fruit bats is carried out in the foraging sites and few in the day roosts. Hunting of other fauna was also recorded most of which were schedule I species. Education programmes in the local language were carried out in 11 villages in the Central Nicobar Islands in three islands (Nancowrie, Kamorta and Katchal Islands). Target groups included hunters and villagers living close to the roost sites. The education programme addressed the need to minimise hunting and disturbance to the bats in the area.

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