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ABEOKUTA JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
VOL 1 ABEOKUTA JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH - VOL 1
A Publication of Federal College of Education, Osiele Abeokuta, Nigeria.
First printed in 2014
ISSN: 2306-8811
All rights reserved. No part of this Journal may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, record or otherwise, or without the permission of the Federal College of Education Osiele, Abeokuta.
Edition Board Editor in Chief - Dr. Ayodele Ajayi Associate Editors - Dr. Kasali Alarape Salawu - Dr. Rafiu Adekola Soyele - Dr. (Mrs.) Sinmisola Bolapade Ige
Guest Editors - Professor Olalekan O. Oyeleye, Department of English, University of Ibadan
- Professor Olatunji Odedeyi, Dept of Sports Science and Health Education Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye
Scribe - Mr. Julius Oguntola Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
Special Edition supported by TERTIARY EDUCATION TRUST FUND.
Designed & Published by: Palletspat Konsepts Nig. Ltd. 15, Alake Street, Ake Abeokuta, Ogun State Tel: 0803 406 0137 ii Table of Contents Table of Contents iii- iv
Editorial Note v
Preface vi
Notes on Contributors vii
Part One 1
Teaching and Learning Methodology.
Computer Assisted Programmed Instruction and Locus of Control as Determinants of Achievement of Secondary School Students in Physics – Mukaila A. O . Sotayo 3
Comparable Effects of Conceptual Change and Enhanced Explicit Teaching Strategies on Learning Outcomes in Primary Science in Ibadan, Nigeria – Tolu Okoruwa 15
A Casual Model of Teachers Factors and Time Spent on Learning-Facilitating Tasks during Senior Secondary School Biology Lessons in Oyo State, Nigeria – E. O. Sodipo 28
Comparative Effects of Explicit and Enhanced-Explicit Teaching on Learning Outcomes in Primary Science in Ikere-Ekiti Local government Area, Nigeria – Patrick K. Ajila 42
Languages of Instruction and Pupil's Learning Outcomes in Selected Aspects of Primary Social Studies in Ogun State, Nigeria – Kasali Alarape Salawu 61
Part Two 79
Psychological and Sociological Issues in Education
Girl-Child Participation in Primary Education in Selected Parts of North Eastern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon – Ngozi Priscilla Okoro 81
Home and School Factors as Determinants of Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary School's in Ogun State, Nigeria – Oluwatoyin A. Orenuga 95
Cognitive and Affective Factors as Correlates of Senior Secondary School Female Students' Achievement in Mathematics – Folake C. Onabanjo 105
Language in Education Practices and Pupils' Performance in selected Primary School Subjects in Abeokuta – Bolapade S. Ige 127
iii Relationship between Participative Management and Teacher Job Satisfaction in Oyo State Secondary Schools – Oyetunji S. Folajin 137 information Needs and Change Agents' Characteristics as Factors in Information Utilization by Rural Dwellers in Obingwa Area, Abia State – Emeka Godslove Okeh 152
Part Three 169
Science and Vocational Issues
Effect of Continuous Application of Urea Fertilizer on Soil Chemical Properties – Adegboyega Isau Mofikoya And Michael Tunde Adetunji 171
Knowledge and Practices of Location among Mothers Utilizing Health care Facilities in Abeokuta, Ogun State – Ben. Edegbai 182
Comparative Effects of 12-Weeks Circuit Training Programme on Anthropometric Characteristics of Pre-and Post – Menarcheal Girls – Bola Adeniji 195
Evaluation of Farm-cultured Invertebrates as Diet for African Catfish-Claries Gariepinus (burchell,1822) and Nile Tilapia – Oreochromis Niloticus (trewavas) – Godwin A. Omoyinmi 212
Pre Mating and Pre-Partum concentrate Supplementation on the Reproductive Performance of West African Dwarf (WAD) Ewes in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. – Folukemi A. O. Akinusi 238
Part Four 269
Language, Religion and Culture
Family Culture Orthodoxy in Selected Novels of Yoruba Expression – Folakemi Solaja 271
Language Attitudinal Study of Selected Yoruba-English Bilinguals at the Domestic Domain in Ogun State – Rafiu A. Soyele 292
Stylistic Features of Yoruba Jingles and Advertisement Discourse on Radio – Soji Aderemi Fajenyo 303
Understanding Church Growth among the Pentecostals in Yoruba land : The Case of Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries. – Ayodele A. Ajayi 315
Dress Forms of the Guinea Coast People of West Africa. - Geoffey Ajemijoye Arueyingho 331
iv Editorial Note This publication is a collation of except of the research efforts of lectures in Colleges of Education in Nigeria. The first volume is made up of twenty-one articles derived from the works of scholars drawn specifically from the Federal College of Education, Osiele Abeokuta where the idea of the Journal originally emanated. It is disturbing that little is often known about the research works of other scholars by their colleagues presumably because the essence of most of the studies was for career elevation. The medium of disseminating the outcomes of the researches are often limited if not non-existent. It is in an attempt to bridge the gap that this project was embarked upon. The volume is comprised of four major parts with five articles in each except for part two that contains six. Part one deals with issues in Teaching and Learning Mythologies. The second part covers Psychological and Sociological Issues while part three is about Science and Vocational. The final part contains articles on Language, Religion and Culture. Thus in one volume, many aspects of issues that are of major concerns to Education (either pedagogy or content) are adequately covered. The Editorial Board welcomes well researched works dealing with any aspect of Educational Studies, Science, Vocational, Language, Religion and Culture. The length of the manuscript should not be more than twenty pages typed with double spacing on A -4 size paper. Two hard copies and an electronic form are to be forwarded to the Editor in Chief. References can either be in t he form of end note or APA. It is important to note that contributors are welcome only from among Doctors of Philosophy Degree holders in Colleges of Education System in Nigeria.
Dr. Ayodele A. Ajayi Editor in Chief
v Preface One of the major gaps in the levels of development between the developed and the underdeveloped or developing nations of the world is the relevance, quantum and the usability of the research conducted by the scholars. The lacuna is most noticeable in the African continent where the Universities and Research Institutes are either deemed not performing or under performing. Feelings are rife that no meaningful or usable researches occur in many African countries, but this is arguable. What is incontrovertible is that often times there is a disconnect between those who conduct the research and those who are in the position to utilize the outcomes. As a Scholar in the college of education system in Nigeria, I have been bothered by the slow translation of research findings into practice , and the lack of utilization of some to the advantage of the local communities.
The packaging of this journal is a way of responding to the way by which the notorious barriers can be summoned. Publishing the studies and disseminating the findings of research is a veritable way of making known and making them available to users.
The idea of this volume which is the first of other series forth coming received a warm embrace from the contributors when it was conceived over a year ago. Since then all the twenty-one contributors have put in lots of efforts to seeing the vision actualized. I therefore express unreserved appreciation to them especially because in spite of their very busy schedules as researcher , teacher, and administrator, they gave the task all the attention that it deserved.
The board and management of the Tertiary Education Trust Fund Trust (TETFUND) is also highly appreciated for providing the funds for the work. The role of TETFUND in improving the Tertiary Education Sector in Nigeria is unparalleled and it is not surprising that some other African countries are on the verge of replicating the concept in their lands. I say kudos to the board and management of TETFUND on the one hand and the Federal Government of Nigeria on the other hand for this laudable project in our time. It is indeed heart warming that by this publication, the research efforts of the contributors have not remained buried in the archives.
Ajayi, Ayodele Adetayo, PhD. Federal College of Education, Abeokuta, 2013.
vi Note on Contributors
PART ONE
1. Dr. Mukaila Alani Olalekan Sotayo is a Chief Lecturer in the Department of Integrated Science, Federal College of Education. Osiele Abeokuta. The articles is an excerpt of the research that culminated in his Ph.D thesis titled 'Computer and Text Assisted Programme Instruction and Cognitive Preference Styles as Determinant of Secodnary School Students' Achievement in Heat Related Concepts in Physics' submitted to the Teacher Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan in the year 2002.
2. Dr (Mrs) Tolulope Omolara Okoruwa's article is culled from her Ph.D dissertation submitted to the Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan in the year 2007 with the title 'Effects of Conceptual Change and Enhanced Explicit Teaching Strategies on learning Outcomes in Primary Science in Ibadan She Lectures at the Federal College of Education, Osiele Abeokuta.
3. Dr (Mrs) Elizabeth Oluwafunmilola Sodipo's Ph.D thesis was titled : 'A casual Model of Teachers Factors and Time on Learning – Facilitating Task during Senior Secondary School Biology Lessons in Oyo State' and was submitted to the Teacher Education Department of the Faculty of Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan in 2002. It is from the thesis that the article here was extracted. She is a Principal Lecturer in the Department of Biology, Federal College of Education, Osiele Abeokuta.
4. Dr Patrick Kola Ajila is a Chief Lecturer in the Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Federal College Education, Abeokuta. His Article is an excerpt of the Ph.D Thesis submitted to the faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan in 2003 with the title : 'Comparative Effects of Explicit and Enhanced – Explicit Teaching on learning outcomes in Primary Science in Ikere-Ekit Local Government, Nigeria.
5. Dr Kasali Alarape Salawu's Ph.D dissertation submitted to the Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan in the year 2002 was titled : 'Language of Instruction and Pupils' learning Outcomes, in Selected Aspects of Primary Social Studies in Ogun State, Nigeria. It is the basis for his article in this journal. He is a Chief Lecturer in the School of Education, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
PART TWO
6. Dr (Mrs) Ngozi Priscilla Okoro's article is drawn from the Ph.D thesis titled : 'Girl-Child Participation in Selected Primary Education in Selected Parts of North Eastern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. The work was done in 2010 as part of the requirement for Ph.D on Comparative Education in the Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria. She lectures at the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
vii 7. Dr. (Mrs.) Oluwatoyin Adetutu Orenuga Submitted her Ph.D thesis in History and Policy of Education to the Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan in 2008. The article in this Journal is an excerpt from the thesis. She lectures in the school of Education, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
8. Dr. (Mrs.) Comfort Folake Onabanjo is a Chief Lecturer in the School of Education Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. Her article derived from the Ph.D work submitted to the Department of International Centre for Educational Evaluation, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan in 2007. The title of the thesis is : 'Cognitive and Affective Factors as Correlate of Senior Secondary School Female Students' Achievement in Mathematics'.
9. Dr. (Mrs.) Bolapade Sinmi Ige culled her contribution from the Ph.D thesis titled 'Language in Education Practice and Pupils Performance in Selected Primary School Subject : 'A case study of Selected Primary Schools in Abeokuta North Local Government in Ogun State'. The work was done in 1999 and submitted to the Language Education Unit of the Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. She is a Chief Lecturer at the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
10. Dr. Samsom Oyetunji Folajin, a Chief Lecturer in Federal College of Education, Abeokuta draws his article from the Ph.D thesis titled : 'Relationship between Participative Management and Teacher Job Satisfaction in Oyo State Secondary Schools' in 1987. The work was submitted to the Department of Educational Management, Faculty of education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
11. Dr. Emeka Godslove Okeh's article in this Journal derived from his Ph.D thesis titled, 'Information Needs and Change Agents' Characteristics as Factors in Information utilization by Rural Dwellers in Obioma-Ngwa Area, Abia State. He submitted the thesis to the Department of Library Archival and Information Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, in 2002. He is currently a Chief Librarian in Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
PART THREE
12. Dr. Isau Adegboyega Mofikoya Lectures at the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. The article presented here is drawn from the Ph.D thesis titled : 'Dynamics of Applied Nitrogen in Maize (Zea Mays) Production in an Alfisol in South Western Nigeria. The work was done at the Department of Crop Production, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (now Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta) in 2009.
13. Dr. Benjamin Edegbai is a Chief Lecturer in Physical and Health Education Department of the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. His article in this volume was culled from the Ph.D work; 'Attitudes, Belief and Practices regarding Lactation among Mothers Utilizing Healthcare Facilities in Abeokuta, Ogun State. The thesis was
viii submitted to the Department of Physical and Health Education, Faculty of education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria.
14. Dr (Mrs) Bolatito Adijat Adeniji is a Chief Lecturer at the Federal College of Education. Her Ph.D dissertation titled: 'Comparative Effect of 12-weeks Circuit Training Programme on Motor ability and Anthropometric Characteristic of Pre-and Post Monarcheal Girls' is the source of the article in this Journal. The work was originally submitted to the Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education Deparatment, Faculty of education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan in 1999.
15. Dr Godwin Alafia Kayode Omoyinmi completed his Ph. D work in 2004 with the title Evaluation of Farm Cultured Invertebrates as Diet for African Catfish-Claries gariepinus (burchell, 1822) and Nile Tilapia-Oreochromis Niloticus (Limnaeus) at the Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science , University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. It is from the thesis that the article in this Journal was culled. He is currently a lecturer in the Agriculture Education Department, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
16. Dr (Mrs) Folukemi Abidemi Oyenike Akinnusi is a Chief Lecturer at the Department of Agriculture Education, Federal College of Education Abeokuta. She submitted her Ph.D dissertation to the Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, 2001. The title of the work from where the article in this Journal derived is 'Pre-Mating and Pre-Partum Concentrate Supplementation on the Reproductive Performance of WAD Ewes in Abeokuta, Ogun State Nigeria.
PART FOUR
17. Dr (Mrs) Folakemi Shakirat Solaja worked on ' Culture orthodoxy in selected Novels of Yoruba Expression for her Ph.D in the Department of Linguistics and African Languages, Faculty of Arts, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria in 2011. It is from the thesis that her article in this volume was sourced. She works as a Chief Lecturer in Federal College of Education Abeokuta, Nigeria.
18. Dr Rafiu Adekola Soyele is a Chief Lecturer in Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. His Ph.D dissertation was titled : 'Language Attitudes Study among Yoruba and African languages, Faculty of Arts, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria in 2009. The article published in this volume derived from the thesis.
19. Dr Soji Aderemi Fajenyo Lectures at the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. His article was drawn from the Ph.D thesis submitted to the Department of Linguistics and African Languages, Faculty of Arts, University of Ibadan, Ibadan in 2003 with the title : 'The Aesthetics of Verbal Lore in Yoruba Jingles and Advertisement Discourse in the Electronic Media'.
ix 20. Dr Ayodele Adetayo Ajayi is a Chief Lecturer in the Department of Christian Religious Studies, Federal College of Education Abeokuta. His Ph.D thesis titled : 'Dynamics of Growth in Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries – 1999-2006' served as the source for his article in this Journal. The thesis was submitted to the Department of Religious Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria in 2008.
21. Dr Geoffey Ajemijoye Arueyingho Submitted his Ph.D thesis to the Department of Visual Arts, Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Nigeria in 2002 with the title : 'Dress Forms of the Guinea Coast People of West Africa. It is from the thesis that the article in this publication is drawn. Dr Aruyingho is a Chief Lecturer in the Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
x PART 1
1 TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODOLOGY.
1. COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUMENT AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS – MUKAILA A. O . SOTAYO.
2. EFFECT OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCED EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA – TOLU OKORUWA
3. A CASUAL MODEL OF TEACHING FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA – E. O. SODIPO
4. COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED- EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA – PATRICK K. AJILA
5. LANGUAGES OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPIL'S LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA – KASALI ALARAPE SALAWU
2 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
Mukaila A. O. Sotayo
Abstract This study was carried out to ascertain the effects of Computer Assisted Programmed Instruction (CAPI), Locus of Control and their interaction on Students' achievement in Physics. It adopted a non-randomized pretest-post test quasi- experimental design. The subjects were 284 Senior Secondary two Physics Students selected from 6 distantly located Co-educational School in Abeokuta. Two valid and reliable instruments were used for data collection: Achievement Text in Heat-Related concepts. ATHC (KR2=0.85) and Locus of Control Scale, LCS
(KR20=0.71) Data analysis involved the use of Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The result showed significant main effect of treatment (F(2,283) = 20.588, P < 0.05) and Locus of control (F(1,282)=10.974, P < 0.05) on physics achievement. The result revealed that the CAPI group achieved significantly higher than the control group while the internals achieved significantly higher than the Externals. There was also significant interaction effect of treatment and locus of control (F(2,283) = 5.031, P< 0.05). The results have valuable implications for curriculum planning, teacher training and in-service training.
Introduction The dominant role played by science and technology is so important that no nation can develop without it. In spite of this, Secondary School science education is associated with a low students' enrolment and achievement (Iroegbu, 1998; Orji, 1998; Desai, 2004). This however, is not peculiar to Nigeria as it depicts the general trend world wide (Obioha, 1987; Okpala 1995, Sotayo, 2010). In the advanced Country some of the Science Departments (e.g. Physics) are closing down. As a result, the problem of students' underachievement in physics has become a topical educational issue which has attracted the attention
3 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS of researchers (Okpala and Onocha, 1995; Orji, 1998; Sotayo, 2010). Some of these researchers have identified the sources of the problem to include, among other things the abstract and quantitative nature of physics, the use of lecture method with its characteristics monologue in teaching the subject, insufficiency of laboratory equipment and apparatus, e.t.c. In search for solution to the problem, Science Educators (e.g. Ronning and McCurdy, 1982, Orji, 1998; Kumari, 2000) noted that the use of lecture method in teaching the subject make a wide range of boys and girls who have moderate numerical ability and different cognitive preference styles to view physics as difficult, unimaginative, hard to understand requiring much memorization and quantitative ability. In consequence, the studies had recommended a hand-on- approach to the teaching of the subjects. This background emphasizes the need to investigate and initiate a hand –on-instructional strategy that is associated with programmed instruction which is Computer based. More so, when such strategy have potentials for cultivating and grooming the discipline of self- directed study in an academic field as well as learnings level of cognitive development (West, 1992; Pardeshi, 2005). Computer programmed instruction provides students with powerful computing tools that allow them to engage in open-ended learning by discovery process by programming the Computer to perform certain tasks (Oyesola, 1998). Other Science Educators (Bajah, 1993; Abimbade, 1996; Okebukola, 1998; Ajayi, 1998; Sotayo, 2008) emphasized the use of Computer as an aid to facilitate science teachers of modern science in our schools and to develop more effective ways of teaching directed towards improving basic literacy and computational skills, teaching concepts, promoting student enquiry, individualizing instruction and mainstreaming special needs students and matching teaching and learning styles e.t.c.
4 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS Gritten and Dolden (1990) also showed that Computer has unlimited patience, not minding how many times it is asked the same question and this makes it ideal for testing students. It can provide lucid, stimulating and enjoyable simulations, perform tedious calculations with great speed and record readings from controlled experiments. It is for these reasons, among others, that this study assessed the extent to which programmed instructional strategies could be used in Nigerian educational setting to improve secondary school physics students' achievement. The author was also interested in assessing the influence of alterable motivational variables (such as locus of control) on achievement in Physics. An individual's locus of control is a measure of belief that his success and failure are attributed to internal or external causes. Social learning theorists (Rotter, 1968; Weiner, 1973; Dweck and Goetz, 1978) suggest that students' behaviour in achievement situation are influenced by their locus of control which are internal or external. For instance, if a student believes that his achievement in Physics is contingent on his behaviour (internal locus of control) then academic success will increase the likelihood of his attention or persistence at future teaching- learning-assessment tasks. In contrary, if there is no perceived relationship between performance and behaviour (external locus of control) then academic success will not increase the chances of such attention or persistence. Usually, the externals, unlike the internals, attribute their test performance to fate, luck, whims of the teacher, parents, peers etc and thus are not likely to change their behaviour to ensure success in future tasks. It is thus necessary that science educators in their efforts to explain achievement in physics, should recognize the possible confounding effects of students locus of control. The theoretical basis to posit the problem of this study is provided against the background of the need to identify and address the problem of poor achievement in physics, through the use of programmed instructional strategies and the proposition that student's locus of control could influence the achievement.
5 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
Statement of Problem The study seeks to determine the effect of programmed instructional strategy and locus of control on secondary school physics students' achievement in physics. Hypotheses: Based on the problem, the study tested the following null Hypotheses; H01: Physics achievement of students is not significantly affected by treatment H02: Physics achievement of students is not significantly affected by locus of control H03: Physics achievement of the students is not significantly affected by the interaction of treatment and locus of control.
Population and Sample Procedure The population of the study comprises of all the SSII physics students in Abeokuta educational zone of Ogun – State, Nigeria. The sample of the study was drawn from the population of thirty seven secondary schools. Simple random sampling was used to select four schools with 284 students. First, a survey of co-educational Secondary Schools in Abeokuta Education Zone was done to identify four school that (I) have presented physics candidate in SSC examination for at least five years; and (ii) have at least one physics graduate teacher for SSII students. Efforts were also made to ensure that the schools are far apart from each other to avoid the possibility of interaction. Out of the schools considered, four schools were randomly selected. The four schools were randomly assigned to the two treatment conditions such that any two schools constituted a treatment group.
6 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
Instrumentation The study made use of the following instruments; (i) Achievement Test In Physics Concepts (ATPC) The ATPC have a multiple-choice format. It is in two parts. A and B. Section A solicited for personal information on the Students while section B has 40 items each with four options (A-D) from which the students selected the key. The test content covered the topics taught during the implementation, as well as the three levels of cognitive domain advocated by the Education testing Service of United States and used in Nigeria by Yoloye (1982) and Okpala (1985): Remembering, Understanding and Thinking. The reliability of the instrument produced KR20 = 0.92
(ii) Locus of Control Scale (LCS) The LCS was developed by Rotter (1996) who classified Locus of Control as either Internal or external. It has 29 pairs of statement in such a way that internal statements were arranged as 'a' while external ones were arranged as 'b'. The investigator found the instrument construct validity and internal consistency reliability coefficient to be 0.71 (cronbach coefficient alpha) and test-retest reliability value of 0.70 from sample of 62 SS II physics student in Ota.
(iii) Operational Guide for Lecture-Method of Instruction (OGLI) The OGLI stipulates the method of teaching students in the control group. The method has four major procedural steps. Introduction, Exposition, Remedial and summary. The lesson plans were validated by three experienced physics educators. The instrument was trials tested and the trial testing produced inter- rater reliability value of 0.93.
7 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
Treatment Procedure The two treatment conditions were made to fit into the school regular lesson periods. Each treatment condition was provided in two schools for a period of six weeks. The participating students were made to responds to ATPC and LCS. The score of ATPC serves as pretest while the LCS is use to classify students into two Locus of control groups. After this the trained teachers provided the treatment conditions to the CAPI and control groups (Simple and random sampling was used to decide the specific treatment provided for each intact class). At the end of the six weeks of the treatment ATPC was administered as post test.
Results
HO1:- Physics achievement of Students is not significantly affected by treatment.
TABLE 1: Summary of Extract of Analysis of Covariance of Students Achievement Scores by Treatment and Locus of Control
Source of variation Sum of Sq Of Mean Sq F Sig of F Covariates 118.041 1 118.041 4.3950 0.037 Pre-test 118.041 1 118.041 4.3950 0.037 Main Effect 4834.901 7 690.700 25.715 0.000 Treatment 1105.987 2 552.994 20.588 0.000* Locus of Control 294.766 1 294.767 10.979 0.001* 2- Way interactions 970.341 17 57.079 2.125 0.007 Treatment X Loc 270.255 2 135.128 5.031 0.007* µ = 0. 05
Table 1 represents analysis of covariance of physics achievement score in heat related concepts by Treatment and Locus of control. The table shows that there was a significant main effect of treatment on students' achievement in heat related concept (F (1,283) = 20.588, P<0.05). Thus hypothesis H01 was rejected, because there was statistically significant main effect of treatment on heat related concept among secondary school students as shown in table 1.
8 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
In order to determine the order of achievement associated with the two groups of students (students exposed to Computer Assisted Programmed Instruction and conventional teaching) reference was made to multiple classifications Analysis/MCA in table II
Table II: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) of Achievers Score by Treatment and Locus of Control.
Grand mean = 22.771
Viable category N Unadjusted ETA Adjusted BETA Deviation Independence covariate TREATMENT
1.Conventional 90 - 1.94 0130 -1.79 0.30 2.Computer Assisted 96 - 2.77 2.76 LOCUS OF CONTROL 1. Internal 141 1.35 0.20 1.02 0.15 2. External 1 43 - 1.33 - 1.02
Table two shows that CAPI group achieved highest with an adjusted post test mean of 25.54 while the Control group (Conventional teaching) had the achievement with an adjusted post-test mean score of 20.83. It does seem that students in CAPI group achieved better than the control group. It means therefore that significant effect of treatment comes from Computer Assisted programmed instruction. The result that there is significant difference between the achievement of those exposed to CAI and conventional method is supported by the finding of Abibade (1983), Duyile (1990), Ajiboye (1996), and Ayoola (1998) and Sotayo (2010). However the result disagrees with that of Cavanagn and Morgan (1965) and Banatyre (1966).
9 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
According to Ayoola (1998), CAI is hardly used for instruction, therefore students exposed to CAI are bound to be excited and as a result put their best in order to excel. In the light of this result, it is suggested that practicing physics teachers should take advantage of the stimulating environment of Computer and use CAI while teaching Physics concept.
H02:- Physics achievement of students is not significantly affected by Locus of control. Table I shows that there was a significant main effect of Locus of control on Student achievement in heat related concepts (F (1,283)=10.979, P<0.05).
Thus hypothesis H02 was rejected. This implies that there was statistically significant main effect of Locus of control on physics achievement of Senior Secondary School in Heat related concept. In order to determine which of the two groups of students (Internal and External) achieved significantly better, reference was made to MCA in table II. The table shows that the internal group achieved significantly higher with an adjusted post-test mean score of (24.12) while the external had adjusted post- mean score of 2.44. The table also revealed that Locus of control accounted for 2.25% (0.15)2 of variation in students' achievement. The significant main effect of Locus of control on student achievement in physics agrees with the finding of perterson and Carlson (1979) and Igwe (1991). However, the finding is in conflict with Fraser (1982) and Eso (2000). The better achievement of internal over the external is explicable considering the attributes associated with the two dimensions of Locus of control. As a general principle, external locus of control refers to perception of positive and or negative events as being unrelated to one's own actions in certain situation and therefore beyond personal control (Rother, 1966; Lahademe, 1967). It is
10 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS therefore expected that students who are internal would achieve higher than their external counterpart because the internal believes that the outcome of a situation is contingent on his or her behaviour. He or she is likely to put more efforts in learning.
H03: Physics achievement of the students is not significantly affected by the interaction of treatment and locus of control. Table I shows that there was a significant interaction effect of treatment and locus of control on student achievement in Physics concepts in Senior Secondary
School Physics (F (2,283) =2 5.031, P<0.05). Thus hypothesis H03 was rejected.
As a result efforts were made to disentangle the interaction through simple effect analysis as shown in figure 1. The figure showed that the interaction was disordinal. Students that were exposed to Computer assisted programmed instruction performed best irrespective of their locus of control, while the students that were exposed to conventional method performed least at the internal level.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 INTERNAL EXTERNAL
CAPI CONTROL Fig 1 : Effect Analysis
11 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS
Conclusion and Implication In the light of this result, it is suggested that practicing physics teachers should take advantage of the stimulating environment of Computer Assisted programmed instruction while teaching physics concepts. In addition, guidance counselors should endeavour to re-orientate the external students toward internal locus of control dispositions to improve on the student physics achievement. The teachers should recognize and respect the feeling of the externals. Furthermore when programmed instruction is used, the teacher should concentrate on the external but in using the conventional methods the teacher should concentrate on the internal.
References
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Ajayi, I. A. (1998) CAI and In Service Teacher at College of Education Level. A paper presented at the 2nd National Conference of School of Science, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. 22-24 June.
Ajiboye, J.O. (1996), A Self-Learning Programmed, the modified lecture method and students' cognitive and effective outcomes in some population education concepts unpublished Ph.D. thesis University of Ibadan.
Ayoola, A.P. (1998), The Relative Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted and Text- Assisted Programmed Instruction on Students' Learning Outcomes in Social Studies Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of ibadan.
Baja, S.T. (1983), Approach of Teaching Integrated Science. Teaching Integrated Science Creativity. University Press,Ibadan.
Banatyre, C. (1966), A research Evaluating Teaching Machines for Junior School Use. Journal of Association of Programmed learning, 7, 1, 21-30.
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Barot, H. M. (2005), A study of the effectiveness of CAI in Sanskrit for stds VIII Students. CASE, MSU, Baroda.
Cavanagh, I and Morgan, C. (1965) Programmed in Print. Journal of Association of Programmed Learning 5, 14, 290-300.
Desai, B. Y. (2004), A comparative Study of the Efficacy of Teaching Through Traditional Method and Multimedia Approach in the Subject of Home Science. Ph.D Thesis. South Gujarat University, Surat, India.
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Dweck, C.S and Goetz (1978), Sex difference in learning helplessness. Developmental Psychology 48, 268-276
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Obioha, N.G. (1987), A Declining Trends in Students Choice of Science and Technology. 28th STAN Annual Conference Proceedings, 16-24
Okebukola, Peter (1998), Challenges of Science Education in the 21st Century. A Keynote Address Delivered at the 2nd National Conference of the School of Science, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta 23-26 June.
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Okpala, P.N. and Duacha, C.O. (1995), The effects of Systematic Assessment
13 COMPUTER ASSISTED PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND LOCUS OF CONTROL AS DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PHYSICS Procedure on students Achievement in mathematics and Science Subject UNESCO-Africa. A six-monthly journal of the Dakar UNESCO Regional Office. 10,55-61
Oyesola, Jare (1998), Innovative Instructional learning Strategies in Science Education. Multimedia Computers – an ideal teaching aids. Being a paper presented at the 2nd National Conference of F.C.E. Abeokuta 23-26, June.
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Sarangi, D. (2000), Exploring Cognitive Map Formed due to Educational Video Viewing Among Learners. Ph.D Thesis. CASE, MSU, Baroda.
Sotayo, M.A.O. (2007), Computer Assisted Programme Instruction And Cognitive Preference Style As Determinant of Achievement of Secondary School Physics Students. African Journal of Educational Studies In Mathematics and Science Vol. 5. 43-48
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14 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Tolu Okoruwa
Abstract One of the goals of primary education in Nigeria is to lay a sound foundation for scientific thinking. The use of the conventional teaching methods in the primary science classroom often leads to poor performance and poor scientific attitude. This study investigated the comparative effects of conceptual change and enhanced explicit teaching strategies on pupils' achievement in primary science and their acquisition of scientific attitudes. The moderating effects of cognitive style and gender on the dependent measures were also examined. The study adopted a pretest post-test control group quasi-experimental design with a 3x2x2 factorial matrix. One hundred and ninety primary six pupils from three public primary schools selected from Ibadan Southwest Local Government Area participated in the study. Three instruments were developed Science Achievement Test (SAT), Scientific Attitude Questionnaire (SAQ) and Operational guide for Instruction (OGI) while one (Cognitive Styles Analysis, CSA) was adopted for the study. SAT had average difficulty, discriminatory and KR-20 reliability indices of 0.78 and the test-retest reliability index for CSA was 0.91. Data were analyzed using both descriptive statistics and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOWA). All the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Treatment had significant effect on pupil's achievement scores (P< 0.05) and scientific attitude (P<0.05). the pupils in the Conceptual Change Teaching Strategy (CCTS) group had the highest mean achievement score (x = 20.76), followed by those in the Exnhanced Explicit Teaching Strategy (EETS) group (x=19.03) and then those in the Conventional Teaching Strategy (CTS) group (x = 12.86) respectively. Pupils in the EETS group obtained the highest scientific attitude mean score (x = 6.25). Furthermore, there was significant moderating effect of cognitive style on pupils' achievement in science (P< 0.05). The analytics had higher mean achievement (x =16.64) and scientific attitude scores (x=7.63) than the who lists (x 15.12) and 6.79 respectively). There was no significant moderating effect of gender on achievement (P > 0.05) but it was significant on scientific attitude (P < 0.05) Boys had higher scientific attitude mean scores (x = 7.45) than girls (x = 3.85). Conceptual change and enhanced
15 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA explicit teaching strategies enhanced pupils' achievement in science and their scientific attitude more than the conventional method. It is therefore recommended that teachers should adopt the CCTS and EETS in order to improve achievement and develop a more scientific attitude in pupils.
Background to the problem Science is a field of study which has not only helped man to adapt to his environment; but also to adapt the environment to him. It is also recognized as an indispensable tool for industrialization and national development. Science and technology have become a world culture and way of life as both are being harnessed to solve human problems in different parts of the world. Any country, therefore, which fails to pay attention to the quality of its science education, will not only be left behind technologically, but will also remain perpetually dependents on the more technologically advanced countries. In realization of this fact, Nigeria, as stated in the National Policy on Education, has made the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking one of the goals of primary school education.1 In pursuance of this goal, the government has made science one of the core subjects in all primary schools. This is an acknowledgement of the fact that primary education is the foundation upon which further education is built. The same policy further recommends that teaching and learning at the primary school level should be practical, exploratory and experimental. All these efforts reveal the fact that there is a growing awareness of the importance of the quality of science teaching in our schools. However, in spite of these efforts, low enrollment for science in our secondary and tertiary institutions; as well as under-achievement in science subject at the Senior Secondary Certificate level have also been reported.2 The root of this problem probably lies in poor science teaching at the foundational primary school level. Researchers have observed that science and learning in Nigeria
16 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA schools is mostly done by the chalk-and-talk method.3 This method is wasteful and unproductive, especially when slow and average learners are considered.4 On the other hand, whether pupils proceed to the secondary school or not, the learning of science ought to inculcate in them the scientific attitude which will be beneficial to these children throughout life. Such attitude as objectivity, open mindedness and logical thinking will enable our children react more intelligently to the changes which they may experience in the future; and prepare them to take up the leadership of this nation in the future. These attitudes are meant to be inculcated right from the primary school through qualitative science education, as stipulated in the National Policy on Education. 5 For the quality of science teaching and learning in Nigerian schools to improve beyond what obtains at present, there is need for strategies which could, irrespective of individual learning differences, enhance understanding, improve achievement and help learners to acquire the scientific attitude.
Statement of the problem The chalk – and – talk method is the most commonly used for the teaching of science in our schools. This has been found to be wasteful, unproductive and ineffective in engaging learners' interest. It was also criticized for its inability to equip learners with problem – solving skills and in the development of scientific attitude in the young ones. This study therefore investigated the comparative effects of conceptual change and enhanced explicit teaching strategies on pupils' achievement in Primary Science and on their scientific attitude. It further sought to determine the influence of cognitive style and gender on pupils’ achievement in Primary Science and on their scientific attitude.
17 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
HO1:- There is no significant main effect of treatment on pupil's (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude
HO2:- There is no significant main effect of cognitive style on pupils' (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude
HO3 There is no significant main effect of gender on pupils' (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude (b) Scientific Attitude
Ho4:- There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and cognitive style on pupils' (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude
HO5:- There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and gender on pupils' (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude
HO6:- There are no significant interaction effects of cognitive style and gender on pupils' (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude
HO7:- There is no significant interaction effects of treatment, cognitive style and gender on pupils' (a) Achievement in Primary Science (b) Scientific Attitude
Scope of the Study This study is delimited to Primary Six Pupils in Public Primary Schools in Ibadan South West Local Government Area of Oyo State. The strategies investigated are the conceptual change and the enhanced explicit teaching strategies.
18 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Research Design This study adopted a pre-test post-test control group quasi-experimental design. Intact classes were used for the study so as not to disrupt the school programme. The schools were however randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups.
Variables in the Study Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of variables in the study
Independent Variable Moderator Variables Dependent Variables Instructional strategy A Cognitive Style (i) Achievement in (i) Conceptual change (i) Wholist Primary science Teaching strategy (ii) Analytic (ii) Scientific (ii) Enhanced explicit Teaching Strategy B. Gender (iii) Conventional (i) Male Teaching strategy (ii) Female
Selection of Subjects Three public primary schools were randomly selected for the study from Ibadan South West Local Government Area of Oyo State. The sample was made up of all the primary six pupils in the selected schools. This gave a total of 190 pupils of which 95 were males and 95 were females. The mean age of the pupils was 12.36 while the standard deviation was 2.08. The number of pupils who exhibited the analytic and who listic cognitive styles was 86 and 104 respectively. The participating schools were randomly assigned to the treatment conditions giving rise to one treatment group in each school.
Instruments For this study, five instruments were used. These are:- (i) Science Achievement Test (SAT) (ii) Scientific Attitude Questionnaire (SAQ) (iii) Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA)
19 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
(iv) Teachers' Assessment Guide (TAG) (v) Operational Guide for Instrument (OGI) SAT, SAQ, TAG and OGI were developed by the researcher while CSA was adapted All the instruments were duly validated.
Data Analysis The data collected were analyzed using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to determine the significant main and interaction effects with pre-test scores as covariates. This statistic was chosen because it takes into consideration the initial differences among the subjects especially since intact classes were used. Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) was used to find the magnitude of the differences among the groups while Scheffe post-hoc analysis was employed to determine the sources of the significant treatment effects observed on the ANCOVA.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Table 1: Summary of the analysis of covariance of post - test attitude scores
Source of variation Sum of df Mean F Sig squares square
Covariates 204.593 1 204.593 24.093 .000 (pre - test) Main effects (combined) 2781.906 4 695.477 81.901 .000 Treatment 2555.545 2 1277.773 150.474 .000 Cognitive style 99.872 1 99.872 11.761 .001 Gender 19.017 1 19.017 2.240 .136 2 - way interactions 59.234 5 11.847 1.395 .228 Treatment x cognitive 22.991 2 11.495 1.354 .261 Treatment x gender 11.406 2 5.703 .672 .512 Style x Gender 30.693 1 30.693 3.615 0.059 3 - way interactions Treatment x 5.037 2 2.518 .297 .7 44 Cognitive style x Gender Model 3050.770 12 254.231 29.939 . 00 Residual 1503.024 177 8.492 Total 455 3. 795 189 24.094 * Significant at P<0.05
20 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Table 2: Multiple classification analysis of post - test achievement scores. Grand mean = 15.805 Variable + category N Unadjusted Eta Adjusted for Beta variation independent +covariates deviation Treatment
Concept change 44 4. 19 4.96
Enhanced Explicit 47 2. 28 .64 3.22 .81
Conventional 99 - 2.95 -3.73
Cognitive style
Wholists 104 26 - .69 .15
Analytics 86 .83
Gender
Male 95 00 - .32 .07
Female 95 .32
Multiple R2 .656
Multiple R .810
Table 3: Summary of Scheffe post - hoc multiple range comparison of the post - test achievement mean scores according to treatment groups. Means Teaching Conceptual Enhanced Conventional strategies change explicit 20.00 Conceptual Change * 18.09 Enhanced * explicit
12.86 Conventional * * *denotes pairs of groups significantly different at <0.05 level
21 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Table 4: Summary of the analysis of covariance of post - test attitude scores
Source of variation Sum of df Mean F Sig squares square
Covariates (pre - test) 12.360 1 12.360 3.019 .084
Main effects (combined) 98.957 4 24.739 6.043 .000*
Treatment 45.488 2 22.744 5.555 .005*
Cognitive style 31.786 1 31.786 7.764 .006
Gender 19.114 1 19.114 4.669 .32
2 - way interactions 16.910 5 3.382 .826 .533
Treatment x cognitive 1.289 2 .644 .157 .855
Treatment x gender 1 .891 2 .946 .231 .749
Style x Gender 12 .434 1 12.434 3.037 .083 3 - way interactions 13.731 2 6.865 1.677 .190 Treatment x Cognitive style x Gender Model 141.957 12 11.830 2.889 .001
Residual 724.653 177 4.094
Total 866.611 189 4.585 * Significant at P<0.05 Table 5: Summary of Scheffe post - hoc multiple range comparison of the post - test attitude mean scores. Means Teaching Conceptual Enhanced Conventional strategies change explicit Enhanced Explicit 800 * Conceptional 6.93 Change * 6.18 Conventional * * *Denotes pairs of groups significantly different at <0.05 level
22 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Table 6: Multiple classification analysis of post - test attitude scores. Grand mean = 7.168 Variable + category N Unadjusted Eta Adjusted for Beta variation independent +covariates deviation Treatment
Conceptual change 44 -.24 -.19
Enhanced Explicit 47 .83 .22 .86 .23
Conventional 99 - .89 -.92
Cognitive style
Wholists 104 - .38 .20 - .38 .20
Analytics 86 .46 .46
Gender .15 Male 95 .41 .19 -.32
Female 95 -.41 -.32
Multiple R2 .128
Multiple R .358
Summary of Finding In this study, seven null hypotheses were tested at P<0.05 level of significance. The summary of the results is presented as follows:- 1. There were significant differences in the achievement mean scores of pupils in both the experimental and control groups (table 1). The decreasing magnitude of mean achievement scores according to the treatment groups could be represented as follow:-
23 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
Conceptual change > Enhanced explicit > Control group. 2. There was significant effect of the treatment on pupils' scientific attitude (table 4). From table 6, the decreasing magnitude of post – test attitude mean score according to treatment groups could be represented as follows:- Enhanced explicit > Conceptual change > Control group 3. There was significant main effect of cognitive style on pupils' achievement in science (table 1) as well as scientific attitude (table 4). Analysis had higher mean achievement and post – test scientific attitude scores than wholists in all the groups (tables 2 and 6). 4. Gender was found to have no significant main effect on pupils' achievement in science (table 1). It however had significant effect on pupils' scientific attitude. Boys had significantly higher post – scientific attitude mean scores than girls (table 6). 5. No Significant interaction effect of treatment and cognitive style was found on pupils' achievement in science as well as scientific attitude. 6. No significant interaction effect of treatment and gender was found on pupils' achievement in science and scientific attitude. 7. There was no significant interaction effect of cognitive style and gender on pupils' achievement in scientific attitude. 8. There was no significant interaction effect of treatment, cognitive style and gender on pupils' achievement in science and scientific attitude.
Educational Implications and Recommendations The finding that the conceptual change and enhanced explicit teaching strategies were better than the conventional chalk – and talk method for science teaching in enhancing pupils' understanding of scientific concepts shows that when as activity based teaching strategy (such as conceptual change teaching
24 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA strategy or the enhanced explicit teaching) is used, pupils are active, and their interest is aroused and sustained. They also acquire such scientific attitudes as curiosity, objectivity, rationality, suspended judgment and open – mindedness. The primary school science teachers should therefore provide a variety of science activities for pupils which will expose them to the cognitive gains as well as the skills and attitudes of science. Furthermore, the conceptual change teaching strategy was found to facilitate learning better than the enhanced explicit teaching strategy. It therefore follows that teaching should start with the teacher encouraging pupils to make their own pre-conceptions known.6 The teacher then presents learners with events which challenge these pre-conceptions (if wrong) and encourages the generation of alternative ideas. The analytics were found to have performed better than the wholists both in achievement and scientific attitude in all treatment groups. Teachers should make effort to find out the cognitive style of the pupuls’ in their classroom through appropriate psychological tests. The teacher would need to patiently help the wholists to identify patterns, trend and underlying principles which are not so obvious but are important for conceptual understanding. In order to help children to acquire the analytic rather that the wholist cognitive style it may be necessary to expose them right from early childhood to learning experiences which will promote analytic behavior. This should start at home long before the child enters school. When buying toys for their children, parents should buy toys with which children can match, classify, measure, design, and construct. Children would also benefit from scientifically modeled toys which teach basic but simple scientific laws and principles. Towards the actualization of this, there is also the need for Nigerians to begin to gradually develop locally designed and produced scientifically – based toys so that such toys could be readily affordable
25 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA and available to most Nigerians.7 This study has shown that irrespective of the strategy adopted in teaching, girls had a poorer scientific attitude than boys. This may be due to socialization factors in the African culture. There is the need to give equal chances to both boys and girls to excel in the sciences and to adopt the scientific attitude. Parents should endeavour to buy, rather than dolls only, other scientifically stimulating toys for their girl-child which could enhance her scientific attitude and put her at par with her male counterparts.
End Notes 1. Federal Ministry of Education (2004) National Policy on Education, Lagos: Federal Government Press.
2. Asim, A. E. (1998) An evaluation of the relative effectiveness of two interactive approaches based on the constructivist perspective for teaching primary science, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
2. Ishola, P.L. (2000) Problem – solving instructional strategies, students' numerical ability and gender as determinants of learning outcomes in senior secondary physics, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
3. Duyilemi, A. N. (1998) JETS Principles to the teaching of biology in secondary schools, Science Teachers' Association of Nigeria Biology Panel Workshop Proceedings, 38-43.
3. Popoola, A. A. (2002) Effects of heuristic problem solving and programmed instructional strategies on Senior Secondary School Students' learning outcomes in Mathematics in Ekiti State, Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
4. Nneji, N. G. (1997) Understanding Teaching and Evaluating skill acquisition, Journal of School of Technical Education, Federal College of Education (Technical), Akoka. 1 (1), 16-20.
26 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
5. Federal Ministry of Education (2004) National Policy on Education, Lagos: Federal Government Press.
6. Louden, W. & Wallace, J. (1994) Knowing and teaching science: the constructivist paradox. International Journal of Science Education, 16(6), 649-657.
6. Taber, K. S. (2001) The Mismatch between assumed prior knowledge and the learners' perceptions: a typology of learning impediments, Educational Studies, 27(2), 159-171.
7. Olatunji, F. O. (2003) Development of the Culture of technology in the Nigerian Child, A lead paper presented at the 2nd annual conference of Early Childhood Association of Nigeria (ECAN), 23rd-25th July.
27 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE AND ENHANCE EXPLICIT TEACHING STRATEGIES ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IBADAN, NIGERIA
A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
E.O.Sodipo
Abstract The study sought to provide a causal explanation for the variable of time spent on learning-facilitating tasks in Biology lessons on the basis of seven teacher factors. The study involved hypothesizing a theoretical causal model which showed causal relationship among eight variables: teaching experience, teacher gender, qualification, motivation, job satisfaction, attitude towards teaching, commitment and time on tasks. 200 teachers were randomly selected from the then 318 Oyo State Senior Secondary Schools. These were made up of 98 males and 102 females. The subjects responded to five valid and reliable research instruments. Data analysis involved the use of multiple regression, backward solution and path analysis to establish and estimate the intercausal direct and indirect linkages between all the teacher variables and time spent on learning-facilitating tasks in Biology lessons. The results indicated that 19.3% of the total effect of the time spent on learning-facilitating tasks were direct while 80.7% were indirect. The average time spent on learning-facilitating tasks by a Biology teacher was found to be 15.54 minutes.
Introduction Biology is one of the science subjects offered at the senior secondary school level. It is the most populated and preferred among the major science subjects (Physics, Chemistry and Biology); moreover, in Oyo State of Nigeria, Biology has been chosen as the core subject from the science group. The knowledge of Biology is very necessary for everyday living and it also forms the basis for various disciplines such as: Human Medicine, Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture, Nursing, Nutrition, Pharmacy, etc. However, Biology is associated with under-achievement at the Senior
28 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Secondary Certificate and UTM Board Examinations. Many researchers including Powl (1998), Fakorede (1999) and Ogunkola (2000) have acknowledged this problem. Others have linked the problem with deficiencies in teacher preparation, teaching methods, difficult topics, inadequate instructional materials and so on. There are also indications that the amount and quality of science, Biology inclusive, learning that takes place in the class depends on some teacher factors. Researchers have worked on factors such as: attitude towards teaching, Aghadiuno (1992); job commitment, Adeyemo and Aremu (1999); teaching experience, Hull (1990); qualification, Sidge (1987); teacher gender, Azeke (1994); and job satisfaction, Sim (1990). The time spent by the teacher in doing useful teaching is another factor affecting achievement of students (Okpala and Onocha, 1988). Thus, there seems to exist interactions among the teacher factors and the time the teacher spent on learning-facilitating tasks in the class. Therefore, there is the need to bring into focus this study, that involved the construction and testing of a eight- variable model for teacher factors and the time spent on learning-facilitating tasks during senior secondary school Biology lessons, as the basis for providing a causal explanation for the time the teacher spent on useful teaching. This is because there is a positive correlation between the time spent on interaction/learning-facilitating tasks and achievement of the students in Biology. It is also believed that a better understanding of the causal influence among various teacher factors and time would be of considerable help in developing a more effective instructional theory and practical techniques that would make practicing teacher spend most of the time for Biology lessons on learning-facilitating tasks, rather than on counter-productive activities. This, it is hoped, would improve achievement in senior secondary school Biology.
29 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Research Questions The study therefore sought to provide answers to these four questions: (1) Which is the most meaningful causal model (involving the listed teacher factors) for time on learning-facilitating tasks during Biology lessons? (2) What are the directions, as well as the estimate of the strength of the causal paths of the factors in the model? (3) What are the direct and indirect effects of the factors on the time? (4) What proportion of the total effects is (i) direct and (ii) indirect? The teacher variables are: (i) Teaching experience, (ii) Qualification, (iii) Gender, (iv) Motivation, (v) Job satisfaction, (vi) Attitude towards teaching, (vii) Commitment and (viii) Time spent on learning-facilitating tasks.
Methodology Sample: The target population comprised of Biology teachers in Oyo State senior secondary schools. A total of 100 participating schools were randomly selected (proportional to the number of schools in each of the 33 Local Government Areas). All the Biology teachers in the selected schools were selected for the study. In all, 200 teachers participated in the study (102 females and 98 males). The teaching experiences of these teachers vary from 2 years to 25 years as at the time of this research work.
Instrument Five valid and reliable instruments were used for the study; these were Classroom Interaction Sheet (CIS) adopted from Okpala and Onocha (1988) and Akinsola (2000); its inter-rater reliability values ranged from 0.087 and 0.93;
30 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Teacher Job Commitment Questionnaire (TJCQ) adopted from Akanbi (1986), Yee (1990) and Adeyemo and Aremu (1999), has Cronbach coefficient value of 0.80; Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ)with Cronbach coefficient value of 0.87; Teacher Attitude Toward Biology Teaching Questionnaire (ATBTQ) with Cronbach coefficient value of 0.81; and Teacher Job Motivation Behavioural Inventory (TJMBI) also with coefficient value of 0.89.
Data Collection The investigator and five other trained research assistants were involved in the administration of the instruments and observations. Five weeks were spent on data collection.
Data Analysis The study employed the use of confirmatory causal modelling that involves two closely related multivariate analytical techniques; multiple regression (backward solution and path analysis). It involved the following:- (i) An hypothesized causal model involving teacher factors and time spent on learning-facilitating tasks was constructed. The construction was based on temporal order, research findings and theoretical grounds as suggested by Blalock (1964), Duncan (1966) and Bryant and Doran (1977).
31 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Figure 1
(ii) Paths in the model were identified using five structural equations
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
The investigator identified the important paths in the hypothesized causal model by constructing the resultant structural equations using the technique of path analysis theorem (Wofle 1977) and Asher (1976).
These equations are listed below, each equation corresponds to each dependent variable .
For the trimming of the paths of the model, the investigator employed two criteria: significance (at 0.05 level), and meaningfulness. To be meaningful, the absolute value of a path coefficient has to be at least 0.05. Land (1969).
32 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
(iii) Paths in the model were trimmed based on statistical significance and meaningfulness
(iv) The new model was validated by producing the zero-order correlation matrix for the variables from a set of normal equations (not shown) using the path coefficients in the new model.
33 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
The investigator identified the important paths in the hypothesized
causal model by constructing the resultant structural equations using
the technique of path analysis theorem (Wofle 1977) and Asher (1976).
These equations are listed below, each equation corresponds to each
dependent variable .
Results The most meaningful causal model involving teacher factors and time spent on learning-facilitating tasks is shown in Figure 3. This was obtained by trimming Figure 1 based on statistical significance and meaningfulness. The figure showed that 16 out of the 24 hypothesized paths survive the trimming
Figure 3 In order to verify the tenability of the new model, the original correlations were reproduced using the computed path coefficients in the new model. The correlations were presented in Table 1. It could be observed that the discrepancies between the original and the reproduced correlations are minimal
34 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
which is an indication that the pattern of correlation in the observed data is consistent with the new model. The new model is therefore considered tenable in explaining the causal interactions between predictor variables, this is teacher factors (variables 1 – 7) and the criterion variable (time spent on learning- facilitating tasks) – variable 8. Figure 3 therefore shows the most meaningful causal model involving teacher factors and time spent on learning-facilitating tasks during senior secondary school Biology lessons.
Table 1: The Original and Reproduced Correlation Matrix
Variable X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8
X1 1.000 0.4334 0.7858 0.6426 0.7614 0.6705 0.7060 0.8382
X2 0.4334 1.0000 0.4657 0.4152 0.41338 0.4979 0.4827 0.5113
X3 0.7858 0.4657 1.0000 0.7118 0.7663 0.7037 0.7170 0.8400
X4 0.5986 0.4152 0.6892 1.0000 0.6641 0.5822 0.6779 0.7541
X5 0.7624 0.4338 0.7420 0.6388 1.0000 0.7519 0.8181 0.8790
X6 0.6705 0.4549 0.6824 0.6266 0.7308 1.0000 0.7833 0.8115
X7 0.7050 0.4827 0.7612 0.7209 0.8068 0.7391 1.0000 0.9008
X8 0.8152 0.5396 0.8333 0.7365 0.8363 0.7259 0.8400 1.0000
The pathways that are significant and meaningful and have links with the time spent on learning-facilitating tasks (variable 8) showed the direction of causal paths of the variables. The beta weights (path coefficient) associated with the pathways provide the estimates of the causal paths of the variables in the model. Out of the 283 significant and meaningful pathways through which all the predictors cause variation in the criterion, only 6 were direct paths while 277 were indirect. The total effects (direct and indirect) of all the seven variables are shown in Table 2.
35 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Discussion and Conclusion The results of the research showed that 93% of the variation in time spent on learning-facilitating tasks was determined by seven teacher factors when taken together. The result showed that six factors – teaching experience, qualification, motivation, job satisfaction, attitude toward teaching of Biology and job commitment, significantly determine time spent on learning-facilitating tasks directly and indirectly, while only one teacher factor (gender) contributed to time spent on learning-facilitating tasks. It is clearly shown on the table that variable 7 (job commitment) made the highest direct contribution to time spent on learning-facilitating tasks. It accounted for 15.1% of the total effect of the seven variables and 16.1% of the
36 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
variability in the criterion measure. Yee (1990), Sokan (1995)and Abiona and Balogun (1999) all attested to the fact that commitment affect time spend on learning-facilitating tasks. Previous researches, as well as this study, revealed that a committed individual would do their best to enhance the goal, values and aspirations of the organisation where they work. Teacher job satisfaction is the second variable that has direct causal influence on time spent on learning-facilitating tasks. It has a path coefficient of 0.88 (significant at 0.05 significance level). While its direct effect accounts for 2.7% of the total effect of the variables, its indirect effect accounts for 11.9% of the total effect. It also contributes 14.8% of the total effect of the independent variables on time spent on learning-facilitating tasks in a senior secondary school Biology lesson and 15.9% of the variability in the criterion measure. The result corroborates the findings of Ajayi (1981) and Akanbi (1986) that when an individual is satisfied, they spend more time and feel very much at home with the job. Akira (1990), Okhawere (1999) and Fakorede (1999) all observed that female teachers tend to be satisfied with their jobs than their male counterparts and hence, display vocal ability and affection by spending more time bringing up the students. The third variable that has direct causal link with time on tasks is teaching experience (variable 1). This accounts for 14.1% of the total effect of the seven variables on the tasks and 15.2% of the variability in the criterion measure. The direct and indirect effects account for 3.4% and 10.5% of the total effects of the predictor variables respectively. The next variable is teacher qualification (variable 3). It also has direct causal link with time on tasks. The direct effect accounts for 2.4% and the indirect effect accounts for 11.8% of the total effect. Sansanwal (1985)
37 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA concluded that experience and qualification of teachers may contribute positively to the effectiveness, efficiency and success in teaching. In other words, the more qualified and experienced, the more the skills and more times are spent on teaching-learning process. Another variable that has direct causal influence on time on tasks in Biology lessons is attitude towards the teaching of the subject (variable 6). This variable accounts for 13.6% of the total effect of the predictor variable and 14.6% of the variability in the criterion measure. The direct and indirect effects account for 1.5% and 12.1% respectively. There is therefore a causal link between attitude of the teacher towards the teaching of Biology and time spent on learning-facilitating tasks during Biology lessons. The result confirms the findings of some previous researchers – Sansanwal (1985) and Okpala and Onocha (1988) that, there is significant correlation between attitude towards teaching profession and classroom interaction. In the same way, Akinsola (2000) and Ogunwuyi (2000) reported that attitude of teachers towards teaching affects the interaction pattern in the class and this in turn, will affect their performance. Motivation is the sixth most important variable that has causal influence on time spent on learning-facilitating tasks in Biology lessons with path coefficient of 0.75 at 0.05 significant level. The direct effect accounts for 1.7% of the total effect while the indirect effect accounts for 10.9% of the total effect. Teacher motivation contributes about 12.6% of the total effect of the predictor variable and 13.4% of the variability in the criterion measure. The causal link between motivation and time on tasks has been corroborated by many research findings which include those of Ajayi (1981), Akanbi (1986), Akpekpe and Ejere (1997), Evan (1999) and Fabunmi (2000). All of them found out that motivation affects the morale, and that once the needs (intrinsic and extrinsic) are satisfied, work will be done.
38 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
The parsimonious model figure 3 reveals that teacher gender is indirectly influencing the time spent on learning-facilitating tasks. It accounts for 8.6% of the total effect and 9.2% of the variability in the criterion measure. The result confirms the findings of the study conducted by Fakorede (1999) who found out that the female teachers improve their teaching by their affection and temperament. Balogun (1994) attested to the fact that female teachers show more capacity for concern about the job and this also affects the time they spend on teaching. The feminine quality of the female teacher will definitely affect her attitude towards teaching-learning process.
Conclusion The result of this study showed that out of the seven variables hypothesized to be influencing time on learning-facilitating tasks in Biology lesson, six of them viz: teaching experience, qualification, motivation, job satisfaction, attitude toward teaching and job commitment significantly determine the time spend on tasks in a Biology lesson. Another important outcome of the study is that 19.3% of the total effect of teacher factors on time spent on learning tasks in a Biology lesson are direct; while 80.7% are indirect. The relative order of importance of the seven variables that determine the time spent on learning-facilitating tasks in senior secondary school Biology lesson are In all, it should be regarded that the six variables that have direct effect are very important in determining the time spent on learning-facilitating tasks in Biology lesson. Their importance should be viewed with all seriousness by educational and school administrators, teachers and those involved in instructional programmes and organisation of schools.
39 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
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41 A CAUSAL MODEL OF TEACHER FACTORS AND TIME SPENT ON LEARNING-FACILITATING TASKS DURING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY LESSONS IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA
COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE- EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA
Patrick K. Ajila
Abstract This study investigated the comparative effect of explicit teaching, enhanced-explicit teaching and the conventional teaching methods on pupils' learning outcomes in primary science using gender and academic ability as moderator variables. It examined which of the three instructional methods would be more effective on pupils' learning outcomes in primary science. The study adopted pre-test, post-test control quasi-experimental group design using a 3x 2 x 3 factorial matrix. Three hundred and ninety-four (394) primary five pupils drawn from twelve randomly selected classes in six public primary schools in Ikere Ekiti Local Government Area of Ekiti State constituted the subject of the study. The twelve (12) classes were randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group. Seven hypotheses were generated and tested in the study at 0.05 level of significance. Four major instrument used for collecting data were: the Science Achievement Test (SAT), Attitude Towards Science Questionnaire (ATSQ), Operational Guide to Instructions (OGI) and Standardized Ability Test. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data. Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) and Scheffe Post-hoc Analysis were used where significant differences were indicated. This has helped to detect the sources of variation and direction of significance respectively. The results showed that there were significant main effects of treatment for the dependent measures: Achievement [F (2,393) = 151.575; P < 0.05] and Attitude [F (2,393) = 25.381; P < 0.05]. The enhanced-explicit teaching was the most effective for achievement and attitude out of the three methods. However, there was no significant main effect of academic ability on pupils' achievement and attitude in primary science [F (2,393) = 9.913; P > 0.05], [F (2,393) = 0.775; P > 0.05] respectively. The study also revealed no significant main effect of gender on achievement in science but for attitude, the post-test score showed significant main effect [F (1,393) = 9.913; P < 0.05]. For the 2-way interaction, only treatment crossed with sex was significant [F (2,393) = 3.545; P < 0.05]. The 3-way interaction also showed significant effect of treatment by gender and ability [F (2,393) = 3.550; P < 0.05].
42 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA
Based on the findings, it is recommended that explicit teaching and peer tutoring should be adopted for teaching primary science particularly when the two are used together.
Introduction Research findings over the years have revealed the importance of science as the basic tool for industrialization and national development. It is also recognized to play a vital role in contemporary society, and thus indispensable for the healthy existence of any nation (Orukotan, 1999). The implication here is that for a nation to take her rightful place technologically among the developed nations, she must focus on science education. Margaret quoted by Bello (1999) defines science as the process of becoming aware of and the understanding of ourselves, other living things and the environment through the senses and personal exploration. Thus, Onwu (2000) suggests that science should be taught right from the primary school level where the advantage of the natural curiosity of children and their enthusiasm for learning before the years of drill and role learning cause some of them to lose interest in science and school. The lack of interest and poor performance in science subjects at the secondary school level and later in life may not be unconnected with the lack of acquisition of the basic science concepts/skills right from the primary schools. Successful science learning goes beyond passive acquisition of knowledge transmitted to learners. Rather, understanding in science occurs through individual constructions and interactions with the natural and physical world and through a social process of communicating with others in the scientific community (Driver, Asoko, Leach Mortimer and Scott, 1994 quoted by Onwu, 2000). Although, the FGN/UNICEF/UNESCO (1971) findings on monitoring primary school pupils' learning achievement stressed the need for the promotion of understanding, problem-solving ability and an inquiry-oriented
43 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA learning among primary school pupils, strategies for meeting these requirements may be lacking in an all classroom teaching and learning situation. The need for an effective method of teaching that could enhance better learning outcome in science among Nigerian primary school pupils has long attracted the interest and attention of science educators. This is based on the fact that science education is the bedrock of any technological advancement of a nation. Perhaps, this is why Emovon (1983) refers to science as an axle on which individuals and nations development and progress depend. In view of the great importance accorded the study of science, efforts have been made to improve the quality of science education in Nigeria. These efforts include teacher development programmes and curriculum development. A major goal of science curriculum development is to make learning materials appropriate to the learning capabilities of the learners. The general aim of these initiatives is to encourage good classroom practices that would lead to improved pupils' performances (Onwu, 2000). The first major attempt at developing science curriculum in Nigeria started in 1960 when some African nations, including Nigeria were represented at the International Conference on Science in the Advancement of States held in Rehovoth, Israel. The conference participants agreed on the introduction of curriculum reforms in Mathematics, the Sciences, Languages and Social Studies. Some other early attempts at developing primary science curriculum programmes in Nigeria according to Onocha (1985) include the following: i. Fafunwa/Ford Foundation Elementary Science Project in Awo-Omama, Imo State (1964). ii. Bendel Primary Science Project (1967) iii. The Primary Education Improvement of Ahmadu Bello University (1970); and
44 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA iv. The Six Year Education Programme of University of Ife (started in the early 70s). These programmes had very strong foreign background in terms of socio- cultural and educational context (Onocha, 1985; Ekong and Archebong, 1998) and thus were not considered very suitable for Nigerian children. As a result of this, a group of Nigerian science educators, with the support of the Federal Ministry of Education, developed a science core curriculum for primary schools. The core curriculum was introduced to all Nigerian primary schools in 1982. As noted by Onocha (1985), the introduction of the primary science core curriculum is considered significant in two aspects, that is, it was a major government effort to harmonize primary science teaching in Nigeria; and it was also the first attempt by the Federal Government of Nigeria to identify and state a set of objectives for teaching primary science in Nigeria schools. The objectives of the primary science core curriculum are such that the Nigerian child is expected to: i. observe and explore the environment; ii. develop basic science process skill including observing, manipulating, classifying, communicating, inferring, hypothesizing, interpreting data and formulating models; iii. develop a functional knowledge of science concepts and principles; iv. explain simple phenomena; v. develop a scientific attitude, including curiosity, critical reflection and objectivity; vi. apply the skills and knowledge gained through science to solve everyday problems in his environment; vii. develop self-confidence and self-reliance through problem-solving activities in sciences; and
45 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA viii. develop a functional awareness and sensitivity to the orderliness and beauty in nature (OSCE, 1992) It is also in recognition of the importance of science that the Federal Government of Nigeria has made the study of science compulsory right from the lower level of our educational system especially at the primary school level (NPE, 2004). The emphasis has been on inculcating in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through exploration of nature and local environment, playing with toys, artistic and musical instrument. It thus seems that the Federal Government of Nigeria recognizes primary science education as basic to any scientific and technological development of the country. Other efforts at improving primary science education in the country include Government effort on the modality to be adopted in making science teaching especially at the primary level effective and meaningful through the provision of appropriate conditions and resources (NPE, 2004), and those of professional associations such as the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN), Colleges of Education and Universities. These institutions and organizations have organized several workshops and seminars on the methods of implementing the primary science curriculum. In spite of these efforts, primary science education in Nigeria is still facing the problem of pupils under achievement and poor attitude towards science (Bajah, Onocha and Okpala, 1985). The problem, which is a topical educational issue in Nigeria and in many developing countries have attracted the attention of many researchers (Onocha, 1985; Ogunwuyi, 1997; Bajah, 1999; Ekong and Archebong, 1998). These scholars have identified the sources of the problem to include among other things, the use of lecture method with its characteristics monologue (teacher talking non-stop), and 'showing' and 'telling' in classroom situation (Jegede, 1982; Olukitibi, 1989; Odubunmi, 1991). A study carried out
46 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA by Yoloye (1994) revealed that this approach was used by 71% of primary school teachers. This may be responsible for the low level of class participation of pupils in classroom activities during teaching thus inhibiting meaningful learning at this level of education. Glass (1982) and Akinbote (1994) identified class size and structure as one of the important variables that may affect teaching effectiveness. Akinbote explained further that the smaller the size of the class, the more effective teaching is likely to be. This assertion rests on the fact that the large classes are not only exhausting but also the cause of frustration and failure in most school subjects. The extra large classes particularly in urban centres may have contributed to the poor performance of pupils in primary science. Other factors that may bring about poor performance in science among primary school pupils could be linked with poorly resourced overcrowded classes (Ogunniyi, 1986; Onwu, 2000); inappropriate language of communication/instruction (Sokoya and Macaulay, 1989; STAN, 1992; Dzama and Osborne, 1999); structure of subject matter (Onwu, 2000). Negative attitude of parents to science (Madugu, 1977), poorly trained science teaching force (Onwu, 2000), poor teaching method (Abdullahi, 1982; Balogun, 1985; Bakare, 1986; Bajah, 1998; Onwu, 2000), poor classroom management (Pwol, 1993), massive brain drain (Onwu, 2000), poor learning habit (Abimbola, 1998; Adesemowo, 1991), learners' developing intellectual abilities structuring of content (Onwu, 2000). Many science educators and researchers have worked on the above mentioned problems to minimize their effects so as to improve learning outcomes in science. The steps taken include: the use of mother tongue as a medium of science instruction in the classroom (Fafunwa, Sokoya and Macaulay, 1989) cooperative learning (Okebukola, 1984; Alebiosu, 1998; Onabanjo, 1999),
47 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA the use of guided discovery (Odubunmi, 1991; Ajewole, 1994; Bajah, 1999). Onwu (2000) has suggested that pupils' learning potential in science may be maximized if teachers ensure that beginning pupils have access to: i. relevant prior knowledge; ii. variety of learning strategies that need to be taught alongside subject matter; iii. sufficient opportunity for pupils to frequently engage in strategic learning behaviour e.g. practice, monitoring and evaluating ones thinking. As mentioned earlier, under-achievement in and poor attitude to science among learners is a problem of great concern within our educational system and has therefore become necessary for science educators and researchers in Nigeria to focus on innovative instructional methods and strategies that could enhance effective teaching and learning of primary science despite the limitations. Normally, good teaching demands that the teacher should be involved in helpful activities that may be characterized by explicitness among other things (Obanya, 1985). Thus, good teachers are not expected to be involved in such counter productive activities such as punishing, using negative reinforcement, giving notes among others (Okpala and Onocha, 1988). Several science educators have suggested that teaching methods such as child centredness, process approaches, guided inquiry and problem-solving methods tend to offer children better information in the teaching and learning of primary science (Gaddard, 1995; MacLnnis and Hemming, 1995). However, there are some research findings which tend to suggest that these methods do not meet the learning needs of all pupils. This is particularly so in a country like Nigeria where there are usually extra large classes with inadequate learning materials (Akinbote, 1994). Thus, most of the identified teaching methods may not necessarily be the best ways of developing the basic
48 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA academic skills in pupils with learning difficulties (Haris and Graham, 1996). Moreover, enquiry approach alone may not necessarily be adequate for acquiring the basic literacy and numeracy skills which are necessary ingredients for primary science (Westwood, 1997). It has therefore become necessary for science educators and researchers in Nigeria to focus on some other teaching methods and strategies that could facilitate the development of basic skills of listening, observing, cooperating, analyzing and ordering among learners during science lessons. Two of such methods that could help in the development of the basic skills in primary school pupils are explicit teaching and peer tutoring. They have been found to take care of pupils of varying intellectual abilities and also found to be very effective in the teaching and learning of languages, mathematics and social science (Peterson and Janicki, 1979; Stalling and Robbertson, 1979; David Pearson, 1987 and Simmon, Fuchs and Hodge, 1995).
Explicit Teaching This term can simply be referred to as a systematized guide approach that may be employed by classroom teacher to bring about meaningful learning. It functions on the principle of breaking learning tasks into sub-units and presented in a step-by-step form so that all categories of pupils can benefit positively in a general classroom situation. However, there seems to exist a dearth of empirical studies on explicit teaching. As noted by Rosenshine (1987) and Simmons (1995), educators need to conduct more experiments involving explicit instruction considering the fact that pupils have the tendency to learn when teachers teach explicitly. That the tendency to learn more tends to be higher when explicit approach is used has been noted by Simmon (1995) as a pervasive discovery associated with instructional enhancing principles that are
49 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA derived from process-product researches. Moreso, when the effect of explicit instruction on different types of learners and learners in different types of classroom environments deserve further investigation (Simmon, 1995). This study therefore intends to assess, among other things, the efficacy of explicit teaching in a typical primary science classroom environment in Nigeria (an environment that is overcrowded, lacking in science equipment/facilities, qualified science teachers, inadequate classroom spaces and other instructional materials). In brief, the explicit teaching-learning process will consist of the following steps: Step 1: Teacher goes over objectives for the lesson, gives background information and explains why the lesson is important. He gets pupils ready to learn. Step 2: Teacher demonstrates the learning task correctly or presents step- by-step information. Step 3: Provision of guided-practice. Step 4: Monitoring of pupils activities and providing feedback. Step 5: Independent practice and transfer learning task to new situation.
Components of Explicit Teaching Explicit teaching follows a definite pattern that makes it different from the conventional (chalk and talk) method. The main goal of explicit teaching is to present learning tasks in a precise and concise way so as to develop scientific potential in learning to the maximum. Westwood (1997) describes explicit teaching as comprising the following key elements: i. Analysis of learning tasks into easy steps;
50 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA ii. Clear modeling, demonstrating by the teacher; iii. Provision of much guided practice with corrective feedback; iv. Use of strategies to keep children on task and academically engaged; v. Close monitoring of each child's progress; vi. Provision of successful practice and application of new knowledge and skills; vii. Frequent revision of previously taught knowledge and skills; viii. Optimum use made of available instructional time. Duffy (1986) explains teacher explicitness as a combination of content and the process of teaching it. This process requires the teacher to consider the overall time available for instruction, review pre-requisite skills, frame the lesson by telling pupils what will be studied and why it is important, conduct guided practice with multiple examples, provide immediate corrective feedback, prepare pupils for independent practice and review critical information at the close of the lesson (Simmon, 1995). Based on the common fact that the various views on the components of explicit teaching are designed and structured to lead to the acquisition of meaningful learning task, maximizing transfer of knowledge, retention and motivation and to minimize passive rote learning, the researcher, therefore, thought it wise to synchronize the key elements of the various views as shown in Figure 1.
Task-orientation Task Analysis Teacher modelling
Teacher Guided practice Pupil 4.0
Stage of Confirmation Application of Learning Task Independent Practice 6.0
Feedback
51 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA
KEY: - Broken lines present feedback Fig. 1: Explicit Teaching Model (Adapted from Westwood, 1997)
From the diagram, the principal steps involved could be explained under the following headings: 1.0 Task Orientation 2.0 Task Analysis 3.0 Teacher Modelling 4.0 Guided Practice 5.0 Independent Practice 6.0 State of Confirmation of Learning 7.0 Application 8.0 Feedback
Task Orientation During task orientation, a particular scientific learning task was oriented from a teaching task which must be presented by the teacher in a direct manner.
Task Analysis This phase involves analysis of the major elements in the selected learning tasks by the teacher. This is for easy understanding and presentation of the learning tasks.
Teaching Modelling This involves teachers' demonstration of what he wants his pupils to do and show them exactly how to go about doing them. In this phase, teacher makes use of many examples to buttress his teaching.
52
COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA
Guided Practice The teacher and the pupils work together on the learning task to be learnt before the pupils are asked to practice on their own on a given task. This phase is very important/crucial as the teacher slowly and gradually turns the responsibility for completing the task over to the student. The teacher closely monitors the progress of the learners by pointing out by discussing pupils correct and inappropriate responses. These reconsolidating discussions can prevent pupils' failure. In addition, individual pupils are called to respond to learning task. Teacher intervenes when pupils are stumped or unresponsive; teachers then take up some of the responsibility for completing the task.
Independent Practice The pupils assume near total responsibility in carrying out the learning task on their own. The teacher can discuss the correct and inappropriate responses especially for pupils who experience difficulty in completing the learning task. When a student fails to carry out the learning task, the guided practice phase may be revisited.
State of Confirmation of Learning Tasks This phase is attained through evaluation of the pupils' learning activities which may be carried out by testing or giving out of assignments. The outcome of this will indicate the efficiency of the model.
Application This is the period when pupils assume the true ownership of the learning task. They can now apply what they have learnt in a new situation.
Feedback Feedback refers to the information about the correctness or otherwise of
53 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA response. The activities of the pupils provide the teacher a useful information on which to modify the different parts of the model. The feedback is represented by the broken line in the model presented in Figure 1. This model is important as it focuses on how to train teachers and pupils gradually to decrease and increase their respective role in the teaching/learning process. The pupils learn how to take full responsibility for their learning through the encouragement of practice aided by prompts which must be removed gradually so that the learner can do the task independently.
Peer Tutoring Peer tutoring is a process whereby pupils help each other to learn. It involves pupils playing the role of a tutor, and a tutee thereby applying the principle of one who teaches also learns (Westwood, 1997; Walberg, 2000). The pairing of pupils by the class teacher is based on their abilities. The teacher guides and directs the tutor to share his knowledge and experiences on an issue or a learning task. Selection of tutor by the teacher is based on two criteria” i. The tutor must demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the content to assist their low achieving partner with science learning tasks. ii. The tutor must possess the quality of prompting low achievers to participate actively in the learning task (i.e. it' your turn now), wait for tutees to attempt a problem independently before offering assistance, provision of encouragement and correct responses. The main goal of peer tutoring is the creation of a system whereby pupils can help each other to learn (McCoy, 1985). This idea may be necessary to minimize the problems facing the teaching of primary science in our schools in areas of shortage of qualified science teachers by making use of high achievers to assist the low achievers.
54 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA
As noted by Onabanjo (1998), the term 'peer tutoring' could be explained with respect to the words peers (order of similar status and situation) and tutoring (individualized attention to a learner, the tutees). Goldscmid and Goldscmid (1975) have also defined peer tutoring as an individualized attention to a learner, the tutee, by a person of similar status. Peer tutoring is designed to supplement rather than replace a variety of teacher directed activities. In this process, peer tutoring provides low achievers with a high level of active responding (with on-giving guidance and feedback) on a concept that had already been introduced, explained and demonstrated by the teacher. Through the provision of the following guidance, peer tutors may be assisted to perform effectively by providing: i. a clear direction as to what they are to do and how they are to do it; ii. a specific teaching task to undertake and appropriate instructional materials; iii. a demonstration of effective behaviours; iv. an opportunity to role play or practice tutoring with feedbacks and corrections (Westwood, 1997).
The reason behind the idea of peer tutoring is that, it is assumed that most pupils working in peers may learn better in social context. The execution of peer tutoring method takes the following procedures: i. Identification of learning task ii. Analysis of learning task iii. Presentation of the learning task to the whole class by the teacher iv. Selection of peer tutors v. Briefing/assigning tasks to the tutors vi. Pairing of tutors with tutees
55 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA vii. Discussion of tutor with tutees viii. Monitoring of peer activities throughout the activity and provision of cue ix. Teacher processes feedback for incorrect responses and praise for correct answers and appropriate cooperation. x. Teachers' guide conclusion It appears that peer tutoring could be a simple instructional strategy that shows great promise for meeting the complex academic and social neds of pupils with diverse learning abilities in a regular class without really affecting other pupils in the class (Megolda and Roger, 1987; Westwood, 1997). This is so when pupils supplement teacher's efforts to assist low achievers in a large classroom of thick population as in the case of Nigeria. The actual benefits associated with peer tutoring have also been documented by peer tutoring and social support literature (Dansareau, 1987). The studies of Annis (1982) and Lambiate (1987) also noted that both the tutor and tutees benefit from peer tutoring although the tutor tends to benefit more. Other benefits of peer tutoring include: i. Increase in the amount of time available to a teacher to work directly with the pupils with learning problems. For example, a problem pupil in Mathematics may be assisted by a mate while the teacher faces the other pupils. ii. The language of instruction and demonstration of a peer tutor may be simpler and direct for understanding than the one used by the teacher, thus facilitating better understanding of the knowledge taught. iii. Peer tutoring may lead to greater acquisition of content, as well as generating higher level of academic response. In peer tutoring, pupils work together to complete their task on a highly reciprocal, cooperative and interactive fashion. This is attested to through teachers' anecdotal reports, and several viewing of videotapes which confirm tht
56 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA pupils enjoy working in pairs and engage in much discussion of the academic tasks (Kohler, 1994; Lumpe and Staver, 1995).
Reference Abdudullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria, Ilorin: Atoto Press. Abimbola, O.O. (1988). Differential Effects of three Learning Strategies on Recall Ability of Secondary School Biology Students. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan. Adesemowo, P.O. (1990). Effects of Ronbinson's SQ3R and Summarization Techniques in Improving Comprehension among Secondary School Students. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Akinbote, O. (1994). Sex Difference in the Cognitive and Affective Outcomes in Social Studies in Primary School Pupils. African Journal of Education Research 5(1): 34-37. Annis, L.F. (1982). The Cognitive Benefit of Peer Tutoring, Paper Presented at the Meeting of the American Educational Researcher Association, New York. Bajah, S.J., Onocha, C.O. and Okpala, N.P. (1985). National Report Population I, Second IEA Science Study, SISS/ICEE/Nig/1-001, 22. Bajah, S.T. (1999). Teaching Effectiveness: Keynote Address Delivered at the Maiden National Conference on Teaching Effectiveness. Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Lagos 14-17 September. Bakare (1986). Mass Failure in Public Examinations: Some Psychological Perspectives. A Paper Delivered at the National Conference on Mass Failure in Public Examinations at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Balogun, T.A. (1994). Gender Issue in the Teaching of STM in Erinosho Sy (ed) Perspectives on Women in Science and Technology in Nigeria, Ibadan: Sambookman. Bello, O.O. (1999). ELSSA/BC Science Equipment Production Workshop (ELSSA Perspective Two), A Paper Presented at the ELSSA-BC Workshop held at British Council Hall, 9-13. Dansareau, D.E. (1987). Transfer from co-operative to individual studying. Journal of Reading, 30, 76 – 84.
57 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND ENHANCED-EXPLICIT TEACHING ON LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE IN IKERE-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, NIGERIA
Duffy, G. Roehler, L. Mecoth, M Varus, L. Book, C Putman, J and Wesselman, R (1986). The relationship between explicit verbal explanations during reading skill instruction and students awareness and achievement. A study of reading teacher effects. Reading Research Quarterly 21, 239 – 250 Dzama, E.N. and Osborne, J.F. (1999). Poor Performance in Science among African Students. An Alternative Explanation to the African World View, Research in Science Teaching 36, 3, 387-405. Ekong, J.A. and Achebong, A (1998). Observational learning: An effectiveness early childhood science teaching approach in the real setting in Orewaju, A.O. (Ed) Communicating Science. Technology and Mathematics Science Teachers Association of Nigeria Publication 310 – 314. Emovon, E.U. (1983). Key note address to the 24th annual conference and silver jubilee celebration of the Science Association of Nigeria (SAN) University of Ibadan, 4 – 9 April. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education, Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information. FGN/UNESCO (1997). Assessment of Learning Achievement Of Primary Four Pupils in Nigeria, Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education. Glass, G.V. Cahan, L.S. Smith, M.L. and Filby, N.N. (1982). School Class Size: Research and Policy. Beverly Hills, C.A. Sage. Gaddard, A. (1995). From Product of Process in Curriculum Planning, A View From Bristian, Journal of Learning Disabilities 28 (5), 258 – 63. Jegede, J.O. (1982). “An evaluation of the Nigeria integrated science project (NISP) after a decade of use in the classroom. International Review of Education XXVIII, 321 – 336. Kohler, W. Ezeil, H. Hoel, Strain, P (1994). Supplemental peer practice in a first grade maths class: Effects in teacher behaviour and five low achievement responding and acquisition of content. Elementary School Journal. 94 (4) 389 – 401. Lumpe, A. T. Staver, J.R. (1995). Peer collaboration and concept development: Learning about photosynthesis – National Association for Research in Science Teaching. John Willey and Sons. Inc.
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Maclniss, C. and Hemming, H (1995). Linking the needs of students with learning disabilities to a whole language curriculum. Journal of Learning Disabilities 28, 9 5353 – 44. Megolda, M.B. and Rogers T. L. (1987). Peer tutoring: collaborating to enhance intellectual development. The College Student Journal 21, 283 – 296. McCoy, K.M. (1995). Training Special Learners in the General Classroom (2nd Ed.) Daver Love. Odubunmi, O. and Balogun, T.A. (1991). The Effect of Laboratory and Lecture Teaching Methods on Cognitive Achiuevement in Integrated Science. Journal of Research In Science Teaching 28 (3), 213 – 224. Okpala, N.P. and Onocha C.D., (1998). Classroom Interaction Patterns. Nigeria Physics Teacher-Trainees, Physics Education. 23 (5) 288 – 290. Olukitibi, O. (1989). Status of Integrated Science Teaching in Ojo Local Government Area of Lagos State. Unpublished B.Sc. (Ed.) Project, Lagos State University. Onabanjo, I.O. (1998). Peer Tutoring-Assisted Instruction, Parent Supportiveness and Student Locus of Control as Determinants of Learning Outcomes in Senior Secondary School Mathematics. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan. Onocha, C.C. (1985). Pattern of Relationship between Home and School Factors and Pupils Learning Outcomes in Bendel Primary Science Project. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan. Onwu, G.O. (2000). Learning Difficulties in Science: Capacity Limitation or Strategy Deficit? Inaugural Address at the University of Venda for Science and Technology, South Africa. Orukotan, A.F. (1999). The Relative Effects of Instructional Strategies of Framing and Rehearsal on Senior Secondary School Students' Learning Outcomes in Some Biology Topics. Ph.D. Unpublished Thesis, University of Ibadan. Rosenshine, B. (1987). Explicit Teaching in D.C. Berliner and V.V. Rosenshine (Eds). Talks to Teacher. A Festch Rift for N.L. Gage, New York, Random House 75-92. Simmons, D.C., Fuchs, L.D., Mathes, P. and Hodge, J.P. (1995). Effects of Explicit Teaching and Peer Tutoring on the Reading Achievement of Learing –
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Disabled and Low Performing Students in Regular Classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 95(5) 338-407. Westwood, P. (1997). Common Sense Methods for Children with Special Needs, Canada: Routledge.
Yoloye,in E.A. (1994). Intervention Strategies in Promoting Women Participation Science and Technology in Erinosho, S.U. (Ed) Perspective on Women in Science and Teaching in Nigeria. Ibadan: Sam Bookman
60 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
LANGUAGES OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Kasali Alarape Salawu
Abstract This study investigated the relative effectiveness of using English Language and Yoruba (separately and in combination) as languages of instruction on pupils' achievement and attitude in primary social studies. The study further examined the possible interaction effects of pupils' sex and parents' educational background on their learning outcomes. The pre-test, post-test, control group quasi-experimental research design was adopted for the study. There were two experimental groups each taught in English or Yoruba and a control group taught in combination of the two languages. A purposive selection of one hundred and eighty primary three pupils was involved in the study. Instruments for the study included a Student Personal Data Inventory (SPDI), Achievement Test in Social Studies (ATSS) and Social Studies Attitude Questionnaire (SSAQ). Six null hypotheses generated from the research questions were tested at the 0.05 & level. Means, Multiple, Classification, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), t-test and Scheffe Multiple Range Statistics were used in analyzing the data. The results obtained showed that language of instruction had a significant main effect on subjects' achievement scores [F(2.179 = 39.34 p < .001)]. Post hoc analysis using the Scheffe Multiple Test showed that the Yoruba Language group had the highest mean score of 50.13 followed by the control group (English + Yoruba) with the mean score of 45.14, while the English Language group had the lowest mean score of 40.23. Language of instruction was found not to have contributed significantly to the variation in subjects' attitude score. Significant main effects on achievement were found for gender, [F(1, 179) = 5, 11p < .05)] and Parents' Educational Background [F(1, 179) = 92.77p < .001)]. Females across all the groups performed significantly better than their male counterparts, while pupils from a high Parental Educational Background (PEB) scored significantly higher than those from a low Parental Educational Background. Language of instruction crossed with parents' educational background was the only significant interaction effect for achievement that was found [F(2, 179) = 13.94p < .001)]. Beyond providing support for previous related studies, the findings of the study demonstrated the need to teach culture–based subjects such as Social Studies in the pupils' mother tongue. Introduction 61 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
The main focus of Social Studies is on social norms and values of the local, national and international communities. It's major thrust is on man's interaction with his environment (Akinlaye, 1981; Udoh, 1983, Ogunsanya, 1984; Obebe, 1991; Mansaray, 1996; Yohanna, 1998; Akinbote, 1999). The Federal Government of Nigeria has recognized it as an effective tool for citizenship education, thus Social studies is categorized as one of the core subjects in the primary schools curriculum (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). According to Goula (1982), the problem of bilingualism particularly at the primary school level is the most baffling to Nigerian curriculum planners and teachers. Teachers at this level have to serve as possible models to pupils who have difficulty in understanding English and some of whom may not be native speakers of the mother tongue. There is a host of value oriented, culture laden concepts, structures and forms of language thoughts that we cannot dispense with in our classroom deliberations in social studies. Both the teacher and the pupils struggle to teach and to understand these concepts which may have their history deeply rooted in either English or the mother tongue (e.g. Yoruba) culture. Since the formulation of the language in education policy of the Federal Government of Nigeria which stipulated that at the primary school, the medium of instruction should initially be the mother tongue or the language of the immediate environment and at later stage English (F.R.N. 2004) there has been some confusions as to how to effectively teach social studies at the primary level. There is a mixture of pupils with nursery and without nursery school education. Those with nursery education may have some levels of proficiency in English Language and low level in the mother tongue, the reverse being the case of those without nursery school education. The teacher in this situation often results to the use of both English and the mother tongue (Yoruba) so as not to place any child at the disadvantage. As noted by Ogunsola (2012), Language is generally agreed to be a powerful
62 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA instrument for culture and identity. At the lower level, textual materials are produced in English language, lesson notes are prepared in English language and the teachers would have to translate such materials into the mother tongue before they can use them. In the upper classes where English language is expected to be used as a medium of instruction, teachers' proficiency in the English language is questionable. Ajuwon, B. Y.; Okedigba, S. O. and Yusuff (2012), noted that whether printed or spoken, information is passed via a language. The packaging, presentation, the medium and timeliness of dissemination of a piece of information go a long way in determining its effectiveness or otherwise. Adediran and Unoh (1975) found that native speakers of Yoruba who are exposed to an equivalent period of formal training in English and Yoruba tend to read English texts at higher comprehension rates or with higher efficiency indices, than they can read equivalent text in Yoruba. Some of the reasons they ascribed for this is that English orthography is one-dimensional thereby allowing the reader's eyes to travel horizontally along each line, while the Yoruba orthography is two-dimensional. The reader's eyes are forced to move upward and downward to identify the different tone marks for correct vocalization of words with the same spellings e.g. igba means calabash, whereas igba means period and igba means 200. There had been conflicting opinions, assertions and conclusions on the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction. The Ife Primary Education Research Project (IPERP) on the use of Yoruba mother tongue as a medium of instruction found no statistically significant difference between the performance of children taught in Yoruba and those taught in English in their first School Leaving Certificate Examination in Arithmetic, English, General Knowledge and Bible Knowledge (Bamgbose, 1989). Whereas the Uganda experiment in which two
63 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA classes were taught geography, one in English and the other in the mother tongue showed that those in the former class performed better than the latter. Other studies (Macauley, 1982; Ala, 1983; Ande, 1990; Akinbote, 1996) found that mother tongue was more facilitative. The results from these studies seem inconclusive as the evidence about the difficulties of a foreign medium and the superiority of the mother tongue has not been well established. According to Soyele (2009) in the Nigerian multilingual setting, language is a sensitive social phenomenon, which attracts conscious and unconscious reactions to its use by the various speech communities and work domains. He further noted conflict in the attitudes and loyalty of educated bilinguals of English and Yoruba.
Findings from studies as to whether sex as a factor determines human behaviour and academic achievement have not been conclusive. Whereas some of those studies have been able to establish a relationship between pupils' sex and their achievement in and attitudes towards Social studies, others on the other hand have found no relationship among them. According to Mansaray (1985) findings about sex differences even in verbal ability have not been conclusively in favour of girls.
Parental Educational Background and Pupils' Achievement in and Attitude Towards Social Studies A great majority of the research in Social Studies education in particular and education generally have always looked at socio-economic background and pupils' achievement. Socio-economic background appears rather general and has many variables subsumed under it and consequently a little more difficult to measure. Parental Educational Background is more specific and better defined and therefore easier to measure. As found by Ezewu (1981), poor verbal interaction between children and adults is known to seriously militate against proper language development. Considering the nature of this study on language
64 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA of instruction and pupils' learning outcomes in Social Studies, educational attainment of parents appear to have great influence on the pupils academic achievement; hence the choice of this variable for measurement in this study.
Statement of the Problem The study investigated the relative effectiveness of English Language and Yoruba (used separately and in combination) as language media of instruction on pupils' learning outcomes in primary school Social Studies. The study further examined the influence of pupils' sex and parents' educational background on their learning outcomes. Specifically, the following research questions were addressed in the study. (a) Will there be any difference in the achievement of pupils in Social Studies when they are taught in English, Yourba or the combination of both? (b) Will sex of the subjects influence their learning outcomes in Social Studies when the different languages of instruction are used? (c) Will there be any difference in the subjects' attitudes to Social Studies when they are taught using English, Yoruba or combination of both? (d) Will the parental educational background of subjects influence the outcomes in Social Studies?
Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were postulated:
Ho1: There will be no significant difference in the mean post-test achievement scores of subjects exposed to the three instructional languages (i.e. English, Yoruba and English and Yoruba).
Ho2: There will be no significant difference in the mean post-test achievement scores of subjects male and female subjects exposed to each of the languages of instruction.
Ho3: There will be no significant difference in the mean post-test achievement scores of subjects with a high and a low parental educational background in each of the instructional languages.
65 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Ho4: There will be no significant difference in the mean post-test attitude scores of subjects exposed to the instructional languages.
Ho5: There will be no significant difference in the mean post-test attitude scores of male and female subjects exposed to the instructional languages.
The study adopted the quasi-experimental, pre-test, post-test, control group. It involved two experimental groups and one control group. It is illustrated thus: Fig 1
Experimental Group 1: O1 X1 O2
Experimental Group 2: O3 X2 O4
Control Group: O5 X3 O6
Diagrammatic Representation of the Design The variables involved are the three main medium of instruction i.e. Yoruba, English and the combination of Yoruba and English which are independent variables. The dependent variables are pupils' achievement in and attitudes to the selected social studies concepts. Sex and parental educational background are the intervening variables.
Fig 2
Independent Intervening Dependent Variable Variable Variable
Language of 1. Sex 1. Achievement Instruction i. Male in Social Studies 1. Yoruba ii Female Concepts 2. English 2. Parental 2. Attitudes to 3. English & Yoruba Educational Social Studies Combined mode Background i. High ii. Low
Framework of variables studied
66 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Research Design A 3x2x2 factorial design was adopted in analyzing the data. It was adopted because of its potential for controlling all extraneous factors that may pose a threat to the internal and external validity of this study. It is also very efficient in handling a multi-variate analysis of this nature. This factorial design reduces the sampling error in the estimation of main and interaction effects. The ANCOVA increases the power of the test. The 3x2x2 factorial design is hereby presented below;
TABLE 1 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION GENDER PARENTAL EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND BOYS GIRLS HIGH LOW Yoruba Language v v v v English Language v v v v Yoruba and English Language v v v v 3x2x2 factorial design
Population and Sample The stratified random sampling procedure was used in selecting six schools. Egba Zone of Ogun State was purposively selected because it is the zone where Yoruba Language is commonly spoken. The schools were of comparable standards in terms of population size, proprietorship and location for the purpose of close monitoring and accessibility from each of the schools, one intact primary three class was randomly selected. Primary three was chosen because this is the terminal class for the adoption of only mother tongue as a medium of instruction. Besides, the pupils had been taught English Language as a subject for full two years, hence the language is not particularly strange to them. The subjects (N=180) were finally drawn from the six intact classes for the study.
67 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
The instruments used were; 1. Pupils Personal Data Inventory (PPDI) 2. Achievement Test in Social Studies (ATSS) 3. Pupils' Social Studies Attitude Questionnaire (PSSAQ) 4. Social Studies Concept Textual Materials (SSCTM)
Validation of Achievement Test in Social Studies From the 50 items initially developed 30 were finally selected after going through assessment by different person including experts and students who would not take part in the study. A difficulty level of 0.60 was taken which fall into the range of most items which strive to achieve discriminatory power. The reliability is determined with the use of Kuder Richardson Kr21 formular. The result of the analysis yielded a reliability co-efficient of 0.72 which according to Borg and Gall (1971) is considered sufficiently high enough.
Method of Data Analysis Five sets of data were generated in the study; the PDI data, pre-test and post-test ATSS and pre-test and post attest PSSAQ score. PDI data was used for classification into different levels of parental educational background while descriptive statistics and inferential statistics, mainly, the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) the Scheffe Multiple Range test and t–test were used appropriately.
Result The null hypotheses which stated that there will be no significant difference in the mean post-test achievement scores of subjects exposed to the three instructional languages (i.e. Yoruba, English and Yoruba plus English) were rejected [F(2, 179 = 39.34p < .01)] which means that language of instruction was found to have contributed significantly to the variation in the subject achievement scores in the selected social studies concepts.
68 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
The null hypothesis that there will be no significant difference in the mean post- test achievement scores of male and female subjects was rejected having used t- test statistic to calculate the related data.
TABLE 2 GROUP N x SD t P YORUBA Male 31 48.74 13.63 -1.38 .17ns Female 29 53.51 13.18 ENGLISH Male 36 38.27 7.43 -2.35 .02* Female 24 43.04 8.08 YORUBA + ENGLISH Male 29 44.27 7.74 -.93 .35ns Female 31 46.19 8.19
t-test comparisons of male and female post-test Achievement scores of subjects exposed to Yoruba Language, English Language and combination of Yoruba and English
As it could be observed in Table 2, the only significant difference in the achievement scores of female subjects is found in the English Language group 38.2 (Male x = 38.27; female x = 43.04). In other words, there are no significant differences in the achievement scores of male and female subjects in the Yoruba group (Male x = 48.74; female x = 53.51) and the Yoruba plus English group (Male x = 44.27; female x = 46.19). Based on all these findings, the null hypothesis which states that there will be no significant difference in the mean post-test achievement scores of male and female subjects in each of the instructional groups can only be rejected in the case of the English group (E2) while it is not rejected for the Yoruba group (E1) and the Yoruba plus English group.
69 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
TABLE 3 Source of variation Ss Df Ms F P Covariates 2607.76 1 2607.76 83.03 .00 Main effects 112.40 4 28.10 .89 .46 Language of instruction 69.34 2 34.67 1.10 .33 Sex 32.70 1 32.70 1.04 .32 PEB 3.20 1 3.20 .10 .75 2 Way interactions 384.00 5 76.80 2.44 .03* Lang. of instr. X Sex 271.76 2 135.88 4.32 .01* Lang. of instr. X PEP 32.62 2 16.31 .51 .59 Sex x PEB 84.68 1 84.68 2.69 .10 3-Way interactions Lang. of instr. x Sex X PEB 28.86 2 14.43 .45 .63 Explained 3133.02 12 261.08 8.31 .00 residual 5244.95 167 31.40 Total 8377.97 179 46.80 Summary of Analysis of covariance of subjects post-test attitude scores by language of instruction, sex and parental education background (PEB)
From the ANCOVA results presented in Table 3, it could be observed that there is no significant effect of treatment on subjects attitude scores [F(2, 179 = 1.10 p < .01)]. In view of this findings, the hypothesis that there will be no significant difference in the mean post-test attitude score of subjects exposed to the instructional languages was accepted. On the null hypothesis that there will be no significant difference in the mean post-test attitude scores of male and female subjects exposed to each of the instructional languages, t-test analysis was carried out
TABLE 4 GROUP N x SD t P YORUBA Male 31 57.77 6.50 -.34 .73ns Female 29 58.37 7.39 ENGLISH Male 36 56.97 7.29 -2.14 .03* Female 24 53.04 6.46 YORUBA + ENGLISH Male 29 53.24 4.24 -.85 .40ns Female 31 54.51 6.98 T-test comparisons of male and female post-test attitude scores of Subjects exposed to Yoruba, English and Yoruba + English.
70 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
The t-test analysis presented in Table 4 shows that whereas there are slight differences between the mean attitude scores of male and female subjects in all the groups, this differences were found to be significant only in the English Language group, with the male subjects scoring a higher mean (Male x = 56.97; female x = 53.04). It could also be noted that in the other two groups i.e. Yoruba only and the combined medium (Yoruba and English), female subjects obtained a higher attitude scores when compared with their male counterparts. On the basis of this finding, the null hypothesis that states that there will be no significant difference in the mean attitude scores between male and female subjects in each of the language of instruction group was therefore rejected in respect of (E2) i.e. the English group (p < .05). However, with respect to (E1) Yoruba group (P < .05) the hypothesis was accepted. The null hypothesis that there will be no significant difference in the mean post- test attitudes scores of subjects with a high and a low parental educational background was subjected to t-test..
TABLE 5 GROUP N x SD t P YORUBA Male 25 57.64 7.33 -.40 .68ns Female 35 58.37 6.65 ENGLISH Male 24 56.54 7.02 -1.00 .31ns Female 36 54.63 7.29 YORUBA+ENGLISH Male 26 53.84 6.79 -.1.23 .22ns Female 34 54.70 4.88 T-test comparisons of post-test attitude scores of high and Low parental educational background subjects to the 3 language groups
From Table 5, it could be observed that there is no significant difference in the attitude scores of subjects with high and low parental educational background. On the basis of these findings, the hypothesis which states that there will be no significant difference in the mean post-test attitude scores of subjects with high and low parental educational background was accepted.
71 Summary of Findings A summary of the findings reported in this study are as follows; There were significant differences in the mean post-test achievement scores of subjects exposed to the different language groups [F(2, 179 = 39.34, p < .01)] as revealed in Table two Ho1 was therefore rejected. The Yoruba group performed better than the English plus Yoruba group which performed better than the English language group. Male and female subjects differ significantly in the achievement scores only in the English medium group (Male x = 38.27 Female x = 43.04) while they did not differ in the achievement mean scores in the Yoruba group (Male x = 48.74 Female x = 53.51) and the English plus Yoruba group (Male x = 44.27 Female x = 46.19). The female subjects performed better than their male counterparts in all the groups. Subjects of high parental educational background consistently performed better than their counterparts with low parental educational background in their achievement means scores (E1: high x = 64.04 low x = 41.77; E2: high x = 47.70 low x = 35.16; control group: high x = 53.23 low x = 39.17) Ho3 was accordingly rejected. Language of instruction was found not to have contributed significantly to the subjects' attitudes. [F(2, 179 = 1.104, p < .05)] Ho4 was therefore accepted. Significant difference was only found in the post-test attitude mean scores of subjects in the English group with the male subjects scoring higher mean (Male x = 56.97 Female x = 53.04) the hypothesis was therefore rejected in respect of E2 (English group) but accepted with respect to E1 (Yoruba) and the control (Yoruba + English group) There was no significant difference in the attitude mean scores of subjects with high or low parental educational background in all the groups as revealed in Table
72 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
5 Ho6 was therefore accepted.
Discussion This study mainly addressed the question of whether or not there would be any significant difference in the cognitive achievement and attitude of subjects exposed to the primary social studies concept using three languages of instruction. Language instruction was found to have contributed significantly to the variation in subjects' achievement (Ande, 1990; Fafunwa, 1995; Oderinde, 1996) scores but not to pupils' attitude scores. Sex of subjects did have a significant main effect on variation in subjects achievement score. The results also showed that the parental educational scores. This gave credence to the findings of Yoloye, 1998 in the Situation and Policy Analysis (SAPA) Survey report which indicated that 34% of fathers and 74% of mothers had no higher than primary education. Thus, the intellectual support which this category of parents gives is consequently low.
Implications of Findings The study has profound implication especially for teaching and learning at the primary school level. The long standing controversy on which language medium is more appropriate at what level still attracts attention of the nation since language lies at the very root of learning (Ayodele, 1988) the extent to which a person can learn is determined by the degree to which he can master and use the language in which he learns. Concepts learning in Social Studies have been largely ignored, whereas it should form a fundamental part of the social studies programme. The findings of this study could be seen as having implications for language choice in the teaching of culture-oriented subject such as social studies. The study also confirmed some earlier position of the extent to which sex and
73 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA parental educational background could affect pupils' achievement and attitudes. It has implication for the classroom teacher, authors and publishers, curriculum planners and government.
Recommendations The practice whereby pupils were taught in English or English and Yoruba combined but assessed in Yoruba should be discouraged. Assessment should be in the medium of instruction. The teacher should endeavour to learn continuously about events, objects, people and other things within the child's environment with appropriate vocabularies because of the value laden and culture oriented nature of social studies, collaborative efforts should be encouraged between the language experts and social studies experts to prepare primary social studies textual materials. The mother tongue should be adopted throughout the primary education and avoid mid-way transition. Other researchers could look at: (i) The attitude of teachers and pupils in private primary schools, to learning social studies in the mother tongue.
(ii) Interaction effects of the language of instruction of primary six pupils on the core subjects such as Mathematics, English Language and Social Studies.
(iii) Effects of the prepared textual materials as compared to the adopted textbooks by the schools.
Conclusion This study was concerned with an area of national interest because of the potentials language of instruction has in facilitating or hindering the entire teaching and learning process in the class, there is a great advantage in learning social studies in the mother tongue or the language of the immediate environment. Fafunwa (1976) noted that the average African child is at a serious disadvantage compared with his fellow in Europe and America with respect to
74 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS' LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SELECTED ASPECTS OF PRIMARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA school education. Whereas the American or European child learns in his mother tongue or the language of the immediate environment, the African child is forced to learn in the foreign language. The practice produced unstable bilinguals who might belong to the world of two or more languages, but citizens of neither. Abubakre (2004), observed that the mother tongue is best mastered (and so best medium of instruction) because in most cases the speaker has the highest degree of exposure to it than any other language.
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Adeniran, A. and Unoh, S. O. (1975): A Comparative Study of Reading Achievement in English and Yoruba. West African Journal of Education. XIX (3) 392 & 396.
Ajuwon, B. Y.; Okedigba, S. O. and Yusuff, A. A. (2012): An Overview of Language
Deploymnent in the Rebranding Nigeria Campaign in Adeniji, L. A. A.; Adeyemo, S. A. and Adeniji, D. R. Curbing Terrorism, Kidnapping and Rigging of Election in Nigeria: The Role of Religion, Education, Language and General Studies: (NAPSRELGS).
Akinbote, O. (1995): The State of Indigenous Languages in Nigerian Education. Olota Journal of African Studies 1 (1) 10 – 16.
Akinbote, O. (1999): Sex Differences in the Cognitive and Affective Outcomes in Social Studies of Primary School Pupils. African Journal of Education Research 5 (1) Pp/ 34 – 38.
Akinbote, O. and Viatonu, O. (1996): Parents' Characteristics and Attitudes Towards the use of Mother–Tongue as Medium of Instruction in Primary Education. The Beagle 1 (1 & 2) 40 – 45.
Akinbote, R. O. (1993): Instructional Sequencing and Feedback Mechanism as
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Determinants of Achievement in Primary School Social Studies Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Akinlaye, F. A. (1981): Why Social Studies? The Concepts and Scope of Social Studies Education for Schools and Colleges, Ibadan: Onibonoje Publishers Nig. Ltd.
Akinlaye, F. A. (1988): Teacher Directed Inquiry, Guided – Discussion and Students' Learning Outcomes in Some Aspects of Social Studies Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Ala, F. B. O. (1983): Effects of Alternative Language Media on the Learning of Family Life Among Primary Five Pupils. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Ande, I. I. (1990): Effects of Language of the Learning of the Conservation of Weight and Continuous Quantity by Primary Two Pupils. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Ayodele, S. O. (1988): The Problem of a Language for Educating Nigeria Learners; a Faculty Lecture Delivered at the Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan.
Bamgbose, A. (1976): Mother Tongue Education: The West Africa Experience London: Hoddor and Stoughton.
Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1974): Educational Research Introduction. New York: David Mckay Coy Inc.
Fafunwa, A. B. (1976): New Perspective in African Education, London: Macmillan Education.
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Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004): National Policy on Education, Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education.
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Goula, P. M. (1982): Problem of Switching from Mother Tongue to English as Medium of Instruction in Upper Primary School. M.Ed. Project, University of Ibadan.
Macauley, J. I. (1982): The Effects of Language of Instruction on Selected Instructional Process and Process and Outcomes. An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Mansaray, A. (1985): Effects of Two Modes of Concept Presentation and Cognitive Styles on the Attainment of Some Social Studies Concepts by Secondary Schools Students. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Mansaray, A. (1996): The National Primary Social Studies Curriculum and the Provision of Appropriate Social Experience. The Beagle 1 (1 & 2).
Obebe, B. J. (1980): Social Studies in Nigeria Schools for what? Social Studies: Teaching Issues and Problems, Benin: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.
Oderinde, B. B. (1990): Mother Tongue Education: A reminder of some forgotten views to Nigeria Educators: Journal of Research in Curriculum 1 (1) 69 – 74.
Oderinde, B. B. (1996): Psychological Implication of Mother Tongue Medium in Ayodele, S. O. (ed) Education in the Service of Humanity, Ibadan: Educational Research and Study Group.
Ogunsanya, M.; Onyaneze, J. N.; Sankara, A. (1990): Macmillan Primary Social Studies, Ibadan, Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Limited.
Ogunsola, O. I. Mother Tongue Education: Implication for Teaching and Learning of English Lanugage in Odunuga, J. B.; Adejobi, A. O.; Ajayi, A. and Adekunle, A. A. (2012): Topical Issues in Education, Abeokuta; JOV PUBLICATIONS.
Omojuwa, R. (1977): Problems in Language Planning for Bilingual Education at the Primary Education Level: The Case of Nigerian's Northern States. Language in Education in Nigeria 1, P. 42.
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Soyele, R. A. (2009): Conflict in the Attitude and Loyalty of Selected Yoruba – English Bilinguals in the Education Domain Rockcity Journal of Educational Research Vol. 1 No. 1 166 – 180.
Udoh, E. N. E. (1993): Integration in Social Studies Education in Adaralegbe, A. (ed) Integration and Information in Nigerian Education, Lagos: Jas Publishers.
Yohanna, A. (1998): On the Dying Lanugages of Central Nigeria. Forum Academia (2) 71.
78 PART 2
79 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION
1. GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON – NGOZI PRISCILLA OKORO
2. HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOL'S IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA – OLUWATOYIN A. ORENUGA
3. COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS – FOLAKE C. ONABANJO
4. LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA – BOLAPADE S. IGE
5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS – OYETUNJI S. FOLAJIN
6. INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS' CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE – EMEKA GODSLOVE OKEH
80 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
Ngozi Priscilla Okoro
Abstract Education is fundamental to poverty reduction and life transformation irrespective of gender, age, race and religion. It equips individuals to contribute immensely to the socio-economic development of the society. However, studies revealed a wide gap in gender enrolment in primary education in Sub-Saharan Africa including Nigeria and Cameroon. This could be as a result of socio-cultural beliefs among other factors, as well as forces that extend beyond the boundaries of educational systems such as home related factors. Literature revealed that there is a dearth of research on participation of girl-child in primary education. This study, therefore, investigated the trends in girl-child participation in primary education in selected parts of Northeastern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon and the causes of disparity in the areas of the study. The study adopted descriptive survey design using the ex-post facto type. One thousand and twenty respondents comprising street girls and parents in Adamawa, Borno and Taraba states of Nigeria; and Adamaoua, North and Far North provinces of Cameroon participated in the study. Instruments used are: Stakeholders' Questionnaire on Girls' Participation in Primary Education for Parents (r = 0.91) and Street Girls of Primary School Age (r = 0.78). One research question was answered and one hypothesis was tested in the study at 0.05 significant level. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and chi-square statistics. Key words: Girl-child education, Primary education, Socio-cultural practices, Access to education.
Introduction Education is the bedrock of development in every nation of the world and it is very useful in ensuring better quality of life for every individual and a better world for the people. The goal of Education for All (EFA) cannot be achieved if a section of the society is neglected. Consequently, good education should therefore be a basic human right that every individual should have access to.
81 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
However, gender issues and socio-cultural beliefs and practices among other factors have inhibited access to primary education. Wide disparities had persisted in educational standards and learning achievements (NPC, 2004). In a spirited move to bridge this gap, African governments over the past thirty years had made tremendous efforts to increase access to education, but greater challenges lie ahead if the goal of EFA would be achieved. Girls and women education had been an important tool for the promotion of social and economic development of a country. According to UNESCO (1995, 2005), Women represent over half of the world's out-of-school population and over 130 million children have no access to basic education. The report further stated that 145 million children aged six to eleven in developing countries lacked educational opportunities. Education empowered every individual, including girls and women to have basic knowledge of their individual and political rights as citizens of a nation and the world at large. Consequently, these benefits brought about the basis for the equal placement of girls with their male counterparts. An analysis of a cross- cultural study had revealed that women's educational outcomes had increased tremendously since the last decade and that there had been a wide gap in gender enrolments in Sub-Saharan African schools (UNESCO/UNICEF, 2003). The recognition of the global phenomenon of the right of the child (boy or girl) to education which had been acknowledged as a fundamental human right brought about the educational initiatives by various governments, international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and researchers on the issue of closing the gap of educational disparity between males and females in Africa. Odaga and Heneveld (1995), Stromquist (1999) and Utulu (2000), identified the reasons for educational disparity to include: the threat to female
82 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON chastity, control over women's productive and reproductive labour, women's economic value in bride wealth and, apprehension that educated girls would not make 'controllable', 'obedient' and 'subservient' wives. There had also been the widely held belief that to educate a girl is a waste of money as she would leave home on marriage and not contribute to the maintenance of her natal home. A survey of some research works conducted in Nigeria and other parts of the world revealed that numerous studies had been carried out in the area of female education, but from the available literature, comparative approach in respect of girl-child education had not been vividly exploited.
Statement of the Problem Girls' limited access to education has affected development in Africa, Nigeria and Cameroon inclusive. As agents of social, political and economic development of a nation, it is imperative that efforts should be made to enhance girls' participation in primary education. It is a lingering issue of great concern to researchers and the government. Some economic, social and cultural factors are perceived as likely hinderances to girl-child participation in primary education. Girls' access to education nationally and internationally has thus become a contemporary issue.
Research Questions What are the factors militating against girl-child participation in primary education in the selected parts of North Eastern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon with regards to: (a) Street Girls (b) Parents
HO1. There is no significant difference in the responses of : (a) Street Girls 83 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
(b) Parents on factors militating against the girl-child participation in primary education in Nigeria and Cameroon.
Scope The study covered Adamawa, Borno and Taraba states of North Eastern Nigeria and Adamaoua, far North and North provinces of Northern Cameroon.
Significance of the Study This study would provide information on the trends in girls' enrolment in primary education in Northern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon. This would be useful to all stakeholders in education and gender issues in order to appreciate the status of this part of Nigeria and Cameroon at promoting girl-child participation in Primary Education.
Sample and Sampling Technique The multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select the sample of this study. In Nigeria, there are three (3) states in the area under survey with 3 senatorial districts in each state. These strata were recognized in the study and therefore a proportionate sampling technique was used to select Local Government Areas (LGAs) in each senatorial district based on the number of LGAs. A total of fifteen LGAs were randomly selected from Nigeria. Fifteen parents were selected from urban and rural areas through random sampling. Three markets were randomly selected (one from each state) and twenty street girls were randomly selected from each market. In Cameroon, all the divisions were selected from the three provinces of Adamaoua, Far North and North. This summed up to fifteen divisions sampled in
84 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
Cameroon for the study. Fifteen parents were selected from urban and rural areas through random sampling. One big market was randomly selected in each province in Cameroon and twenty street girls were randomly selected in each market place. A total of one thousand and twenty sample size was used for the study.
Instruments Three research instruments were used for data collection and they are: 1. Stakeholders' Questionnaire on Girl-Child Participation in Primary Education (SQGPPE)
2. Questionnaire for Street Girls of Primary School Age (QSGPSA) In order to ensure the reliability of the instrument used in the study the researcher administered the questionnaire to 40 parents. A Cronbach alpha test was used to analyze their responses and a reliability coefficient of 0.91 was realized.
The researcher also administered the questionnaire to 20 street girls, and analysed them using Cronbach alpha method. This gave a reliability Coefficient of 0.78.
Data Analysis Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics which include frequency counts, percentages, means, standard deviations and graphs as well as inferential statistics and chi-square.
Research Question One:
What are the factors militating against the girl-child participation in primary
85 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON education in Nigeria and Cameroon with regards to:
(a) Street girls
(b) Parents
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Factors Militating Against Girl Child Participation in Primary Education in Nigeria and Cameroon: Female Pupils N= 450 S/N ITEM Country Frequency F re qu ency (%) (%) Yes No 1. Early marriage prevents female pupils Nigeria 40 (66.7) 20 (33.3) from going to school. Cameroon 38 (63.3) 22 (36.7)
2. My parents prefer sending boys to Nigeria 57 (95.0) 3 (5.0) school and girls to hawking. Cameroon 54 (90.0) 6 (10.0)
3. My parents do not have enough money Nigeria 37 (61.7) 23 (38.3) to spend on my education. Cameroon 31 (51.7) 29 (48.3) 4. Much of females’ time is spent in house Nigeria 40 (66.7) 20 (33.3) work, which does not allow them to go to school. Cameroon 35 (58.3) 25 (41.7) 5. I will prefer to marry than to go to Nigeria 8 (13.3) 52 (86.7) school. Cameroon 6 (10.0) 54 (90.0) 6. My parents said that Western Nigeria 31 (51.7) 29 (48.3) education teaches the females unacceptable western behaviours such as uncontrollable sexual acts that could Cameroon 32 (53.3) 28 (46.7) lead to pregnancy.
7. Religious practice such as female Nigeria 50 (83.3) 10 (16.7) seclusion, does not allow female education. Cameroon 46 (76.7) 14 (23.3) 8. Far distance of school from home Nigeria 55 (91.7) 5 (8.3) discourages parents from sending their female children to school. Cameroon 50 (83.3) 10 (16.7)
9. The fear of sexual harassment of Nigeria 55 (91.7) 5 (8.3) female pupils by male teachers and/or boys at school. Cameroon 45 (75.0) 15 (25.0) 10. Once I am educated, I will secure Nigeria 40 (66.7) 20 (33.3) modern employment (job) that will give me high pay. Cameroon 38 (63.3) 22 (36.7)
Values in parentheses represent percentages.
86 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
As shown in Table 1, the first factor is early marriage which is a cultural practice common to both countries. The majority of street girls in Nigeria 40(66.7%) agreed that early marriage hinders girls from participating in education, and also 38(63.3%) of Cameroon street girls agreed, while 20 (33.3%) and 22 (36.7%) street girls in Nigeria and Cameroon disagreed respectively. Based on this, early marriage was seen by street girls as impeding the effective participation of girl's education in both countries. The second factor is parents' preference for boys' education while girls were sent to hawk. To this, most street girls agreed in Nigeria 57(95.0%) and in Cameroon 54(90.0%) while 3 (5.0%) and 6(10.0%) street girls in Nigeria and Cameroon disagreed. On economic factor, majority 37 (61.7%) and 31 (51.7%) street girls in Nigeria and Cameroon agreed that their parents did not have enough money to spend on female education while, 23 (38.3%) and 29(48.3%) street girls in Nigeria and Cameroon disagreed respectively. Majority of street girls were of the opinion that much of female's time is spent in house work, which hinders them from adequate participation in primary education. This fact is the same for Nigeria 40(66.7%) and Cameroon 35(58.3%) while, 20(33.3%) and 25(41.7%) disagreed in Nigeria and Cameroon. On the statement on preference of marriage to schooling, in Nigeria, mere 8(13.3%) agreed and also, in Cameroon mere 6(10.0%) agreed. This means that majority of the street girls in Nigeria 52 (86.7%) and Cameroon 54 (90.0%) were aware of the importance of education, and would prefer to go to school in both countries. The next factor is that western education teaches unacceptable western behaviours such as uncontrolled sexual acts which could lead to pregnancy. To this, 31(51.7%) of street girls agreed in Nigeria, while 32 (53.3%) agreed in Cameroon 29(48.3%) in Nigeria and 28(46,7%) in Cameroon disagreed to this statement.
87 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
On religion, majority of street girls agreed that female seclusion deters accessibility of female education in Nigeria, 50(83.3%) and Cameroon 46 (76.7%), while 10(16.7%) in Nigeria and 14(23.3%) in Cameroon disagreed. The next factor is the far distance of school from home which discourages parents from sending their female children to school. To this, street girls in Nigeria 55(91.7%) agreed and also 50(83.3%) agreed in Cameroon, while 5(8.3%) and 10(16.7%0 in Nigeria and Cameroon disagreed respectively. The next factor, which is the sexual harassment of female pupils by male teachers and/or boys at school, 55(91.7%) of Nigeria street girls agreed with the statement, while 45(75.0%) street girls in Cameroon also agreed. Majority of the street girls 40(66.7%) in Nigeria and 38 (63.3%) street girls in Cameroon agreed to the statement that an educated person will have the opportunity of securing modern employment (job) that will give high pay. This shows that street girls in Nigeria and Cameroon recognize the importance of education to securing good employment and high pay.
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of Factors Militating Against Girl-Child Participation in Primary Education in Nigeria and Cameroon: Parents.
S/N P art1- Socio- cu ltural a nd Co u n try SA A D SD x STD e co n o mic Facto rs 4 3 2 1 DE V 1 Cu ltu ral p ra ctice s do Nige ria 1 14 24 0 7 2 24 2.9 9 0.7 9 n o t e nco ura ge the ( 25 .3) ( 53 .3) ( 16 .0 ) (5 .3 ) e du cation al p articipatio n o f g irl- Ca me roo n 2 04 18 6 4 8 12 3.2 9 .0 7 6 ch ild ( 45 .3) ( 41 .3) ( 10 .7 ) (2 .7 )
2 P are ntal pref eren ce fo r Nige ria 1 20 23 4 6 0 36 2.9 7 0.8 4 b o ys’ e d ucation to g irls ’ ( 26 .7) ( 52 .0) ( 13 .3 ) (8 .0 ) e du cation . Ca me roo n 1 68 20 4 54 24 3.1 5 0.8 ( 37 .3) ( 45 .3) ( 12 .0 ) (5 .3 ) 3
3 E arly ma rriage hind e r Nige ria 1 68 1 80 84 18 3.1 1 0.8 4 girls p articipation ( 37 .3) ( 40 .0) ( 18 .7 ) (1 4 0) to prim ary ed u ca tio n in 2 46 1 62 3 6 6 3.4 4 0.7 0 m y lo cality. Ca me roo n ( 54 .7) ( 36 .0) ( 8.0 ) (1 .3 ) 4 W es te rn e du cation w ill Nige ria 1 02 1 14 16 8 6 6 2.5 6 0.9 9 h ave a n ega tive ( 22 .7) ( 25 .3) ( 37 .3 ) (1 4 .7 ) inf lue nce o n the dign ity 6 6 1 14 11 4 15 6 an d m o rality of girls Ca me roo n ( 14 .7) ( 25 .3) ( 25 .3 ) (3 4 .7 ) 2.2 0 1.0 7
88 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
5 Nigeria 72 96 168 114 2.28 1.02 (16.0) (21.3) (37.3) (25.3) My religion does not encourage female Cameroon 48 114 174 114 2.21 0.94 education (10.7) (25.3) (38.7) (25.3) 6 Female seclusion after Nigeria 72 156 150 72 2.51 0.94 marriage hinders female (16.0) (34.7) (33.3) (16.0) education Cameroon 78 120 144 108 2.37 1.03 (17.3) (26.7) (32.0) (24)
7 Girl-Child should not be Nigeria 96 132 174 48 2.61 0.93 looking after younger (21.3) (29.3) (38.7) (10.7) siblings. Cameroon 54 132 114 150 2.20 1.03 (12.0) (29.3) (25.3) (33.3)
8 Girl-Child should be solely Nigeria 78 240 114 18 2.84 0.75 responsible for domestic (17.3) (53.3) (25.3) (4.0) chores like fetching water and firewood, farming, Cameroon 174 150 90 56 3.03 0.95 cooking etc. (38.7) (33.3) (20.0) (8.0)
9 Distance of school from Nigeria 102 246 78 24 2.95 0.78 home will expose the girl- (22.7) (54.7) (17.3) (5.3) child to danger. Cameroon 150 216 78 6 3.13 0.74 (33.3) (48.0) (17.3) (1.3) 10 The high level of Nigeria 60 150 156 84 2.41 0.94 educational attainment of (13.3) (33.3) (34.7) (18.7) parents positively affects girl-child accessibility to Cameroon 108 192 132 18 2.87 primary education. (24.0) (42.7) (29.3) (4.0) 0.82
11 Fear of sexual involvement Nigeria 60 78 210 102 2.21 0.94 of male teachers and boys (13.3) (17.3) (46.7) (22.7) with female pupils discourage parents from Cameroon 84 156 156 54 2.60 0.93 sending their daughters to (18.7) (34.7) (34.7) (12.0) school.
12 Most parents cannot cope Nigeria 120 210 72 48 2.89 0.92 with the high cost of books (26.7) (46.7) (16.0) (10.7) and supplies for their daughters e.g. uniforms, Cameroon 246 132 60 12 3.36 0.81 levies etc. (54.7) (29.3) (13.3) (2.7)
13 Parents income does not Nigeria 180 240 30 - 3.33 0.59 permit girl-child to stay in (40.0) (53.3) (6.7) school
89 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
13 Parents income does not Nigeria 180 240 30 - 3.33 0.59 permit girl-child to stay in (40.0) (53.3) (6.7) school Cameroon 258 150 36 6 3.47 0.70 (57.3) (33.3) (8.0) (1.3)
14 Female children are Nigeria 96 240 108 6 2.95 0.71 needed to supplement (21.3) (53.3) (24.0) (1.3) family income by hawking 198 216 wares Cameroon (44.0) (48.0) 24 12 3.33 0.70 (5.3) (2.7) 15 There are financial gains in Nigeria 162 252 36 - 3.28 0.72 the education of female (360) (560) (8.0) children Cameroon 228 192 12 18 3.40 0.73 (50.7) (42.7) (2.7) (4.0)
Weighted Average Nigeria 2.79
Cameroon 2.94 Grand Weighted Average 2.87
Generally, while for Nigeria, a weighted average of 2.79% was obtained, 2.94% was for Cameroon. Also, a grand weighted average of 2.87 was obtained. These were high values which implied that all the factors were very important towards making the girl-child education realizable in both countries.
Table 3: Chi-Square Table of Difference in the Responses of Street Girls in Nigeria and Cameroon. Item Country X2 Value Df Sign Remark Item 1 Nig vs Cam 8.12 1 0.004* Sig. Item 2 Nig vs Cam 1.52 1 .199 Not Sig. Item 3 Nig vs Cam 3.30 1 .070 Not Sig. Item 4 Nig vs Cam 2.10 1 .148 Not Sig. Item 5 Nig vs Cam 1.69 1 .192 Not Sig. Item 6 Nig vs Cam 14.00 1 .000* Sig. Item 7 Nig vs Cam 8.12 1 .000* Sig. Item 8 Nig vs Cam 2.11 1 .150 Not Sig. Item 9 Nig vs Cam 1.68 1 .194 Not Sig. Item 10 Nig vs Cam 19.25 1 .000* Sig.
90 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
* Significant at P< 0.05 Table 3, revealed that the number of insignificant results was more than those significant. Therefore, one can conclude that generally, there was no significant difference in the responses of street girls on factors militating against girl-child education. Hence, hypothesis 1a is accepted.
Table 4: Chi-Square Table of Difference in the Responses of Parents in Nigeria and Cameroon.
Item Country X2 Value Df Sign Remark Item 1 Nig vs Cam 1.54 3 0.672 Not Sig. Item 2 Nig vs Cam 2.00 3 0.572 Not Sig. Item 3 Nig vs Cam 3.67 2 0.160 Not Sig. Item 4 Nig vs Cam 1.14 3 0.767 Not Sig. Item 5 Nig vs Cam 0.48 3 0.924 Not Sig. Item 6 Nig vs Cam 12.67 3 0.005* Sig. Item 7 Nig vs Cam 3.00 3 0.392 Not Sig. Item 8 Nig vs Cam 3.14 3 0.370 Not Sig. Item 9 Nig vs Cam 3.14 2 0.208 Not Sig. Item 10 Nig vs Cam 4.20 3 0.241 Not Sig. Item 11 Nig vs Cam 1.01 3 0.799 Not Sig. Item 12 Nig vs Cam 5.14 3 0.162 Not Sig. Item 13 Nig vs Cam 2.25 3 0.521 Not Sig. Item 14 Nig vs Cam 0.31 2 0.856 Not Sig. Item 15 Nig vs Cam 0.28 1 0.599 Not Sig.
Table 4, shows that the number of insignificant results was more than those significant. Therefore, one can conclude that generally, there was no significant difference in the responses of parents on factors militating against girl-child education. Hence, hypothesis 1b is accepted.
91 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
Summary and Conclusion The study found gender disparity in enrolment at the primary school level in North Eastern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon to be in favour of boys. Similarly, there is low female participation in education due to cultural practices like girls' involve in domestic chores at a very early age, early marriage, sexual harassment, among others. These social, cultural and economic factors are found to be related and similar in both countries under study. Hence, there was no significant difference in the response of parents, and street girls on the factors affecting girl-child participation in primary education. Consequently, majority of the respondents in both countries under survey agreed that the cultural, social and economic factors are prominent causes that hinder girls' accessibility to primary education.
Recommendations In order to enhance effective girls' participation in primary education in the two countries, the following recommendations are made: ·The out-of-school girls, parents and community leaders should be sensitized through effective information network programmes by the use of jingles on Television and Radio in the Local and English languages, most especially in the market and public places. In addition, seminars and workshops should be held preferably in the local languages for out-of-school girls and their parents. This will create adequate enlightenment and awareness necessary for the eradication of cultural practices and socio-economic beliefs that
92 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
have detrimental effect on the girl-child accessibility to primary education. ·The educational policy on girl education stated in the National Policy on Education in both countries should be properly implemented by prohibiting harmful socio-cultural practices while erring parents and practitioners should be prosecuted. ·The Federal governments of Nigeria and Cameroon should establish monitoring and evaluation teams to ensure adequate compliance for a sustained development of professionals. ·More women should be encouraged to participate in public life in Nigeria and Cameroon as a way of motivating girl-child enrolment in primary education.
References Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004. National Policy on Education (revised). Lagos, Federal Government Press.
National Planning Commission, 2004. National Programme of Action for the Survival, Protection and Development of the Nigerian Child: Lagos: Federal Government of Nigeria.
Odaga and Heneveld. 1995. Girls and Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Analysis to Action, Washington DC. World Bank.
Stomquist, N.P. 1999. Determinants of Education Participation and Achievement of the Evidence and a Theoretical Critique. Review of Educational Research.
UNESCO, 1995. Educating Girls and Women in Africa. Paris: UNESCO.
93 GIRL-CHILD PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SELECTED PARTS OF NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA AND NORTHERN CAMEROON
UNESCO, 2003. MDGs Progress Report at a Provincial level. Yaounde
UNESCO/UNICEF, 2005. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Children out of School, Measuring Exclusion from Primary Education. Paris UNESCO
Utulu, R.E. 2000. The Impact of Traditional Practices on the Psychological and Educational Development of the Girl-Child in Nigeria. An Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Ibadan.
94 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Oluwatoyin A. Orenuga
Abstract
The home is important to the child's education because it serves as the foundation while the school complements in the transmission of knowledge. High transition rate from primary to secondary school could therefore be said to depend on some home and school-based variables. The study investigated home and school factors as determinants of transition rate from primary to secondary schools in Ogun State, Nigeria. Descriptive survey research design using the ex-post-facto type was adopted. A nine-variable model was constructed and tested. These were parents' educational achievement (X1), parents' occupation (X2), availability of educational facilities at home (X3), school type-private or public (X4), school location (X5), teacher-pupils ratio (X6), learning resource provision in schools (X7) and school achievement (X8) for providing a causal explanation of transition from primary to secondary school (X9). Multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select a sample of 810 primary six pupils and 255 primary six teachers from 27 primary schools in Ogun State. Four valid and reliable instruments used for data collection were: Pupils' Home Background Questionnaire (PHBQ)(r=0.72), School Factors Questionnaire (SFQ)(r=0.69), Pupils Mathematics Achievement Test (PMAT)(r=0.71) and Pupils English Achievement Test (PEAT)(r-0.82). Descriptive statistic and path analysis were used for analyzing the data. The eight independent variables had positive correlation (R=0.67) with the dependent variable (transition rates). The exogenous variables were found to contribute 45.3% (R2=0.45) to the variance of the dependent variable. The most meaningful causal model had 19 significant and meaningful pathways (P<0.05) (five direct and 14 indirect paths) About 11% of the total effect on transition rates from primary to secondary school was jointly accounted for by the eight- predictor variables. (27.17% was direct while 16.27% was indirect). The relative order of importance were: school achievement (X8) (ß=0.49) teacher-pupil ratio
(X6) (ß=0.46) availability of facilities at home (X3) (ß=0.15) school type (X4)
95 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
(ß=0.14) resource provisions in schools (X7) (B=0.10) parents' educational achievement (X1) (ß=0.03) school location (X5) (B=0.01 and parents' occupation
(X2) (ß=0.01. The combined effects of some home and school factors exerted potent and positive causal influence on transition rate from primary to secondary school in Nigeria. It was, therefore recommended that more attention should be given to the home and school factors in order to enhance high transition rate from primary to secondary schools.
Background To The Problem Educational activities in the society are expected to be centered on the learners for maximum self-development and self-fulfillment (National Policy on Education, 2004). Earlier attempts to provide basic education for the young ones in Nigeria had witnessed the introduction of the Universal Primary Education (U.P.E.) in 1955, in the old Western Region and in 1957, in the old Eastern Region, in 1976, the Federal government embarked on this same programme nationwide (Fafunwa, 1982, Ajayi, 1995) On 30th September 1999 in Sokoto, the Universal Basic Education (U.B.E.) was launched. Among the goals and objectives of the Universal Basic Education Scheme is to universalize access to basic education for every Nigerian child of school going age by providing free compulsory education from primary to junior secondary schools. It also aims at reducing drastically the problem of “out of school” children presently prominent among our youths in their formative years in school – primary to secondary education) (Universal Basic Education Blueprint, 1999). Nigeria was a signatory to 1990 Jomtien Declaration of Education for all by the year, 2,000, and also a member of the Group of E-9 nations committed to the total eradication of illiteracy. In spite of the various efforts of the government, there are still problems noticeable in the transition rate from primary to secondary schools in Nigeria, thereby resulting in “Out Of School” of our youths. It is thus explicable that “out of school” children of primary and junior secondary school ages are
96 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA increasingly noticed in Nigerian urban and peri-urban settings engaging in bus conducting, selling of pure water and snacks during school hours. Officially, the National Policy On Education (FME, 2004) stressed the need for the primary school education to be free but the reality is quite different since the Federal and State Governments are unable to finance education fully from their budgets. Both the home and the school factors are two significant agencies of the society that influence a child's early experiences, most especially the process of transition from primary to secondary schools. (Orenuga, 2001) It is noteworthy that there are many variables that are likely to influence the transition of learners from primary to secondary level. The main focus in this work includes some Home and school based variables. The home-based variables in this work include Parents” Educational Attainment, Parents” Occupation, Availability of Educational facilities At Home. The school-based Variables in this work include school type (whether public or private, School Location, School Achievement, Teacher – Pupils Ratio, Teaching and Learning Resource Provision In Schools and Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary Schools which is the dependent variable.
Research Questions The following research questions raised were answered in this study: i. What is the most meaningful causal model involving the home and school variables and transition rates from primary to secondary schools in Ogun State, Nigeria? ii. What are the direction as well as the estimates of the strength of the causal paths of the variables in the model? iii. What are the direct and indirect effects of the independent variables on transition rate? iv. What proportion of the total effects is (i) direct; and (ii) indirect?
97 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Scope of the Study The study strictly focused on using Path Analytic Technique to provide a causal explanation of Transition Rate from primary to secondary in Ogun State of Nigeria in terms of home and school variables. It is thus expected that the generalization of the study findings were limited to the three Senatorial districts in Ogun State viz: Ogun West, Ogun East and Ogun Central. This study focused on the period of 2000 – 2004.
Significance of the Study The study is considered significant in the sense that the results of the study are expected to provide empirical basis for a better understanding of the causal relationship between the home and school factors and the transition rates from primary to secondary schools in Ogun State of Nigeria. Education Policy Makers, Stakeholders in the private sector and administrators are thus likely to develop (based on the causal modeling results) a more effective theory and technique for boosting transition rate from primary to Secondary formal education in Nigeria
Research Design This study employed a survey type of design (Ex-post facto type). The researcher had no direct control over the independent variables as they had manifested themselves already (Kerlinger, 1985).
Sampling Procedure and Sample Ogun State was stratified into three Senatorial zones viz: Ogun East, Ogun Central and Ogun West. Twenty-seven primary schools were purposively selected viz: nine schools from each zone. The participating schools were based on the criteria that they were government approved and had reached primary six
98 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA and that such primary schools had been presenting pupils for Common Entrance Examination for the past five years. A random sampling procedure was adopted to select eight hundred and ten (810) primary six pupils. Two hundred and seventy from each zone (270) two hundred and fifty – five teachers (255) i.e. eighty-five teachers from each zone participated in this study.
Research Instruments Four Main Instruments were used in this study: 1. School Factors Questionnaire (SFQ) 2. Pupils Home Background questionnaire (PHBQ) 3. Pupil Mathematics Achievement Test (PMAT) 4. Pupil English Achievement Test (PEAT)
Each questionnaire was adequately Scored and validated on 20 (twenty) primary six pupils who were not part of the sample selected for this study. The scores were used to determine the discriminating power of the test and the difficulty indices of the test items. Each questionnaire was administered with the assistance of all primary six teachers and the research assistants trained for this purpose.
Data Analysis Answers were provided to the four main research questions based on Path Analysis. The researcher explored the direct and indirect effects of the variables taken as causes (independents) on the variable (taken) as effect (dependent). An attempt was made to build the Hypothesized Recursive path Model considering all the nine variables earlier mentioned in this study. The researcher later identified the important paths in the model by
99 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA exploring all the hypothesized linkages. Constructing the resultant structural equations of the hypothesized model based on a recursive system. In Statistical significance, the researcher's choice was P<0.05. to be meaningful, paths must have absolute coefficient values of at least .05. this criteria helped to trim the model. In order to verify the efficacy of the new model, the original correlation matrix of the variables were reproduced using the path coefficients in the new model. Each new correlation matrix was compared with the old one in order to ascertain the efficacy of the new model. The discrepancies between the original correlation data and the new ones were considered minimal. The new model is therefore tenable to explain the causal interaction between the predictor variables and the criterion variables.
Highlights of The Important Findings Of this Study The findings of this study are summarized as follows: · Five variables were found to have direct effects on transition rate from primary to secondary schools than the other variables in this study. These were: School Achievement, teacher pupils' ratio, learning resource provision in schools, school type and availability of educational facilities at home. · Two home variables were found to have indirect effects but significant on transition rate from primary to secondary schools. These include: parents' educational achievement and parents' occupation. · Transition rate from primary to secondary schools is a function of both the home and school factors interwoven together as they complement each other in the society. · Pupils from educated or literate parents have more opportunities to decent environments that can promote learning after school hours. Such
100 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
children experience parental support and guidance. · Reduced class sizes promote success of learners in the school and positively influences the transition from primary to secondary schools. · An adequate provision of learning – resource materials in schools enhance transition from primary to secondary schools. · The School Achievement is an indication of school Output that has direct influence on transition rate from primary to secondary schools. · School location did not meet up with the trimming exercise.
References Ajayi, K (1995) Reflections On The Nigerian Education System, Abeokuta: Osiele Consult Publications Ltd.
Dike, (2000), The Universal Basic Education Program: Educating The Educators In Nigerian Online Posting – h.t.t.p: Nigeria World. Com
ESA, (2003), Pre - Diagnostic Bibliography Collation On Studies Prosed For The Nigerian Education Sector Analysis, Federal Ministry of Education, Sibon Books Ltd.
Fafunwa, A.B. (1982), History of Nigerian Education, London: George / Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004): National Policy On Education, Revised, Govt. Press.
Kerlinger, F.N. (1985), Foundations Of Behavioral Research, New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston.
Obanya, P.A.I. (2002), Revitalizing Education In Africa, Ibadan: Stirling Horden Publishers, Nig. Ltd.
101 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Ogun State Education Handbook, (2002); Ogun State Ministry of Education Services Department Publications.
Orenuga O.A. (2001) An Introduction To Sociology of Education; Lagos: Ayodeji Educational Publishers
Universal Basic Education (1999) Proceedings of The Education Summit, Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education Publications.
Table 1: The Original and Reproduced Correlation matrices For The Nine Variables.
VARIABLE X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9
X1 1.000 0.239 0.011 0.044 0.000 0.007 0.008 0.489 0.013
X2 0.239 1.000 -0.007 0.000 0.000 -0.159 0.166 0.332 0.117 X3 -0.011 -0.007 1,000 0.355 0.000 0.056 0.059 0.177 0.398
X4 0.044 0.000 0.361 1.000 0.000 -0.159 0.130 0.250 0.384 X5 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 -0.159 0.388 0.354 -0.012
X6 0.007 -0.159 0.056 0.159 0.029 1.000 0.249 0.885 -0.087
X7 0.008 0.166 0.059 0.167 0.011 0.250 1.000 -0248 0.161 X8 0.489 0.329 -0.324 0.194 0.048 0.846 0.242 1.000 0.006 X9 0.026 0.339 0.185 0.185 0.191 0.962 0.453 0.002 1.000
(a)Entries above the diagonal are the original correlation coefficient (b)Entries below the diagonal are the reproduced correlation coefficient.
Table 2:
Showing Transition Rates Of Sampled Schools (2000-2004)
YEAR TOTAL NO OF PUPILS TRANSITING TO TRANSITION RATES (%) ENROLMENT JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 2000 640 382 59.68 2001 657 376 57.23 2002 670 400 59.70 2003 676 398 58.88 2004 685 397 57.96 TOTAL 3,328 1,953 58.69 (Average %)
102 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Fig 1: Hypothesized recursive Path Model of The 9 – variable System
X1 xxx X4 X7
X6
X3 X9
X2
X5 X8
Fig 1: Hypothesized recursive Path Model of The 9 – variable System.
(X1)=Parents Educational Achievement.
(X2)=Parents Occupation
(X3)=Availability of Educational Facilities At Home.
(X4)=School type (Private or Public)
(X5)=School Location
(X6)=Teacher pupils ratio
(X7)=Learning Resources Provision
(X8)=School Achievement
(X9)=Transition Rate
103 HOME AND SCHOOL FACTORS AS DETERMINANTS OF TRANSITION RATE FROM PRIMARY TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Fig. 2: Nine Variable System Showing Only The Significant Paths (The More Parsimonious Model
X1 X4 X7
X9 X6
X3
X 2 X 8
Fig. 2 therefore shows the most meaningful parsimonious model involving parents' educational attainment, parents occupation, availability of educational facilities at home, school type, school location, teacher pupils ratio, learning resource provision and school achievement in predicting transition rates from primary to secondary.
104 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Folake C. Onabanjo
Abstract
Many research reports have indicated that there is disparity between the performances of male and female students in the sciences most especially in mathematics in the favour of males. This study therefore investigated some cognitive and affective factors affecting senior secondary school female students' achievements in mathematics. The cognitive factors investigated are numerical aptitude, interpretation of mathematics instruction, ability to simplify and ability to calculate mathematical problems. The affective factors are self-concept, attitude towards: mathematics, teachers, class attendance, completion of assignments, use of mathematics textbooks, paying attention, self-studying and practicing and attendance at quiz competition. Seven research questions were asked in order to find answers to the problem stated. An ex-post facto research type was employed to guide the investigation. A purposive sampling technique was used to select ten (10) out of thirty-five (35) schools in Abeokuta North and South Local Government Areas (5 schools in each of the two LGAs). Eighty SSS II female students were randomly chosen from each school and the SSS II mathematics teachers of the schools were also used in the study. This gives a sample size of eight hundred students and ten mathematics teachers. Five validated research instruments were used to collect data for the study, namely, Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT), Student Cognitive Ability Test (SCAT), which measures the four components of cognitive factors, Attitudes Towards Mathematics Scale (ATMS), Mathematics Self-Concept Scale (MSCS) and Teachers' Questionnaires (TQ). The data collected for this study were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentages, means, and multiple regression analysis. The findings of the study showed that the female students' achievement in mathematics was poor as revealed by the Mathematics Achievement Test. The Cognitive Factors contributed 69.0% to the variation in the female students' achievement in mathematics as observed by the coefficient of determination
105 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
(0.69). The relative contribution of the cognitive factors showed that interpretation of mathematics instruction is the most potent variable in explaining female students' achievement in mathematics with a â value of 0.53; P<0.05, followed by numerical aptitude â = 0.31, P<0.05); ability to calculate (â = 0.24; P<0.05) and ability to simplify (â = 0.10; P<0.05). The Affective Factors contributed 95.39 percent to the variation in the female students' achievement in mathematics as observed by the coefficient of determination (0.9539). The relative contribution of the Affective Factors showed that Self-Concept is the most potent variable of the Affective Factors in explaining female students' achievement in mathematics with a â value of 0.29; P<0.05 followed by class attendance with â value of 0.27; P<0.05, use of mathematics textbooks (â = 0.26; P<0.05), attendance at quiz competition (â = 0.06; P<0.05). The implications of these were discussed. Based on these finding, it is recommended that female students should interpret mathematics instructions correctly, attend classes regularly, develop high self-concept, and always complete their assignments and submit to their teachers.
(Keywords: Cognitive factors, self-concepts, attitudes, class attendance, achievement in mathematics).
Introduction The importance of Mathematics lies not only in its contributions to scientific and technological development but also in its utility in the day-to-day interactions at home, market place, business, music, politics, sports, medicine, agriculture, engineering and the social and natural sciences and all human endeavours. Mathematics is a key subject in the school curriculum and it is considered a knowledge that is indispensable to human transactions, knowledge and skills. Mathematics plays a dominant role in development of nations (Ivowi, 1983; Okpala, 1985; Erinosho, 1998 and Jegede, 2001). If they are well integrated and harmonized for meaningful development. The high regard for mathematics may be because it has helped in the development of modern technology through the
106 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS application of its principle in modern invention (Kalejaye, 1982 and Adeagbo, 1998). The study of mathematics has been and will continue to be of tremendous importance to humanity for its ability to explain natural phenomena and everyday occurrences as well as its central role in the world's current technological development drive (Ikwa, 1997 and Ikwa, 2000). The importance attached to the learning of mathematics and sciences in schools tend to support the notion that the technological progress of any nation depends to a large extent on mathematics and science education in that country (Jegede and Okebukola, 1994, and Adedayo, 1998). For any curriculum that places emphasis on genuine social and individual competence, mathematics will play an important part. Mathematics skills are essential to the average man in order to be able to cope with life activities. Many mathematics educators stated among other things that there is no other subject that has greater application than mathematics (Odogwu 2002, and Amao, 2002). It is the wheel on which other subjects move. It is the prime instrument for understanding and for exploring our scientific, economic and social world. It could also be noted that all fields of knowledge are dependent on mathematics for solving problems, stating theories and predicting outcomes (Kalejaye, 1982; and Adeagbo, 1998; Amao, Efunbajo and Adenle, 2003), observed that “the vastly increased importance of mathematics makes it more imperative that the individual knows something about the nature and role of mathematics. In the National Policy on Education (NPE) (FGN 2004: 19, 21) mathematics is one of the core and compulsory subjects in the primary, junior and senior secondary schools' curricular. The Federal Government of Nigeria knowing the importance of mathematics makes it compulsory that every child must study it for six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary school and three
107 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS years in the senior secondary school. The importance accorded mathematics in the curricular reflects accurately the recognition of the vital role it plays in contemporary society. It is a National Policy on Education to produce literate and numerate citizens characterized by ability to:
(i) think logically and scientifically for themselves, (ii) express themselves clearly so as to be understood by others, (iii) make relevant judgement in the light of available evidences, (iv) discriminate among different kinds of values, (v) formulate, analyze, interpret and solve routine and non-routine, familiar and unfamiliar mathematics, physical, health, social, economic, political and personal adjustment problems which keep on arising as a result of the rapid changes and chances in our fleeting world. From the foregoing synopsis, it can be inferred that the general focus of mathematics is on the ability for creativity, reflective thinking, higher education as well as acquisition of skills for self-reliance. Over the years, there has been a repeat of poor performance and failure of students in mathematics at secondary school level. The concern to ameliorate the situation has not been limited to the mathematics educators alone, but it has also been the concern of parents and the government. Afemikhe (1985) opined that entry into many careers depends on the quality of mathematics studied in schools. At present, a credit at the senior school certificate mathematics is required for admission into science, social science and technology based courses in the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. However, there is need for improving the students' achievement in mathematics because it is needed for the pursuit of higher
108 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS education, especially in faculties like Agriculture, Engineering, Medical Sciences, Science and Business Administration. In spite of the importance of mathematics in Nigeria, the subject has experienced a persistent high rate of failure for many years. This sad situation has attracted the attention and comments of many researchers and educators like Lassa (1984), Ale (1989, 2003), Ivowi (1997), Ibrahim (1999), Amazigo (2000), Animalu (2000), Okubadejo (2000), Popoola (2002), Adegoke (2003), Ojo (2003), Olowojaye (2004). According to Okubadejo in Ibuot (2000), it was stressed that government has not been happy with the poor performance of students in mathematics. He went on to stress the fact that mathematics is the bedrock of the science and technology, and without mathematics it would be difficult for the nation to develop scientifically and technologically. The concern about the continuous poor achievement of students at secondary school level gives rise to many researches in identifying the causes of the trend and solutions provided in some cases. Under-representation of women in mathematics, science and technology fields, especially in a developing country like Nigeria raise, an issue of concern which also has implications for the Gross National Productivity. It has been widely stated that girls are under represented in mathematics related courses, have a more negative attitude towards mathematics and consequently under achieved in mathematics at school. Many studies confirmed this observation in the USA (National Assessment of Educational Progress 1980, Gardner and Yager, 1983), in the United Kingdom (Harding, 1981), in Canada (Hobbs and Erichson, 1984), in Australia (Parker, 1984), and in Nigeria (Balogun, 1985; Erinosho, 1994). From experience and literature, few females are found in disciplines, which are mathematically oriented. For instance Billings (2003) observed that despite efforts over the last 20 years to redress female under-representation the
109 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS percentage of women studying computing and related subjects continued to fall in between 1985 and 1990. Accordingly, this status quo was also maintained in the United Kingdom with females, making up only 18% of computer science and 11% of softwares and engineering in 1996. Not only are enrolments low and declining but proportionately more women than men drop out, fail courses or choose to major in another subject other than science and mathematics (Selby, 1997). Furthermore, women in United States Universities in 2000-2001 accounted for only 17% undergraduate science majors (Billings 2003). The deleterious trend was repeated in New Zealand with women accounting for a mere 20% of undergraduates in information technology, sciences and mathematics (Brook et al, 2000). The issue of low female participation and attainment in STM is not peculiar to Nigeria alone, as earlier stated, but a global problem. It is coming more and more into limelight particularly with women accounting for more than half of the world's population. Quite a number of factors have been identified as influential which range from societal, religious, and psychological to attitudinal and interest levels of students. George (cited in Pathways Home, 2002) identified eight factors as being responsible for low participation of females in mathematics and science which are as follows: i. Attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers. ii. Instructional strategies such as hands-on experiences, group projects, field trips and interactions with role models, as opposed to traditional textbook methods. iii. Curriculum materials that perpetuate the stereotype of the white, male scientists and ignore the contributions of minorities and female scientists. iv. Involvement in out-school science activities. v. Portrayal of scientists in the media as white males or as negative
110 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
stereotypes. vi. Tracking or ability-grouped assignments. vii. Self image and viii. Expectation that often change from high interest and low anxiety about science and mathematics in the early grades to avoidance in the intermediate class. What other factors can account for poor achievement of the female gender in the area of mathematics? Ohuche (1981) and Folajin (1986) suggested that poor achievements of the students in SSCE might be due to factors like teachers, government, students, parents and classroom environment. However, the major concern still is despite the prominence given to mathematics as a school subject, it is a subject that many students, especially female students fear, dislike and fail. In the light of the above points enumerated, there is a need to investigate further and pay attention to some of the cognitive factors (such as numerical aptitude, interpretation of instruction, ability to simplify and ability to calculate) and affective factors like (self concept, attitude towards: mathematics, (studying and practicing, class attendance, completion of assignments, use of relevant texts, paying attention and attending mathematics quiz competitions) and see how these affect the achievement of the female students in mathematics at secondary school level. The importance of affective and cognitive factors in education generally and in learning of mathematics has ever been an issue. This study is therefore interested in finding whether the cognitive and affective factors mentioned above have any effects on female students' achievement in mathematics at senior secondary school level.
111 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Statement of the Problem This study sought to examine the extent to which some cognitive factors (numerical aptitude, interpretation of mathematical instruction, ability to simplify and calculate mathematical problems) and affective factors (self concept, attitude towards mathematics teacher, class attendance, completion of assignments, use of relevant texts, paying attention, self practicing and studying, attending mathematics quiz competition, explain female students' achievement in senior secondary school mathematics.
Research Questions Based on the problem stated above, the study sort answers to the following research questions: 1. What is the profile of female students' cognitive factors in terms of numerical aptitude, interpretation of instruction, ability to simplify and calculate? 2. What is the profile of female students' affective factors in terms of: (i) Attitudes towards mathematics, teacher, class attendance, completion of assignments, paying attention, attendance at mathematics quiz competition? (ii) Self-concept? 3. To what extent do some cognitive factors (when taken together) explain female students' achievement in mathematics? 4. What is the relative contribution of each of the cognitive factors to the female students' achievement in mathematics? 5. To what extent do the affective factors (when taken together) explain female students' achievement in mathematics? 6. What is the relative contribution of each of the affective factors to the
112 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
female students' achievement in mathematics? 7. What is the profile of teachers' evaluation of the female students' attitude towards mathematics?
Methodology The Research Type This is an “ex-post facto” research type. The research type was chosen because the researcher did not have control over the independent variables as their manifestations had already occurred. Population, Sampling Procedure and Sample The target population for the study comprised of all senior secondary school two (SSS II) female student in Abeokuta North and South Local Government Areas of Ogun State. A purposive sampling procedure was used to select ten secondary schools from both local government areas as participating schools. In each of the ten schools, simple random sampling was used to select eighty female students. The sample for the study consisted of 800 female students and 10 mathematics teachers. Instrumentation Five instruments, whose validity and reliability were ascertained, were used for the study. These are: (i) Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) (ii) Students Cognitive Ability Test (SCAT) (iii) Attitudes Towards Mathematics Scale (ATMS) (iv) Mathematics Self Concept Scale (MSCS) (v) Teacher Questionnaire (TQ)
113 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Data Analysis
Frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard deviation were sued as descriptive statistics to provide answers for research questions 1, 2 and 7.
Graphical representation of female students' responses were also presented as the patterns of their attitudes towards mathematics.
Multiple regression analysis was used to answer research questions 3, 4, 5 and 6. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the extent to which the independent variables under study explain the dependent variables. This method of statistical analysis enables the researcher to determine the extent to which a combination of all the independent variables explains the dependent variable as well as the relative contribution of each of the independent variables to this explanation.
The coefficient of correlation (R), R square, Adjusted R square, Standard
Error (SE) of estimate and ANOVA are the evidences of using a combination of independent variable to explain the dependent variable. The parameter estimates of standardized regression weight (beta), unstandardized regression weight (b) and F-ratio are used in the explanation of the relative contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variable.
Results
The results of data analysed using frequencies, percentages, mean, standard deviation and multiple regression are as follows:
114 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Table 1: The Profile of Female Students’ Performance in Cognitive Ability Test
Score Numerical Interpretation of Ability to Ability to Raw Aptitude Instruction Simplify Calculate Score Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % 10 00 0 0 51 6.4 82 103 38 4.8 01 56 7 229 28.6 198 24.8 146 18.3 02 44 5.5 214 26.8 180 22.5 169 21.1 03 386 48.3 181 22.6 163 20.4 186 23.3 04 82 10.3 68 8.5 103 12.9 75 9.4 05 116 14.5 36 4.5 0 0 40 5.0 06 85 10.6 21 2.6 52 6.5 121 15.1 07 21 2.6 0 0 22 2.8 0 0 08 10 1.3 0 0 0 0 19 2.4 09 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0.5 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0.3 Total 800 800 800 800
Table 2: Regression Summary of Cognitive Factors on Female Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
Multiple R 0.828220
R Square (R2) 0.68591
Adjusted R Square 0.68465
Standard Error 8.96550
Table 3: Analysis of Variance of the Cognitive Factors with Female Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
Source of Df Sum of Mean F-ratio Sig. Variance Squares Square Regression 4 174556.78336 43664.19591 434.03059 .0000
Residual 795 79978.32034 100.6106608
(Sig. P<0.05)
115 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Table 4: Parameter Estimate of the Relative Contribution of Cognitive Factors on Female Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
Variables B SE B Beta T Sig. T Constant 63.037495 2.063665 - 30.546 .0000 Numerical 2.210075 0.145160 0.314848 15.225 .0000 Aptitude Interpretation 4.0566679 0.143615 0.533437 28.247 .0000 of Instruction Ability to 1.613725 0.337051 0.095654 4.788 .0000 simplify Ability to 1.563991 0.120197 0.240561 13.012 .0000 calculate
Sig. at P<0.05
Table 5: Regression Summary of the Affective Factors in Female Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
Multiple R 0.97666 R Square (R2) 0.95387 Adjusted R Square 0.95345 Standard Error 3.444470
Table 6: Analysis of Variance of Affective Factors with Female Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
Source of Df Sum of Squares Mean Square F-ratio Sig. Variance Regression 9 242887.82223 26987.53580 1814.901* .0000
Residual 790 11747.28177 14.86998
(Sig. P<0.05)
116 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Table 7: Parameter Estimate of the Relative Contribution of Affective Factors on Female Students’ Achievement in Mathematics Factors (Variables B SEB Beta T Sig. T Constant) 13,785195 1.131146 12,187 .0000 Attitude towards 0.571072 0.064493 0.064471 8.855 .0000 Mathematics Attitude towards 1.215363 0.036983 0.231624 32.863 .0000 Mathematics teacher Self studying and 1.194411 0.073799 0.130533 16.185 .0000 practising Class Attendance 1.160420 0.041507 0.272348 27.957 .0000 Completion of 1.314155 0.062553 0.201867 21.008 .0000 Assignments Paying Attention 1.003857 0.048865 0.158235 20.543 .0000 Use of 1.032456 0.030659 0.258704 33.676 .0000 Mathematics Texts in addition to notebook Attendance at 0.970282 0.089463 0.084918 10.848 .0000 mathematics quiz competition Self Concept 0.980377 0.024095 0.291631 40.688 .0000
Sig. at P<0.05
Discussion Tables 1 shows the summary of the female students' performance in the cognitive test. It clearly shown that in all the four variables tested, the performance was very poor. The percentage failed in each variable was multiples of the percentage passed. This is a proof of the fact that female students at the senior secondary school still have: problems in dealing with numbers; difficulties in interpreting mathematics instruction, symbols and signs; problems in the area of applying rules to solve mathematics problems and that the students are weak in solving problems using correct formulae. Table 2 shows that the independent variables (Numerical Aptitude, interpretation of instruction ability to simplify and ability to calculate) yielded a multiple correlation (R) of 0.828220 with female students' achievement in
117 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS mathematics. The combined effect of these variables explained 68.5% of the variance in female students' achievement in mathematics as shown by the coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.68465). From Table 3, the ANOVA computed showed an F-ratio of 434.03059 which was significant at P<0.05. It shows that the multiple R of the cognitive variables on achievement in mathematics is not by chance. Table 4 shows that all the variables tested contributed significantly to the explanation of female students' achievement in mathematics. It also implies that these cognitive factors can predict their achievement in the subject. From Tables 5 – 7, it is observed that the combined effect of the affected variables explained 95.3% of the variance in the students' achievement in mathematics as shown by the coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.9534). The ANOVA computed showed an F-ratio of 1814.901 which was significant at P<0.05. This shows that the affective factors investigated, when taken together could be seen that 95.3% of the changes in the students mathematics achievement was accounted for by the entire affective factors. Table 10 shows the significance of each variable investigated, which was tested and was observed that the relative contribution of the affective factors shows that self- concept is the most potent variable in the affective factors in explaining the female students' achievement in mathematics with a value of 0.2916, P<0.05; followed by class attendance (â = 0.2723; P<0.05) etc. while attitude towards mathematics (â = 0.0645; P<0.05) is the least potent variable in the explanations. The study showed that the listed affective factors above could significantly predict the female students' achievement in mathematics and if they are duely considered, will definitely improve their achievement in mathematics.
118 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Summary of Findings and Recommendations This study revealed that the female students have poor self concept of mathematics as a very important subject, even needed for the development of any nation. However, their attitude towards studying and practicing the subject is quite negative. Therefore, female students should devote enough time to reading, studying and practicing mathematics from time to time in their preparation for examinations in order to avoid poor achievement. It was also revealed by the findings that the prevalent poor achievement in mathematics among the female students resulted from lack of interest in mathematics. Teachers are therefore advised and encouraged to introduce the idea of discovery method in their teaching whereby these students will discover ideas, principles and rules by themselves. This will increase their likeness for mathematics and will enhance better performance which will lead to better achievement. The findings of this study also revealed that cognitive factors such as numerical aptitude, interpretation of instruction, ability to simplify and ability to calculate have positive effects on achievement in mathematics. It is recommended that authors, mathematics curriculum developers, teachers, should formulate specific behavioural objectives for each topic. Also, diagnostic test based on the behavioural objectives should be provided at the end of each topic or chapter. The teacher is the main implementer of any instructional innovation in the classroom. In order to effectively implement any useful teaching strategy at the classroom level, there is need for the teacher to be trained and retrained. This training could be done through seminars, workshop and in-serve programmes that will acquaint practicing teachers with appropriate teaching methodology. Students should be encouraged to think for themselves instead of relying on memorization.
119 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS
Furthermore, the findings revealed that mathematics achievement is significantly predicted by affective factors such as self concept, studying and practicing mathematics, attending mathematics classes, doing mathematics assignments, use of mathematics texts, paying attention, attending mathematics quiz competition. It is recommended that teachers of mathematics should employ assignments (in the class and home) as a good strategy of effecting students' active participation in mathematics learning. Like other sciences, the schools are encouraged to set up mathematics laboratory which should be equipped with teaching aids, models, charts, mathematical games, history of past mathematicians, scissors, cardboard papers, graph boards, geo-board, etc. Some of the concepts in mathematics could be practicalised to generate the interest of students. The teachers should also take roll calls to ensure good attendance in the maths class. Principals of schools where guidance counsellors are not available should endeavour to contact appropriate Ministry officials for such staff. They are also to ensure that female students seek counselling about the need for mathematics and strategies for studying and passing mathematics especially in examination. The Ministry of Education and other agencies should note the need for training and retraining of teachers. Teachers without teaching qualifications should be encouraged to attend post-graduate diploma programme in education on part-time basis. Seminars, workshops and refresher courses should be organized for teachers to acquaint them with current practices in the professions. More importantly such training programme should emphasise the teachers aspects that can actively explain student's quality and productivity that will lead to high achievement in mathematics especially by female student as well as other school subjects. Curriculum planners should also re-plan, re-organize and review the
120 COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS existing methodology to integrate the means of those factors that have influence on female students' mathematics achievement. The government and the schools should not merely make mathematics learning compulsory in the schools, they should find ways of enlisting the students interest in the subject, devoid the subject of its dry and fearful outlook by providing textbooks with richer and interesting illustrations with diagrams that are familiar to the students. Mathematics learning should not be confined to the pages of books alone. Films, slides, field trips, project meaningfully given out and use of computers in teaching it could make a big difference in changing female students' attitude towards mathematics for the better.
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UNESCO/UNICEF (1993): The Education of Girls: The Ouagadongou Declaration and Framework for Action. Pan-African Conference on the Education of Girls, Burkina Faso.
WAEC, Research Section (2001): Report in May/SSCE, Oct/Nov GCE 1993-2001 to the WAEC Monthly Seminar.
Walkerdine, V. (1988): The Mastery of Reasons: Cognitive Development and the Production of Rationality (London, Routhedge).
Weems, K. (2000): www.math.buffalo.edu.
West African Examinations Council (2000). Chief Examiners Report on S.S.C.E Mathematics.
Yoloye, T. W. (1994): Attitude of Some Female Nigerian Secondary School Students Towards Science and Technology. Journal of Studies of Education. 1(1), 73-79.
126 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA
LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA
Bolapade S. Ige
Abstract This study was carried out to compare the performance in selected school subjects (Mathematics, Elementary Science and Social Studies) of pupils who use English as the language of instruction and those that use both English and Yoruba as the languages of instruction. The study adopted an ex-post facto design. A total number of 360 pupils selected from six Primary Schools – Three Private, where English is the language of instruction and Three Public, where English along with Yoruba are the languages of instruction – from Abeokuta metropolis constituted the subjects of the study. Five hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The instrument used for data collection included a self-constructed questionnaire and achievement tests in Social Studies, Elementary Science and Mathematics which were validated. Data collected were analysed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to compare the performance of pupils. Scheffe Post-hoc analysis was used to determine the sources of significant differences found. The research findings show that generally students from the English Medium Schools performed significantly better than their counterparts from the Mixed Media Schools in the English Medium tests in Mathematics, Elementary Science and Social Studies. There was no significant difference, however, between pupils of the two types of schools in the Yoruba-Medium tests in the same school subjects. Also, the pupils from the English-speaking homes performed best in the English-Medium tests while those students from the Yoruba-speaking homes performed worst. The results identified the trends that are fast developing in language education at the primary school level, and the general performances of the learners in selected primary school subjects. It shows that performances are determined by students' mastery of the language used. The implication of this for learning is that, it will enable the teacher to know that the language in which a particular pupil is taught will determine the performance of the pupil. As such efforts should be focused on making pupils coordinate bilinguals. It helps the curriculum planners to be aware of what operates at present in the
127 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA country as regards the implementation of the Language Policy in Education. This points to the fact that the Language Policy in Education needs to be reviewed to reflect what is practicable in the school system in the present day Nigeria. Since language development both in the mother-tongue and in English have implications for living within the Nigerian society, Government should as a matter of urgency tackle the problems facing the education sector of the country, especially the mixed-media primary schools in a way to make language play its role in the learning process.
Background to the Study Language plays a vital role in Education. It constitutes a subject like other components of any formal education programme. It is also the medium of instruction generally, which means that in any learning process, language is involved. The situation becomes complex when the learning is done in two or more languages as found in the Nigerian Classroom (Fafunwa, 1978). Various Scholars such as Bamgbose (1976), Awoniyi (1976, 1978) and Fafunwa (1978) have highlighted the reports of various meetings, commissions and projects stating that the education of a child should begin with the mother- tongue. Prominent among these are: The Phelpstokes Commission Report of 1922; the UNESCO meeting of Specialists in 1951: the UNESCO conference on “The Use in Education of African Languages in Relation to English”; the meeting of the UNESCO Advisory Group of Consultants on “The Role of Linguistics and Sociolinguistics in Language Education and Policy” in 1972, the Nigerian National Curriculum Conference which was held in 1969, and the Six-Year Project at the University of Ife, among others. After independence in Nigeria, the concern of the language planner is focused on the need for sociocultural integration and authenticity. Nigeria is therefore interested in conducting her affairs in the most efficient way possible. She tends to look outward to a language of wider communication which is already associated with high technology and higher education (Bamgbose,
128 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA
1979). The nation is also interested in the preservation of its cultural heritage and the bridging of the gap between the elite and the masses, and this naturally makes her to look inward to one or more indigenous languages (Bamgbose, 1978). As a result of this need, many scholars advocated the formulation of a precise national policy on language education for the country. Some of these scholars are Afolayan (1969), Onwubu (1976) and Adekunle (1976). These scholars argued that Nigerian Languages should be used along with English as media of instruction. They also backed up their argument with the advantages that can be derived from bilingual or multilingual education. Consequently, in 1977 the educational policy that emerged yielded to the scholars' agitations and recognized the place of the indigenous languages in education. The language component of the educational policy consisted of the following points as summarised by Dada (1985). 1. The federal government considers it to be in the interest of national unity that each child should be encouraged to learn one of the three major languages other than his own mother tongues (the major languages in Nigeria being identified are, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba). 2. The medium of instruction at the Pre-primary level will be principally the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community. This would oblige the government to: (i) develop the orthography of many Nigerian languages. (ii) produce textbooks and other materials in Nigerian languages. 3. The government will see to it that the medium of instruction in the primary school is initially the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community and at a later stage, English. 4. A promise by the government to supply specialist teachers via the
129 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA
teacher training colleges. 5. At the secondary level, English fully becomes the language of instruction while Nigerian languages are taught as subjects. 6. Foreign languages like French may be taught later at the secondary level. From the type of policy stipulated above and the actual language situation in the nation's educational system, the type of bilingual educational system that is practised is the transitional bilingual educational system. This is a situation where the mother tongue is used in the early years solely to allow the pupils to adjust to the school system and to master subject-matter until their English is developed enough to be used for instruction (Adeyanju, 1982). So, in Nigeria, a Nigerian language of wider communication is used as a medium of instruction for the first two, three or even four years of schooling and a transition to English is then effected. Therefore, with this practice, it was hoped that learning would become easier for the child by instilling confidence in him and helping him to think clearly in his own language and also to equip him with enough English competence for the years after, when all education is imparted through the medium of English. This policy, according to Fafunwa (1978), also makes it possible for students to achieve communicative competence in the English Language. This will enable them to interact with children of other Nigerian ethnic groups and to enable them function as citizens of the same multilingual community. It also prepares them for the use of English as a medium of instruction. However, it has been observed that in the two categories of Primary Schools that exist in Nigeria – Private and Public Schools – this policy is being operated at two extremes. In the private schools, the mother tongue is not being used at all for teaching, either at the pre-primary or the first three years of
130 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA primary education, it is only taken as a school subject in some. The policy is “straight for English”. In the public schools, on the other hand, the mother tongue is being used at the initial part of primary education, and during the last three years of the primary school when English is expected to be used, it is used along side the mother tongue (Dada 1994, Adeyanju 1980, among others). Bamgbose (1976) also observed this and, according to him, this inconsistency may result in difficulties in implementing the stated policy. The study of Language in Education Practices and the Pupils Performance in selected Primary School subjects, therefore, will help in making the policy makers to be aware of the trends that are developing in practice at the Primary School level and how it affects the academic performance of the learners in the present-day Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem A common trend has been observed to manifest itself in the area of implementation of the Language Policy in Education at the Primary School level. The Language Policy in Education Section 3 (15) states that the language of the immediate environment shall be used as the medium of instruction at the Pre- Primary level and at the initial level of Primary Education. English shall be used at the later part of Primary Education as the medium of instruction. It has been observed that this particular policy is not being followed as it has actually been stated. In the Public Primary Schools, the mother-tongue is used at the initial stage of Primary Education. At the stage where there is expected to be a switch to English, English is used alongside the mother-tongue. On the other hand, in the Private Primary Schools, the mother-tongue is not being used at all, either at the Pre-Primary or at the initial part of Primary Education. The practice is “straight for English”.
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This has, however, created a problem as all examinations for these pupils are conducted in English, not minding whether they were taught in English or not. There is therefore the need to investigate the effect of these practices on the performance of learners in both the English-Medium and the Mixed-Media schools in some selected Primary School subjects, in both Yoruba-Medium tests and English-Medium tests. This is the problem which this study has addressed.
Scope of the Study The sample for the study was randomly selected from primary schools in Abeokuta. Six primary schools were used in all with three from English-Medium schools and three from Mixed-Media schools. The study was limited to primary five students in Abeokuta, Ogun State. Although the schools and classes used for the study were randomly selected, the subjects were not selected randomly. Intact classes were used as the school authorities would not tolerate the distruption of classes for the purpose of the study. The whole research lasted six weeks. The English Test was administered first and after two weeks the Yoruba version of the test was administered.
Conclusion This work examined the Language in Education Practices and the Pupils' Performance in Selected Primary School Subjects. It was found that the language policy in education is not being followed at the primary school level as much as it should and that has created some problems. A more practicable language policy that would address the problems and enhance children's learning outcome is therefore needed. A policy that would allow pupils in public primary schools, where Yoruba Language is the major means of communication to be examined in
132 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA
Yoruba instead of English is being proposed. At the moment, pupils at that level are being examined in English irrespective of the language that has been used in giving instruction for the greater part of the primary school programme. This has been shown not to be in their best interest. English should be taken as a subject and be made compulsory for pupils in Public Primary Schools. Similarly, those who are in private schools where English is the major means of communication should continue to be assessed in English and mother-tongue should be taught as a compulsory subject. This, it is hoped, would make the pupils coordinate bilinguals. The new policy envisaged here would be more practicable in the country.
The Implications of the Study for Teaching and Learning This study confirms that performance is determined by competence in the language of instruction. The implication of this for learning is that, the study will help the teacher to know that, the language in which a particular pupil is taught will determine the performance of the pupil. Also, pupils taught in English would perform better when examined in English, while pupils taught mainly in the mother-tongue would perform better when examined in the mother-tongue. Teachers should endeavour to follow what the language policy in education says, as their inability to carryout what the Policy says is bound to have an adverse effect on the performance of their students. It should not be assumed that pupils would not understand the language and as such continue to interpret to them in the mother-tongue. The teacher needs also to be aware of the fact that even students that make use of English in their day-to-day activities more than their mother-tongue still performed well in the Yoruba-medium tests. This, however, points to the fact that since the child is in his or her own environment where the mother-tongue is spoken, there is every possibility that
133 LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION PRACTICES AND PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN ABEOKUTA the child would be proficient and still understand the language. This points to the fact that efforts should be geared towards making the child to understand English since other parts of the academic career is built on the language. Furthermore, teachers must be aware of the fact that in the present day Nigeria, English performs a multiplicity of functions and as such efforts should be made to make sure that the students understand the language very well. This can only be achieved through constant use of the language in school. Students that are taught through the Mixed-Media are still subjected to the same external examinations, set in English-Medium, with those who are taught “straight in English”. Efforts should therefore be made to ensure that these sets of students are stable with the language used. The two languages should not be mixed together. Curriculum planners would have to be aware of what operates at present in the country as regards the implementation of the Language Policy in Education. This points to the fact that the Language Policy in Education needs to be reviewed to reflect what is practicable in the school system in the present day Nigeria.
Recommendations From the outcome of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Since language development both in the mother-tongue and in English have implications for living within the Nigerian Society, Government should as a matter of urgency tackle the problems facing the education sector of the country, especially the mixed-media primary schools, in a way to make language play its role in the learning process. 2. In order to raise the level of English learning of the Nigerian child, especially in the mixed-media school, the change over system in the NPE should be aggressively implemented. Teachers should not assume that
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students will not understand what is being taught except it is interpreted into the mother-tongue. 3. English still plays a significant role in the country, as it is the official language. Also, for the country to be technologically advanced, English has a role to play. Government should therefore encourage learners as well as teachers to develop and sustain interest in the language. 4. Textbook writers should promote positive attitudes towards producing adequate textbooks in the mother-tongue in the area of sciences, if the mother-tongue medium in education is to be implemented effectively. 5. Government should set a machinery in motion to review the existing language policy in education to reflect the findings of this study. 6. The use of both Yoruba and English tests at the primary school in all subjects should be experimented to find out whether it will help to improve students' performance. This will help to identify how best to conduct tests in primary schools.
References Adekunle, M. A. (1976). “National Language Policy and Planning: The Nigerian Situation” West African Journal of Modern Languages (WAJML) Vol. 1, No. 1 P. 20-22.
Adetugbo, A. (1978). “The Development of English in Nigeria up to 1914: A Socio- Historical Appraisal”. Linguistic Department Monograph Series, University of Lagos, Lagos. No. LN 172.
Adetugbo, A. (1987). 'Nigerian English Phonology: Is there any standard?' Lagos Review of English Studies: A Journal of Language and Literary Studies Vol. IX.
Afolayan, A. (1984). “The English Language and Development-oriented Education in Nigeria” in Freeman and Jibril (Eds.) English Language Studies in Nigerian Higher Education London: The British Council.
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Afolayan, A. (1985). “Towards Making the English Language an Effective Agent of National Development in Nigeria”: A Keynote Address Delivered at the 1985 NESA Annual Conference at the University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Awoniyi, T. A. (1974). “Teachers Perception of the Contemporary Objectives of Yoruba Language Teaching in Primary Schools of the Western State of Nigeria” African Journal of Educational Research Vol. 2, Pp. 245-252.
Awoniyi, T. A. (1976). “The Mother Tongue Education in West Africa: A Historical Background” in Bamgbose, A. (Ed.) Mother Tongue Education UNESCO. Pp. 25-42.
Awoniyi, T. A. (1978). “The Mother Tongue in Education” Yoruba Language in Education. Ibadan: O.U.P. Pp. 15-26.
Ayodele, S. O. (1988). “The Problem of A Language for Educating Nigerian Learners” A Faculty Lecture delivered at the Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Bamgbose, A. (1976). “The changing role of the Mother Tongue in Education” i n Bamgbose, A. (Ed.) Mother Tongue Education. UNESCO, Pp. 9-26.
Bamgbose, A. (1977). “Towards an implementation of Nigeria's Language Policy In Education” in Language in Education in Nigeria Proceedings of the Language Symposium of November, Vol. I.
Bamgbose, A. (1979). “African Language Education: A Sociolinguistic Perspective” African Languages Vol. 5, No. 2.
Dada, A. (1985). “The New Language Policy in Nigeria: Its Problems and Its Chances of Success” in N. Wolfson and J. Manes (Eds.) The Language of Inequality. New York: Mouton Publishers, Pp. 187-193.
Dada, I. A. (1994). “A Linguistic 'No Man's Land' in Nigerian Education”. A Faculty Lecture delivered at the Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Fafunwa, B. (1975). “Education in the Mother Tongue: A Nigerian Experiment –The Six-Year (Yoruba-Medium) Primary Education Project at the University of Ife, Nigeria” West African Journal of Education Vol. 19, No. 2, Pp. 213-227.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education, Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information. Pp. 10-13.
136 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Oyetunji S. Folajin
Abstract Participative management occupies a prominent position in facilitating teacher job satisfaction in secondary schools. Hence, this study was designed to investigate the extent of relationship that exists between participative management and teacher job satisfaction in Oyo State secondary schools. The study also set out to examine: i. the difference between teachers' current and desired level of participation; ii. principals' and teachers' perception of teachers' participation in school administration; iii. teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction. The descriptive and correlational research designs were employed to examine the extent of relationship among the variables of the study. Two sets of research instruments were developed and validated to carry out this investigation, namely: Teacher Participative Management Questionnaire (TPMQ) and Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ). A sample of 380 teachers and 38 principals drawn from 38 secondary schools in Oyo State participated in the study. The major problems of the study were examined by using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation, One-way Analysis of Variance and the T-Test statistics for the analyses of data. The result indicated that: i. there was no significant difference between teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management; ii. there was no significant difference between principals' and teachers' perception of teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management; iii. there was a positive relationship between principals' and teachers' perception of teachers' current level of participation in school administration; iv. there was a significant difference between teachers' sex, age, experience, qualification and their level of participation in school administration; v. there was a positive relationship between teachers' level of participation
137 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
and job satisfaction; vi. there was a positive relationship between teachers' sex, experience, qualification, age, their level of participation and job satisfaction. The findings of this study suggest that one of the potent means of enhancing teachers' job satisfaction might be through involvement in the management processes of the school system. The policy implications of the findings include the following: i. teachers desire more participation in curriculum related areas and physical plant planning; ii. the Ministry of Education should organize constant conferences, and courses for principals to understand the vital role of participative management in schools.
Introduction The National Policy on Education was launched by the Federal Government in 1979. With the launching of the 6-3-3-4 system of education as contained in the New National Policy on Education, the structure of educational ladder becomes modified and enriched with greater emphasis on manipulative, scientific and technological education replacing the traditional education that had dominated our system since the colonial era in Nigeria. Obviously, education in Nigeria is now witnessing various changes in terms of educational philosophy, structure, financing and exponential enrolment. With the State Government emphasis on education for its populace and the resultant exponential enrolment especially at the secondary school level and the attendant crowded classrooms, inadequate educational facilities, lateness in payment of salaries, inappropriate textbooks, poor discipline, inadequacy of teachers both in quantity and quality, apathy on the parts of parents, moral decadence by the pupils, unmanageable teacher/pupil ratio, authoritarian style of principals, etc. these and others generated an unprecedented increase in the demand of teachers for participative management especially at the secondary school level. This was based on the argument that the myriad of problems facing
138 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS the schools especially at the secondary school level in Oyo State are better understood by the teachers and solutions to the problems are better proffered by them. However, this is only possible if they are allowed participation in the management processes of the school system. It is plausible to stress that: “The efficiency with which any educational organization can be operated depends to a large extent on the effectiveness of the teachers on their job both individually and collectively” (Ogunsanya, 1981).
Statement of Problem The school system has some common characteristics with a bureaucratic organization. Such characteristics include stipulated rules and regulations, emphasis on documents and documentation, division of labour based on documents and documentation, division of labour based on functional specialization, hierarchy of authority, employment of staff on technical knowledge and impersonality in official matters. Like in some other organizations, the constraints of participative management also affect the school system. For example, some secondary school principals assume exclusive power to the major management processes of the school thus denying teachers' access to participative management. Essentially, three levels of participative management are noticeable, and these include: i. participative saturation (participative level more than desired); ii. participative equilibrium (participative level equal to desired); and iii. participative deprivation (participative level less than desired). The focus of this study therefore is to examine the level of teachers' participation in school management and to further examine if there could be a relationship between participative management and job satisfaction with
139 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS special reference to the school system in Oyo State. It is crystal clear that many factors contribute to workers' job satisfaction in the organization, but this study will examine if participative management occupies any prominent position in job satisfaction of Oyo State secondary school teachers. Precisely, this study will address itself to the following problems with a view to finding pertinent answers: i. To what extent is participative management practiced in educational administration particularly in Oyo State? ii. Can teachers' involvement be considered adequate? iii. Would sex, experience, age and qualification be determining factors of participative management? iv. Do teachers really want to be involved in the management of their schools? v. Are principals really willing to get the teachers to be more involved in school administration? vi. Are teachers and principals alike in their perception of participative management? vii. Can the teachers' level of involvement influence their job satisfaction? It is therefore the primary task of this study to establish a relationship between participative management and teachers' job satisfaction.
Literature Review The development of participative management started with an awareness of industrial democracy. This feeling was prompted by the progressive movement that came to a flood tide in the years 1910-1916 (Hassion, et al. 1969). There was an assumption that industrial democracy will result in improved industrial productivity. Participation increase general satisfaction or morale (Morse and Reimer, 1956) improve group cohesion and commitment toward issues on which people
140 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS are allowed to participate (Coch and French, 1948) provide more accurate information about such issues and increase productivity. Several studies reviewed seem to favour increasing participative management, teachers advocated collegial decision making group at both technical and managerial levels and to have more say in the decision-making process (Speed, 1979). Morakinyo's (1979) studies on decisional participation and teachers' job satisfaction points that 'what is being witnessed today is the desire of teachers for increased participation in organizational decision-making'. It will be pertinent to ask, why the painstaking studies on participative management? Comings and Molloy (1977) reviewed the findings of seven different rigorously designed experiments into participative management, the studies involved a variety of work activities such as laundry, garment making, foot wear assembly, clerical work and maintenance. Almost all the experiments except some few cases established high correlation between participation and productivity and employees' satisfaction. It was asserted that management willingness to allow employees to participate in important work decisions lets them know that they are considered competent and valued partners in the organization. This satisfies their needs for recognition, independence and appreciation by others.
Research Hypotheses This study focuses on investigating the relationship between participative management and teachers' job satisfaction. In consonance with the problem of the study and the theoretical framework that has been established for this study, the following hypotheses have been stated:
H1: There will be a significant difference between teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management.
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H2: There will be a significant difference between teachers' and principals' perception and teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management.
H3: There will be a significant positive relationship between teachers' sex and principals' perception of their current level of participation in school administration.
H4: There will be a significant difference between teachers' desired level of participation and principals' perception of their desired level of participation in school administration.
H5: There will be a significant positive relationship between teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction.
Research Design And Procedure The study was examined ex-post-facto simply because the researcher only investigated the relationship between Teacher Participative Management and their Job Satisfaction which attribute or independent variables were already there without necessarily any form of manipulation or control for the purpose of the study. For the purpose of this study, participative management will be treated as the independent variable while teacher's Job Satisfaction is the dependent variable. The researcher identified the various areas of participative management in the secondary school, this formed the basis for the construction of Teacher Participative Management Questionnaire (TPMQ) and Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) respectively.
Research Procedure The following procedural stages were employed by the researcher for the purpose of this study:
142 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS i. selection of the study sample; ii. construction and validation of the research instruments; iii. administration of the research instruments; iv. analysis of data collected. There are 24 Local Government Areas in the state classified into 4 administrative zones. A minimum of 75% of the local government areas from each zone have been randomly selected making a total of 19 local government areas thus representing about 80% of the Local Government Areas in the state.
Construction and Validation of Research Instruments The two instruments used for this study were: i. Teacher Participative Management Questionnaire (TPMQ) ii. Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ)
Face and Content Validity of the Two Instruments The two instruments (TPMQ and TJSQ) were subjected to face and content validity among experts to ensure that the instruments used for the study were suitable and relevant enough to measure what it purports to measure.
Instrument Reliability This study employed the test-retest method to determine the reliability of the two instruments.
Administration of Instruments The TPMQ and TJSQ were personally administered on randomly selected 380 teachers and 38 principals of the 38 secondary schools drawn through random sampling technique from 19 local government areas of Oyo State. Testing of the Research Hypotheses
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Different statistical techniques were used in order to test the research hypotheses. All the tests of significance were performed at the probability level of P < 0.05. i. The analysis of variance was used to test hypotheses 1, 2 and 4. ii. T-test was used to test hypotheses 5 and 6. iii. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r) was used to test hypotheses 3 and 7.
Data Analysis And Results The results of this study are presented essentially in four parts as stated below: i. the difference between teachers' current desired level of participation in school management; ii. the difference between teachers' and principals' perception in school management; iii. the difference between teachers' level of participation in school administration and personal variables of sex, age, experience and qualification; iv. the relationship between teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction.
Table 1 above depicts that there is no significant difference between teachers' current level of participation and their desired level of participation in school management. An F-Ratio of 1.133 for 37 and 342 degrees of freedom is not significant at 0.05 alpha level. Therefore, the hypothesis that there will be a significant difference between teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management is rejected.
144 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Table 1: Difference between Teachers’ Current Desired Level of Participation
Sources of Variation Df SS MS F Between Groups 37 6088.35 164.55 1.133 Within Groups 342 49631.04 145.12 NS at 0.05 alpha level
Table 2: Difference between Teachers’ Current and Desired Level of
Participation
Sources of Variation Df SS MS F Between Groups 37 6088.35 164.55 1.283 Within Groups 342 43861.50 128.25 NS at 0.05 alpha level
The result presented in table 2 indicates an F-Ratio of 1.283 for 37 and 342 at 0.05 alpha level. This indicates that there is no significant difference between teachers' perception of current and desired level of participation and principals' perception of their current and desired participation in school management. Therefore, the hypothesis that there will be a significant difference between teachers' and principals' perception of teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management is rejected.
Table 3: The Relationship between Principals’ and Teachers’ Perception of Teachers’ Current Level of Participation in School Administration
Principals’ Perception Teachers’ N Df r Perception 380 378 .781* * Significant at P < 0.05
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The result of the study as indicated in table 3 connotes that there is a positive relationship between teachers' perception of current level of participation and principals' perception of their current participation in school administration (r = .781 df 378). The relationship is statistically significant at 0.05 alpha level. The hypothesis that there will be a significant positive relationship between teachers' current level of participation and principals' perception of their current participation in school administration, is therefore accepted.
Table 4: Difference between Principals’ and Teachers’ Perception of Teachers’ Desired Level of Participation in School Administration
Sources of Variation Df SS MS F Between Groups 37 6009.91 162.43 1.082 Within Groups 342 51354.72 150.16 NS at 0.05 alpha level
The result of the study as revealed in Table 4 above shows that there is no significant difference between principals' and teachers' perception of teachers' desired level of participation in school administration. The F-Ratio of 1.082 for 37 and 342 degrees of freedom is not significant at 0.05 alpha level and therefore the hypothesis that there will be a significant difference between teachers' desired level of participation and principals' perception of their desired level of participation in school administration is rejected.
Table 5: Teachers’ Level of Participation and Job Satisfaction
Teachers’ Level of Participation and N Df r Job Satisfaction 380 378 .88* * Significant at P < 0.05
146 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The result of the study as shown in table 5 indicates that there is a high positive relationship between teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction. The correlation coefficient (r = .88 Df 378) forms the basis for accepting the hypothesis. Therefore, the hypothesis (H5) that there will be a significant positive relationship between teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction is accepted.
Summary of Findings and Conclusion These are the summary of the major findings and conclusion that have been drawn from this study. i. There is no significant difference between teachers' current participation and their desired level of participation in school management. In essence, the teachers' current level of participation in the management processes of the school system is adequate. ii. There is a significant difference between teachers' age, qualification, sex, experience and their current and desired participation in school management. The implication is that male teachers are more involved than the female teachers, the graduate teachers enjoy more participation than the non-graduates, the older teachers (31 years and above) are more involved than the younger teachers (below 30 years) and the experienced teachers (6 years and above) have more input into the management processes of the school system than the relatively low experienced (0-5 years) teachers. iii. There is no significant difference between teachers' and principals' perception of teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management. This suggests that there is no variance between teachers' and principals' perception of current and desired participation of teachers.
147 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Both the teachers and the principals perceived teachers' involvement adequate. iv. There is a significant difference between teachers' sex, age, experience and principals' perception of their current and desired level of participation in school administration. This depicts that the principals perceived the male teachers' current and desired participation higher than the female teachers, while the older teachers (31 years and above) are perceived higher in current and desired participation than the relatively younger teachers (below 30 years), the experienced teachers (6 years and above) are perceived higher in current and desired participation than the relatively low experienced (0-5 years) teachers. v. There is a high positive relationship between teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction. This implies that teachers who participate adequately in school administration are job satisfied than those teachers deprived of participation.
Discussion of Findings This chapter presents a discussion of the major findings of this study in the following order: i. The Difference between Teachers' Current and Desired Level of Participation in School Management Based on the study, the first major finding indicates that there is no significant difference between teachers' current and desired level of participation in school management in Oyo State secondary schools. This result does not support the major hypothesis and the proposition of theoretical framework that significant difference was envisaged between teachers' current participation and their desired level of participation in school management.
148 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The data analysis shows teachers intention to participate in most of the administrative areas rather than involvement in only the affairs affecting the classroom. ii. The Difference between Teachers' and Principals' Perception of Teachers' Current and Desired Level of Participation in School Management The second major finding of this study shows that there is no significant difference between teachers' current and desired participation and principals' perception of their current and desired level of participation. This finding did not support the proposition envisaged by the theoretical framework where a significant difference was envisaged by the model. The result did not also support the study hypothesis. The teachers' current inputs into the school administration are congruous with the principals' perception of their current and desired participative level. The corollary implication therefore is that teachers perceive their participative level adequate relative to their preferred level. The plausible reason behind the similarity in perception could be that principals are fully aware of the immense role of participation in effective school administration. iii. The Difference between Teachers' Level of Participation in School Administration and Personnel Variables of Experience, Age, Qualification and Sex Third, it was discovered that there is a significant difference between teachers' experience, age, qualification and sex and their level of participation in school administration. This corroborates the major hypothesis. The significant difference found between teachers' experience and their level of participation tend to give one the impression that the relatively
149 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
experienced teachers of 6 years and above are more involved in school administration than the teachers whose teaching experience are between 0 and 5 years. iv. The Relationship between Teachers' Level of Participation and Job Satisfaction. Another major finding of this study is the high positive relationship found between teachers' level of participation and job satisfaction. The result suggests that teachers who perceived their participation high seem more job satisfied than those deprived of participation.
Recommendations The research has been able to discern between teachers' current and desired level of participation. Though, the teachers perceived their inputs into the management processes of the school as being commensurate with their desired participative level, yet, the fact stands clear that the school administrator should always view the school system as a formal organization comprising of variations in background, orientation, interests, values, ability and aptitude. It therefore becomes important that the school administrator should take cognizance of the varying degrees of teachers' interest, ability and aptitude when involving them in the management processes of the school system.
References Coch, L and French, J. Jr. “Overcoming Resistance to Change”, Human Relations, 1948, 1:512-533. Cummings, G.T. and Molley, S.E. Improving Productivity and the Quality of Work Life, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1977, Part III.
150 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION IN OYO STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Hassion, C.H. and Sandy, N., Ascent of Affluence, A History of American Development, Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc. 1969. Lauck, W.J. Political and Industrial Democracy 1776-1926, New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1926. Morakinyo, O.O. “Decisional Participation and Teacher Satisfaction”, Unpublished M.Ed., Project, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, 1979. Morse, N.C. and Reiner, E. “The Experimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable”, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1956, 52, pp. 120 129. Speed, N.E. “Decision Participation and Staff Satisfaction in Middle and Junior High Schools that Individualized Instruction”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1979.
151 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE
INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE
Emeka Godslove Okeh
Abstract
The study explored the information needs of rural dwellers and the activities of change agent in providing relevant information for rural dwellers in the rural communities located in Obingwa area (now Obi-Ngawa, Osissoma and Ugwunagbo Local Government areas of Abia State). The survey research method was use to administer questionnaire on randomly selected three hundred and ninety-two change agents and three hundred and ten rural dwellers in Obingwa area. Two sets of questionnaires were used. The first was designed for change agents while the second set was used for rural dwellers. Percentages were used to represent the characteristics of respondents in the study. The data was processed through the computer using statistical package for the Social Sciences a(SPSS) T-test one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Chi square and person's product moment correlation four hypothesis were formulated and tested. Three of the hypothesis, HO1, Ho2 and HO3 were rejected at 0.05 level of significance. While HO1 was to establish significant difference in the use of information sources and dependence on change agent by rural dwellers for meeting information need, HO2 was to determine significant relationship between accessibility, usefulness and utilization of information sources in meeting the information needs of rural dwellers by change agent HO3 compares the ratings of change agents on requisite attributes for effective information provision at grassroots. The fourth hypothesis (HO4) which compared the ratings of dwellers on requisite attribute of change agents for effective information provision was rejected. Among the highlight of the findings is that rural dwellers express greater need for farm news, family welfare news, diseases prevention/cure. Secondly the degree of information need is linked with gender, educational level, sources of available and level of awareness of the value of information. Dependence on change agent and use of various information channels by rural dwellers depend on their age and level of education. Change agents use interpersonal channels of communication which are found to be more useful and
152 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE accessible in identifying and satisfying the information needs of rural dwellers. Requisite attributes for effective information provision at grassroots by change agents were also identified. These include expert knowledge of local language, on-the-job experience, continuous training and skill in community organization. However, none of the change agents acquired any academic/professional qualification in information provision and communication at the rural level. Based on these findings, it was recommended that change agents should be properly trained in the effective provision and dissemination of the information component of their individual agencies. Public Library System in Abia State and other states of Nigeria should be restructured to cater adequately for the silent majority on our rural areas. Courses on community based information service have been recommended also for Library and Information Science Schools in Nigeria to prepare information workers and Change Agent for this special role in the rural Communities. Finally, the study has also recommended that a national policy on Community based information service should be formulated to form part of National Information Policy.
Introduction Information is a basic resource for the development of both rural and urban communities. Access to information is therefore a basic necessity. In a modern society where democracy thrives, it is necessary for the citizenry to fully participate in the decision making process. For a meaningful participation it is not only essential that all citizens have access to information on all matter affecting their lives and well being, but also to do so timely. For good citizenship, every member of the society, for example require information on the fundamental human right, civic duties and the obligation of the government to the people. Information is also needed to solve day to day problems such as finding consumer goods, locating appropriate medical facilities for family health, investment opportunities, government policies and programmes, cooperatives and so on.
However, ability to obtain and use relevant information is affected by many
153 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE factors such as place of abode, mobility, level of literacy, previous experience and awareness of the available of information resources and services within the immediate environment. Aboyade (1987) identified that an important strategy for rural development is the mobilization of the masses to encourage the active participation of every individual and groups in various programmes. To get the masses to actively participate in development programmes information must reach them at all levels on the desired goals and objectives for social transformation. People also need to be adequately informed on what is required of them for rapid socio-economic development. Adequate information will not make for a better understanding and appreciation of the relevant of new programmes to their everyday living conditions but will also encourage a closer link between the initiator and beneficiaries of development programmes. It will also ensure that the programmes are sustained after they have been implemented. In other words, there is a symbiotic relationship between the society and information. Individual and group in society need to utilize appropriate information for their daily activities. These activities in turn result in the generation of further necessary information for societal development. One can thus safely say that community development can best be guaranteed by bringing people and information together. To effectively carry out this function in the rural communities the activities of the information provision agencies need to be brought under a search light with a view to streamlining them for accelerated community development. It has been observed that standard community information centres or libraries are not common in Nigeria's rural communities. The centres, where they exist should serve as an information clearing house, a broker among the Change Agents. The centres should link the rural dwellers with the appropriate agencies, interest, information, question and answer. In other word, the activities of the community information centre or
154 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE rural library will enhance the work of the change agents as clearing house for other providers rather than as a provider itself. It will further serve as a growing response to the many community information needs which a rural library cannot hope to single handedly provide. Furthermore, Librarians see information as the pivot around which development revolves and the library its vehicle. However, in providing library and information services to rural population in a few states privileged to have a network of public library system the Librarian usually operates from his privileged position in urban centres with very little input by the intended beneficiaries. The assumption has been that the rural populace need libraries to fight illiteracy among other things. Consequently, public libraries proceed to extend services to them using models employed in more advanced countries. Such models include branch libraries, rural libraries and mobile libraries. Thus when we talk of “rural libraries” we in effect are talking of branch libraries replicating the provision and services that have been designed to suit the urban dwellers. This is the concept of the library institution bequeathed to Nigeria by the colonial masters – a concept deeply rooted in western culture. This is perhaps where the level of relevance contemporary library and information services to the Nigeria rural communities at present need to assessed for improved information services studies such as Aboyade (1987) and Mchombu (1992) have shown that an aspect of information that has not received adequate attention is that of making information available and accessible for the rural dwellers who bear the brunt of rural transformation. There have also been several studies in Nigeria to determine the information needs of rural dwellers, public library users, their information seeking behavior and channels of communication. Such studies include Williams (1969) Admorah (1983) Labi (1985) Afolabi (1986) Aboyade (1987) Opara (1988) Diso (1990) and Camble (1992). These studies have shown further, that the rural dwellers have large
155 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE information needs that have not been met by present information transfer system in the rural communities. A fundamental problem that has been neglected also in the examination of the information provision activities of the Change Agents who work directly with the rural dwellers and on whom much depends for the success or failure of rural development programmes. Indeed the provision of information to rural communities in Nigeria like other sub- regions of African is a responsibility among several government ministries and parastatals and non-governmental agencies. Apart from the library which is yet to make significant impact on the rural dwellers many agencies supply information to rural communities from time to time. However, the information supplied by these Change Agents is not regular and not coordinated. This is certainly the case with Change Agents representing Agricultural Extension Units, Primary Healthcare Units, Rural Development, National Orientation and National Mass Literacy Agencies. Inspite of the efforts of these agencies to supply information to rural communities, there is the feeling that the amount of usable information for rural dwellers appears to be dismally low. Consequently and in the words of Mchombu (1992)
the impact of such efforts in creating conditions which foster rapid and sustainable development appears negligible.
information and being drawn into both personal and community development processes.
Statement of the Problem Research has identified the phenomena of rural information poverty and attributed it to factors such as: the irrelevance of information materials
156 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE provided. (Mchombu, 1982; Ochongwu, 1997). Other studies have also shown that rural dwellers in developing countries rely greatly on the change agents who visit them at regular interval and on traditional social channels for the provision of their information needs. In spite of efforts to communicate development information to rural dwellers by various categories of change agents. Aboyade (1984) has argued that something is missing, in this process of information transfer which makes such efforts not as fruitful as they should be. According to Ochongwu (1997) a large percentage of the information resources supplied to the rural dwellers where such services exist at all, are irrelevant and therefore may not meet their information needs. Unfortunately, the Change Agents is known to be largely untrained in the act of information management and dissemination. Without requisite education and training in information work, the Change Agents relied upon for providing and meeting the information needs of the rural dwellers can hardly make the desired impact on the people's personal lives, their good intention notwithstanding. They can for instance be providing the right information for the wrong target audience, the needed information in the wrong packages or medium or even at the wrong time. No doubt much of the information provided by Change Agents are largely underutilized because they either lack relevance or are provided in the wrong format or medium by people who are neither trained nor have the necessary attributes for understanding the characteristics and information needs of the rural communities.
Objectives of the study The broad objectives of the research is to study the activities of Change Agents in the process of proving information for rural dwellers in Obioma-Ngawa area; attributes that influence effective information provision and the extent to
157 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE which rural dwellers utilize the information provided.
The specific objectives of the study are: 1. To determine the information needs of the rural dwellers of Obingwa area.
2. To establish the demographic variables that influence the information needs of the rural dwellers.
3. To ascertain the extent to which rural dwellers depend on the change agents and other information sources in meeting their information needs
4. To establish the extent to which the Change Agents use the available information channels to determine the information needs of the rural dwellers.
5. To ascertain the relationship between accessibility, usefulness and utilization of the information sources
6. To identified requisite attributes and characteristics of change Agent, for effective information provision at the grassroots and
7. To make recommendations based on the opinion of rural dwellers on how information provision in the communities can be improved.
Research Questions 1. What are the information needs of murals dwellers in Obi-Ngwa area?
158 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE
2. Which demographic variables influence the information needs of the rural dwellers?
3. What are the available information sources for meeting the information needs of the rural dwellers?
4. To what extent do the rural dwellers depend on the Change Agents and use other information channels in meeting their information needs?
5. To what extent do the Change Agents depend on the various information sources to determine and satisfy the information needs of the rural dwellers?
6. What factors influence utilization of information sources by both Change Agents and rural dwellers?
7. What attributes and characteristics do the Change Agents require most for effective information provision at the grassroots?
8. What are the opinions of the rural dwellers on information provided by change agents and on how to improve the provision of information services in the rural communities?
Literature review The literature review demanded a wide coverage because of the interdisciplinary nature of the study. The literature search covered three key areas relevant to the study. These are: Library and Information Studies, Rural
159 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE
Development and Extension work. As the review developed references are made to exact topics, general, specific, foreign, local up-to-date and current material. The following subheadings were given to the review to discourage deviation. The concept of Rurality, Information needs, the Concept of Change Agents; Attributes of Change Agents; Strategies for Information Provision and Problems of Information flow in Rural Community.
Research Methodology The survey research design was found appropriate and used for this study. The selection of the area of the study was encouraged more by language factors and considering some of the problems the research assistance would encounter during data collection.
Obi-Ngwa, the area of the study is one of the oldest local government areas in Abia State, Nigeria. At present it consists of three local governments which are: Obi-oma Ngwa; Osisioma and Ugwunagbo local government areas. It occupies a total land area of 790 square kilometer along Enugu-Portharcourt expressway. Obioma-Ngwa is inhabited by 162,439 males and 162,967 females thus giving a total of 325,406 inhabitants according to National Population Commission (1991) census provisional figures.
Obioma-ngwa has 21 autonomous communities. Each autonomous community is made up of several villages and is headed by a traditional ruler called 'Eze'. A multi-stage sampling was adopted in three stages for the purpose of data collection. A sampling frame comprising the 21 autonomous communities in Obioma-Ngwa Local Government area was obtained at the beginning of this study. The lists constitute the primary frame from which a
160 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE sample of 10 autonomous communities was selected using simple Random Sampling method. However, it must be mentioned here that the analysis of data collected for this research was already in progress when Obioma-Ngwa was divided into three (3) Local Government Areas by the Federal Military Government of Nigeria. It was therefore not possible to randomly select autonomous communities from what would constitute the sampling frame for each of the three Local Government Areas that makes up the study area. Since the three major sub group in the study namely: Obi-Ngwa, Osisioma and Ugwunagbo Local Government Areas were originally in Obioma-ngwa Local Government Area up to the completion of the field work of this research, a stratified Random Sampling method could not be applied in selecting the 10 autonomous communities. A Comprehensive list of each autonomous community of Obioma-Ngwa Local Government area could not be obtained and with the lack of sampling frame probability sampling became impossible while purposive sample was also inevitable. It was therefore decided that the headquarter of each autonomous community selected would be used for the study. It was assumed that there are 200compunds in each of the ten villages selected as representatives of groups of autonomous community units. Selection of forty (40) rural dwellers in each community was represented as follows:
N = 200 = 5 n 40
Where N= Number of Compounds in each village. n = Maximum number of rural dwellers in each village to be used for study.
The odd number three (3) was randomly selected in each village included the followings, 8th 13th, 18th, 23rd and so on. Four hundred (400) rural dwellers from ten (10) community units were selected in all using a systematic sampling 161 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE method.
The population of change agents in this study included: 1. National Agency for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education Workers 230 2. Health Care Workers 197 3. Agricultural Extension workers 20 4. Rural/Community Development workers 8 5. National Orientation Agency workers 4 6. Information Offices in Information unit 1
A total of four hundred and sixty (460) workers constitute the population of change Agents and all of them served as respondents in the study. However, only the responses of three hundred and ninety-two (392) Change Agents were found valid and used for data analysis.
Two sets of questionnaires were designed to collect data from the rural dwellers and the Change Agents. The scope of the questionnaire covers demographic characteristics, information provision and sources. Other includes utilization of information, attributes of Change Agents and general opinion about effective information at grassroots.
Data Analysis Percentages were used mainly to represent the characteristics of respondents in the study. In order to realize the objectives of the study the data collected using instruments drawn for the purpose were coded and processed with the computer using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
162 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE
We also used tools such as T-test. One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Chi-square and Pearsons Product Moment correlation for further analysis of the data and to test the hypotheses.
Analysis & Findings The major objective of this study was to examine the activities of change Agents in providing relevant information for rural dwellers on Obioma Ngwa Area. In doing so, we sought the information needs of the rural dwellers and established the demographics variables that influence the information needs of the rural dwellers. We also sought to ascertain the extent to which both rural dwellers Change agents use various channels to determine and meet their information needs; to identify requisite attributes for effective information provision at grassroots and to establish the relationship between accessibility usefulness and utilization of information sources.
Conclusion From the analysis of data the research question raised were answered and four of them were formulated into four hypotheses and tested Hypotheses (H0 1, 2, and 3) were rejected while Hypotheses HO4 was not rejected. The study therefore arrived at the following conclusion: 1. Rural dwellers expressed greater need for farms news, family welfare information cooperative society news and disease cure.
2. The degree of need for various types of information among rural dwellers is closely linked with gender, age, level of education and level of awareness of available sources of information.
163 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE
3. Rural dwellers level of dependence on Change Agents and use of various information channels to satisfy their information needs depends on their age and level of education.
4. Change Agents rely more on inter-personal sources which are found to be more useful and accessible for identifying and satisfying the information needs of the rural dwellers.
5. Requisite attributes for effective information provision at grassroots by Change Agents were identified. These include expert knowledge of the local language, on-the-job experience, continuous training and skill in community organization.
6. None of the Change Agents acquired academic/professional qualification in information work or skill in identifying information needs, information provision and communication at the rural level.
7. Change Agents visited rural dwellers frequently to facilitate effective use of interpersonal channels as the most accessible channels for identifying and meeting the information needs of the rural dwellers.
Recommendation It is stating the obvious and cannot be over-emphasized that most of the rural dwellers in this study are either illiterates or semi-illiterates and have various information needs that are not expressed due to ignorance. As a result of this demand for information services is very low, that is, if such services are made
164 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE available and accessible. On the other hand, the three major agencies (National Agency for Mass Literacy, Health Care Unit, and Agricultural Extension Unit) that seem to be more involved in extension services at the grassroots are more interested in their individual information component. Since meeting the information needs of rural dwellers depends so much on the identification and expression of such need, Change Agents should be properly trained in the effective provision and dissemination of the information component of their individual agencies. Such training is likely to result in what Devadon and Lingrams (1997) described as 'step by step' procedure to be used by information Needs Identifiers (INI). The procedure involves studying rural dwellers and their environment, conducting formal interviews with them and refining up-dating information needs on a continuous basis It is sad to note that public libraries are not actively involved in the provision of information in the areas either due to inaccessibility to them or professional negligence or incompetence as Ochongwu (1997) observed. This inactive involvement provision, at grassroots could also be seen as an aftermath of what Mchombu (1982) described as closed-minded and subjective attitude of information workers in national development. It is therefore, highly recommended that the public library system in Abia State and other states in Nigeria should be restructured to cater adequately for the silent majority in our rural areas. In contrast to the traditional public library services emphasis should shift to extension services and establishment of community information services. Based on the fact that majority of people in Nigeria are in the rural communities, what is needed is the community based information centre. Where the community is integral in the use of traditional social channels in meeting the needs of the people. Indeed new approaches, skill and technologies are required by
165 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE information professionals if they are to join Change Agents in active information provision and dissemination at the rural level.
In essence graduates of library and information studies programmes must become conversant and concern with the sociological problems of their clientele, their information seeking behavior in addition to being ready to serve in the rural communities. By implication Library and Information Science Schools in Nigeria should design courses on community based information services to prepare information worker and Change Agents for this special role in our rural communities. It is recommended that the activities of all the organizations and agencies that play a part in information provision and dissemination at the rural level should be effectively co-ordinated to form a network. To do this a National Policy on Community Based Information services should also form an integral part of the National Information Policy.
Bibliography
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Afolabi, M. (1986) Rural Information Needs and Services in Nigeria paper presented at the Annual Conference of the NLA Kaduna State Chapter, on Dec. 1-16.
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Camble, E. (1992) Access to and Utilization of quality information in Rural development programme in Bama zone of Borno State. University of Ibadan, Ph.D thesis.
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167 INFORMATION NEEDS AND CHANGE AGENTS CHARACTERISTICS AS FACTORS IN INFORMATION UTILIZATION BY RURAL DWELLERS IN OBINGWA AREA, ABIA STATE factors affecting the satisfaction of users of clinical hospital information systems. Journal of Information Science 22 (3) 171-179.
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Ochongwu, M. G. (1997) Redefining information structures and Services for the rural majority. A paper presented at the Bi-annual conference of the Association of Library and Information Science Educators held in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria from July 16th -18th .
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168 PART 3
169 SCIENCE AND VOCATIONAL ISSUES
1. EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – ADEGBOYEGA ISAU MOFIKOYA AND MICHAEL TUNDE ADETUNJI
2. KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LOCATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTH CARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE – BEN. EDEGBAI
3. COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE-AND POST – MENARCHEAL GIRLS – BOLA ADENIJI
4. EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET F O R A F R I C A N C AT F I S H - C L A R I E S G A R I E P I N U S (BURCHELL,1822) AND NILE TILAPIA – OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS (TREWAVAS) – GODWIN A. OMOYINMI
5. PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE S U P P L E M E N TAT I O N O N T H E R E P R O D U C T I V E PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. – FOLUKEMI A. O. AKINUSI.
170 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Adegboyega Isau Mofikoya and Michael Tunde Adetunji
Abstract
The experiment was carried out at the University of Agriculture, Alabata road, Abeokuta during the second planting season of 2004, first and second planting seasons of 2005, and the first season of 2006 to determine the effect of continuous application of urea fertilizer on soil chemical properties. The treatments consisted of four rates of fertilizer (urea) application to maize (0, 60, 90 and 120 kg N ha-1) and three modes of application (all at planting; one-half at planting and the remaining one-half at six weeks after planting; one third at planting, one-third at four weeks after planting, and the remaining one-third at tasselling). The treatments were laid out on the field as a 4 x 3 factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. The urea was surface broadcast and incorporated to a 15 cm depth by disk ploughing a day after application. Planting of maize (DMR – SR – Y) was done immediately after the fertilizer had been incorporated into the soil. The surface (0 – 15 cm) soil samples were collected and analysed for pH, total organic matter, exchangeable cations, total-N, available phosphorus, exchangeable acidity (H+), bulk density and particle size at the commencement of the study and at each harvest. At first harvest, 90 kg N ha-1 gave the highest soil pH values in all the different times of N application. Also at first harvest, there were no significant differences among the values of total N; exchangeable Ca, Mg, K, acidity and ECEC in all the treatments. At second harvest the soil pH decreased with increasing rate of applied N when N was applied in three-split with the 60 kg N ha-1 plots having the highest soil pH of 6.63 and 120 kg N ha-1 plots having lowest soil pH of 6.19. This trend was not consistently followed at other timings of N application. At third and fourth harvests, the soil pH decreased with increasing rate of applied N in all the timings of N application. At the end of the experiment, soils in the 120 kg N ha-1 plots were strongly acidic, while those in 90 kg N ha-1, 60 kg N ha-1 and control plots were
171 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES moderately acidic. The soil organic carbon decreased with seasons of cultivation. Decreases of 0.10, 0.30 and 0.34% in values of soil organic carbon in the second, third and fourth seasons, respectively, were observed over the value of soil organic carbon in the first carbon. Loss of exchangeable Ca2+, as well as decrease in effective cation exchange capacity of the soil over seasons of cultivation was also observed. In this experiment, continuous application of N fertilizer resulted to soil acidification and loss of soil nutrients such as Ca2+, Mg2+ and available phosphorus.
Introduction
The need for fertilizer application to maize is due to the low fertility status of Nigerian soils and the reduction in length of fallow occasioned by population explosion. N is the most limiting element[1] and its availability depended on the organic matter content of the soil, cropping history and time of application of fertilizer[2]. One way of improving the soil N content is through the application of fertilizer urea. Nitrate leaching from fertilizers applied to agricultural soils is a major means by which nitrogen is lost from soils[3,4]. Adequate information is needed on the fate of applied fertilizer nitrogen as basis for environmentally safe nitrogen fertilizer management. As such, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of continuous application of urea fertilizer on soil chemical properties.
Materials And Methods The experiment was carried out at the University of Agriculture, Alabata road, Abeokuta during the second planting season of 2004, first and second planting seasons of 2005, and the first season of 2006 to determine the effect of continuous application of urea fertilizer on soil chemical properties. The treatments consisted of four rates of fertilizer (urea) application to maize (0, 60, 90 and 120 kg N ha-1) and three modes of application [all at planting; one-half at
172 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES planting and the remaining one-half at six weeks after planting(WAP); one third at planting, one-third at four weeks after planting, and the remaining one-third at tasselling]. The treatments were laid out on the field as a 4 x 3 factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. The urea was surface broadcast and incorporated to a 15 cm depth by disk ploughing a day after application. Planting of maize (DMR – SR – Y) was done immediately after the fertilizer had been incorporated into the soil. The surface (0 – 15 cm) soil samples were collected and analysed for pH, total organic matter, exchangeable cations, total-N, available phosphorus, exchangeable acidity (H+), bulk density and particle size at the commencement of the study and at each harvest. The Generalized Linear Model procedure of Statistical Analysis Systems Package[5] was used for the analysis of variance of all the parameters and means were separated using Duncans Multiple Range Test.
Results And Discussion The properties of the surface soil (0 – 15 cm) of the project site is shown in Table 1. The particle size analysis of surface soil at the commencement of the experiment showed that the soil was loamy sand. The pH of the soil before planting in 2004 showed that the experimental site was moderately acidic, which falls within the optimum soil pH range for maize crop production[6]. The soil organic carbon(OC) was low at the onset of the study. Consequently, the observed low total nitrogen(TN) of the soil with corresponding positive fertilizer response was expected. The soil calcium, magnesium, exchangeable K and Na were also low.
173 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Table 1: Physico-chemical properties of the experimental site soil before planting in 2004 Soil property Values
pH (H2O) 5.83 OC (%) 1.16 TN (%) 0.10 Avail. P (mg/kg) 22.74 Exchangeable cations (cmol kg-1) Ca 2.64 Mg 0.21 K 0.15 Na 0.38 H++Al 0.12 ECEC 3.49 Bulk density (g cm-3) 1.32 Particle size analysis (%) Sand 85.26 Silt 9.00 Clay 5.74 Textural class Loamy sand
The chemical properties of experimental site at first harvest are shown in Table 2. In all the different times of N application, 90 kg N ha-1 gave the highest soil pH values. The soil pH values at first harvest ranged from 6.70 in plots with 60 kg N ha-1 applied in two-split to 7.17 in plots with 90 kg N ha-1 applied in three-split doses. There were no significant differences among the values of total N; exchangeable Ca, Mg, K, acidity and Effective Cation Exchange Capacity(ECEC) in all the treatments. While the available P was high in all the treatments, the total N was low. The exchangeable acidity was same for all the treatments except in plots that received 60 kg N ha-1 in two-split which had
174 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Table 2: Chemical properties of experimental site at first harvest
Treatments pH OC TN Avail. P Exchangeable cations -1 -1 -1 + Time of application Rate (H2O) (gkg ) (gkg ) (mg kg ) Ca Mg K Na H +Al ECEC Cmol kg-1 Control 0 7.03ab 0.16a 0.01a 22.15a 1.93a 0.32a 0.15a 0.30a 0.14a 2.84a All at planting 60 6.87ab 0.16a 0.01a 19.17ab 2.05a 0.27a 0.12a 0.29b 0.14a 2.87a 90 6.92ab 0.13a 0.01a 18.86ab 1.43a 0.22a 0.10a 0.35ab 0.14a 2.24a 120 6.87ab 0.14a 0.01a 18.73ab 1.13a 0.20a 0.03a 0.26b 0.14a 1.76a ½ at planting, 60 6.70b 0.18a 0.02a 18.13b 1.93a 0.19a 0.07a 0.31ab 0.13a 2.63a ½ at 6WAP 90 6.76ab 0.14a 0.01a 20.37ab 1.84a 0.23a 0.05a 0.34ab 0.14a 2.60a 120 6.99ab 0.11a 0.01a 20.14ab 1.31a 0.22a 0.07a 0.21b 0.14a 1.95a
1/3 at planting, 1/3 at 4WAP 60 6.92ab 0.13a 0.01a 19.64ab 1.78a 0.26a 0.15a 0.45a 0.14a 2.79a and 1/3 at tasselling 90 7.17a 0.13a 0.02a 19.13ab 1.98a 0.28a 0.09a 0.34ab 0.14a 2.83a 120 7.06ab 0.16a 0.02a 18.93ab 1.91a 0.25a 0.12a 0.30ab 0.14a 2.72a
Mean values with the same letters are not statistically different at p = 0.05 using Duncan,s Multiple Range test 0.13 cmol kg-1 as its exchangeable acidity. The soil had low exchangeable cations in all the treatments. At second harvest, the soil pH decreased with increasing rate of applied N when N was applied in three-split with the 60 kg N ha-1 plots having the highest soil pH of 6.63 and 120 kg N ha-1 plots having lowest soil pH of 6.19 (Table 3). This trend was not consistently followed at other timings of N application. The soil had moderately low organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable cations in all the treatments. There were no significant differences between treatments in the values of soil organic carbon, total N and available P. While the available P increased insignificantly with increasing rate of applied N when all fertilizer N was applied at planting, it decreased insignificantly with increasing rate of N when all fertilizer N was applied in three-split (p<0.05). There was no consistent trend of the variation of soil available P with rate of N when fertilizer N was applied in two-split doses. The soil ECEC of 60 kg N ha-1 and 90 kg N ha-1 plots were equal when fertilizer N was applied all at once and in two-split application. The chemical properties of experimental site at third harvest are shown in Table 4. The soil pH varied slightly with the rate of applied N in all times of application. The soil pH decreased with increasing rate of applied N in all the timings of N application. When all fertilizer N was applied at planting, the soil pH ranged from 5.70 for 120 kg N ha-1 to 6.00 for 60 kg N ha-1. When fertilizer N was applied in two-
175
EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Table 3: Chemical properties of experimental site at second harvest Treatments pH OC TN Avail. P Exchangeable cations. -1 -1 -1 + Time of Rate (H2O) (gkg ) (gkg ) (mg kg ) Ca Mg K Na H +Al ECEC Application cmol kg-1 Control 0 6.62a 0.01a 0.01a 15.83a 1.50ab 0.24c 0.20a 0.20a 0.14a 2.26b All at planting 60 6.28abc 0.14a 0.01a 16.43a 1.84ab 0.27bc 0.18a 0.20a 0.13b 2.61ab 90 6.31abc 0.13a 0.01a 17.29a 0.72c 0.16c 0.27a 0.19a 0.13ab 2.61ab 120 6.04c 0.13a 0.01a 18.55a 1.37abc 0.23c 0.32a 0.26a 0.12b 2.31b ½ at planting, ½ 60 6.43ab 0.17a 0.01a 19.35a 1.73ab 0.42ab 0.22a 0.21a 0.13ab 2.71ab at 6WAP 90 6.29abc 0.11a 0.01a 17.73a 1.27bc 0.41ab 0.25a 0.21a 0.13ab 2.71ab 120 6.32abc 0.13a 0.01a 19.54a 1.34bc 0.20c 0.21a 0.22a 0.13ab 2.09bc 1/3 at 60 6.63a 0.15a 0.01a 17.99a 1.58ab 0.26bc 0.20a 0.21a 0.13ab 2.37ab planting,1/3 90 6.45ab 0.13a 0.01a 17.39a 1.21bc 0.52a 0.21a 0.20a 0.13ab 2.27b at 4WAP and 120 6.19bc 0.15a 0.01a 16.31a 2.09a 0.30bc 0.30a 0.31a 0.12b 3.12a 1/3 at tasselling Means values with the same letters are not statistically different at p = 0.05 using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
Table 4: Chem ical properties of experimental site at third harvest
Treatments pH OC TN Avail.P Exchangeable bases -1 -1 -1 + Time of Rate (H2O) (gkg ) (gkg ) (mg kg ) Ca Mg K Na H +Al ECEC application cmol kg-1 Control 0 6.32ab 0.10a 0.01a 14.10a 1.10a 0.30abc 0.23bc 0.21abc 0.13a 1.97a All at planting 60 6.00abc 0.12a 0.01a 15.44a 1.27a 0.30abc 0.26bc 0.21abc 0.12ab 2.16a 90 5.85bc 0.12a 0.01a 14.69a 1.57a 0.22cd 0.22c 0.22ab 0.12ab 2.35a 120 5.70c 0.11a 0.01a 16.98a 1.32a 0.28bc 0.32b 0.23a 0.11b 2.26a ½ at planting, ½ at 60 6.44a 0.12a 0.01a 18.22a 1.25a 0.22cd 0.19c 0.19cd 0.13a 1.98a 6WAP 90 6.02abc 0.09a 0.01a 15.91a 1.29a 0.36ab 0.21c 0.19cd 0.12ab 2.17a 120 5.88bc 0.11a 0.01a 16.59a 1.03a 0.22cd 0.19c 0.20bcd 0.12ab 1.75a 1/3 at planting, 1/3 60 5.93abc 0.12a 0.01a 18.73a 1.29a 0.27bc 0.23bc 0.19cd 0.12ab 2.10a at 4WAP and 1/3 90 5.89bc 0.12a 0.01a 17.67a 1.09a 0.38a 0.28bc 0.20bcd 0.12ab 2.07a at tasselling 120 5.63c 0.12a 0.01a 16.32a 1.22a 0.17d 0.49a 0.18d 0.11b 2.16a
Mean values with the same letters are not statistically different at p = 0.05 using Duncan,s Multiple Range test.
ranged from 5.63 in 120 kg N ha-1 plots to 5.93 in 60 kg N ha-1 plots. While the organic carbon, total N and exchangeable bases were low in all the treatments, the soil available P were moderate in all treatments. Although the available P decreased with increasing rate of applied N when N was applied in three-split, there was no consistent trend in the variation of organic carbon and total N with rate of applied N at different times. There were no significant differences between treatments in organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable Ca (p<0.05). At fourth harvest, the soil pH decreased with increasing rate of applied N in the different times of fertilizer application. While soils in the 120 kg N ha-1 plots were strongly acidic, those in 90 kg N ha-1, 60 kg N ha-1 and control plots were
176 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES moderately acidic (Table 5). Although there were no significant differences among the total N in all the treatments, the total N decreased slightly with increasing rate of applied N in plots with single and two-split application of fertilizer N. The total N in plots with three-split application at all rates of fertilizer N were equal. While there were no significant differences among the soil available P in plots with two-split N application, the values of the available P increased with increasing rate of applied N. The available P in plots with single and three-spilt N application did not show any consistent variation with applied rate of N. The ECEC at fourth harvest were low in all the treatments. The ECEC in plots with single and two-split application of N decreased with increasing rate of applied N while there was no consistent trend in the soil ECEC when N was applied at different rates in three-split. The bulk densities were moderate in all the treatments and this ranged from 1.21 g cm-3 in control plot to 1.50 g cm-3 in 120 kg N ha-1 plots.
Table 5: Soil chemical properties and bulk density of the experimental site at fourth harvest
Treatments pH OC TN Avail.P Exchangeable cations. Bulk -1 -1 -1 + Time of Rate (H2O) (gkg ) (gkg ) (mg kg ) Ca Mg K Na H +Al ECEC Density application cmol kg-1 (g cm-1)
Control 0 6.04ab 0.10a 0.01a 13.61ab 0.75ab 0.32ab 0.21a 0.20a 0.12a 1.60ab 1.21b All at 60 5.88abc 0.11a 0.01a 10.53b 0.92a 0.37ab 0.23a 0.21a 0.12a 1.84ab 1.29b planting 90 5.74abc 0.12a 0.01a 14.45a 0.74ab 0.32abc 0.20a 0.21a 0.12a 1.58ab 1.40ab 120 5.51bc 0.11a 0.01a 11.95ab 0.57b 0.23c 0.23a 0.22a 0.11b 1.35b 1.33ab ½ at 60 5.97ab 0.12a 0.01a 12.67ab 0.89a 0.44a 0.24a 0.21a 0.12a 1.90a 1.24b planting, ½ 90 5.97ab 0.09a 0.01a 12.72ab 0.90a 0.37ab 0.22a 0.20a 0.12a 1.80ab 1.30ab at 6WAP 120 5.56bc 0.11a 0.01a 12.86ab 0.83ab 0.25bc 0.25a 0.22a 0.11b 1.66ab 1.31ab 1/3 at 60 6.11a 0.12a 0.01a 10.23b 0.87ab 0.33abc 0.21a 0.20a 012a 1.74ab 1.32ab planting, 90 5.76abc 0.11a 0.01a 11.32ab 0.93a 0.36abc 0.24a 0.21a 0.12a 1.86ab 1.29ab 1/3 at 120 5.35c 0.12a 0.01a 11.28ab 0.73ab 0.27bc 0.28a 0.22a 0.11b 1.61ab 1.50a 4WAP and 1/3 at tasselling
Mean values with the same letters are not statistically different at p = 0.05 using Duncan,s Multiple Range test
Continuous application of N fertilizer throughout the cropping seasons significantly affected the soil pH, organic C, available P, Ca, Mg, Na and ECEC. Significant differences were observed among different rates of applied N on soil pH in all the seasons. At the end of the first season, the soil pH ranged from 6.70 in plots with 60 kg N ha-1 applied in two-split to 7.17 in plots with 90 kg N ha-1 applied in three-split . However, the soil pH decreased with increasing rate of
177 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES applied fertilizer N in the subsequent seasons in all the different modes of applied N. Also the soil pH decreased with seasons of maize cultivation. Application of N decreased pH by 16.6 % over the first seasons value (pH 6.93) with four cropping seasons of cultivation. The decreasing soil pH with increasing rate of applied N and seasons could be as a result of production of H+ ions by urea fertilizer used in this study during nitrification[7]. The soil organic carbon also decreased with seasons of cultivation. Decreases of 0.10, 0.30 and 0.34 % in values of soil organic carbon in the second, third and fourth seasons, respectively, were observed over the value of soil organic carbon in the first season (1.44 %). This trend could be attributed to the decreasing belowground biomass production with increasing acidification[8]. The decreasing nutrient retention capacity and reduced biotic activity of soils being adverse effects of acidification had earlier been stressed[9]. Perhaps, this might be responsible for the loss of exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+, as well as decrease in effective cation exchange capacity of the soil over seasons of cultivation. This is consistent with reports that continuous application of N fertilizer has a deleterious effect on soil quality[10] corroborating the observations on soils of northern Nigeria[11].
Conclusion The soil ECEC of the experimental site decreased significantly from 2.52 cmol kg-1 in the first season to 1.69 cmol kg-1 in the fourth season. The soil pH of the experimental site decreased significantly with increasing rate of applied N and with seasons of maize cultivation. The soil pH decreased from 6.93 at first harvest to 5.78 at fourth harvest. At the end of the experiment, soils in the 120 kg N ha-1 plots were strongly acidic, while those in 90 kg N ha-1, 60 kg N ha-1 and control plots were moderately acidic.
178 EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS APPLICATION OF UREA FERTILIZER ON SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
References 1. Osodeke, V. E and Omueti, J. A. I. 1995. Phosphorus sorption characteristics of soils of the forest zone of South Western Nigeria. 3rd African Soil Science Society Conference proceedings: 41 – 49.
2. Montemurro, F; Miorana, M; Ferri, D. and Convertini, G. 2006. Nitrogen indicators, uptake and utilization efficiency in a maize and barley rotation cropped at different levels and sources of N fertilization. Field Crops Research. 99 : 114 – 124.
3. Flipse, W. J; Katz, B. G; Lindner, J. B. and Markel, R. 1984. Sources of nitrate in groundwater in a sewered housing development, central Long Island New York. Groundwater 32:418-426.
4. Adetunji, M.T. 1994. N application and underground water contamination in some Agricultural soils of South Western Nigeria. Fertilizer Research. 37 : 159 – 163.
5. Statistics of American Systems (SAS) package. 1988. SAS user's guide. Statistics. SAS Institute, Gary, N.C.
6. Chude, V.O; Malgiri, W.B; Amapu, L.Y; and Ano, O.A. 2004. Manual on soil fertility assessment. Federal Fertilizer Department In Collaboration with National Special Programme for Food Security, Abuja, Nigeria.
7. Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L. and Beaton, J.D. 1990. Soil fertility and fertilizers. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.
8. Manna, M.C; Swarup., A., Wanjari, R.H., Mishra, B. and Shahi, D.K. 2006. Long- term fertilization, manure and liming effects on soil organic matter and crop yields. Soil and Tillage Research. 2330 : 1 – 13.
9. Kinraide, T.B. 2003. Toxicity factors in acidic forest soils : attempt to evaluate separately the toxic effects of excessive Al3+ and H+ and insufficient Ca2+ and Mg2+ upon root elongation. European Journal of Soil Science 549 : 323 – 333.
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10. Agbenin, J.O. and Goladi, J.T. 1997. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics under continuous cultivation as influenced by farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizers in the savanna of northern Nigeria. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 63 : 17 – 24.
11. Heathcote, R.G. 1970. Soil fertility under continuous cultivation in northern Nigeria. 1. The role of organic manure. Exploring Agriculture 6 : 229 – 237
180 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
Ben. Edegbai
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to find out the knowledge and practices regarding lactation among mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, Ogun State. The descriptive survey research design was used for the study and the population for the study consisted of the mothers utilizing all the healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, Ogun State Capital. The purposive sampling technique was used to select one each from the four groups of healthcare facilities in the State Capital (Abeokuta) as demarcated by the State Ministry of Information, one private/mission hospital (Sacred Heart Hospital, Lantoto Abeokuta), one local government health institution (Family Health Centre, Oke Ilewo Abeokuta), one State Government hospital (Oba Ademola II Maternity Hospital, Ijemo Abeokuta), and one Federal Government Health Institution (Federal Medical Centre, Idi-Aba, Abeokuta). Proportional representation and randomised technique were used in the selection of the mothers who constituted the study sample. A self developed validated questionnaire with reliability coefficient (r) of 0.91 was employed as the only instrument for data collection. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe the demographic information in Section 'A' and part of section 'B' of the questionnaire. The chi-square (X2) statistic was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The result showed that the respondents had significant knowledge of lactation, and that the respondent's level of knowledge has a significant influence on their lactation practice. In view of these findings, it was recommended that mothers should be advised on the value, benefits, management and maintenance of lactation, and be provided with post-natal social support services.
Introduction Breastfeeding is the easy and natural way of learning to mother a baby. Apart from being an unequalled way of providing ideal food for the healthy
181 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE growth and development of infants, breast milk has a unique biological and emotional influence on the health of both mother and child1. Besides, breastfeeding means the comforts and delights of a special closeness with the new born baby. The baby is provided with protection from the mother's arms, the softness of her touch and the sound of her voice guarantee his (i.e., the baby's) healthy growth. During breastfeeding, the occurrence of malnutrition is minimised1 Besides, the baby's sucking instrinct is met and there is less thumb sucking. It was reported that bottle-fed infants are more liable, and succumb more easily, to infectious conditions especially the infectious fever and lung conditions, than those who have been breastfed2. Also, the unique immunological factors in breast milk have been identified as being responsible for the protection breast milk affords infants against pathogenic agents3 . This protection is particularly effective against the infectious agents which invade or colonise the small and large intestine. This study was designed to examine the knowledge and practices, of lactation among mothers utilizing health care facilities in Abeokuta, Ogun State, with a view to recommending an appropriate approach to managing and encouraging mothers to breastfeed. The study attempted to answer the following questions: 1. Do mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta have knowledge of lactation? 2. Do mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta practice lactation? 3. Will the level of knowledge of mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, affect their lactation practices? Population: In this descriptive research survey, four healthcare facilities were randomly selected from all the healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, capital of Ogun 182 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
State; one health care facility each from the four groups of healthcare facilities in the state capital as demarcated by the state Ministry of Information. One Private/Mission Hospital (Sacred Heart Hospital), Lantoro, Abeokuta, one local government health Institution (family health centre, Oke – Ilewo, Abeokuta), One state Government Hospital, (Oba Ademola II Maternity Hospital, Ijemo, Abeokuta) and one Federal Government Health Institution, (Federal Medical Centre, Idi-Aba, Abeokuta)
Sample: 630 subjects constituted the study sample. A total of 485 respondents data were however used for analysis, 160 were from Sacred Heart Hospital, Lantoro, 120 from family health Centre Oke-Ilewo, 90 from Oba Ademola II Maternity Hospital, and 115 from Federal Medical Centre, Idi-Aba, Abeokuta.
Instrument: The main research tool was a self-developed validated questionnaire with reliability coefficient of 0.91. To collect the data, research assistants were trained and used to collect the data from respondents.
Analysis: The data from the completed questionnaire forms were coded and analysed using the frequency counts, percentages, Mean and Chi-square (X2) as the statistical tool to answer the three (3) research questions raised in the study.
Results and Discussion Sub-Hypothesis 1: Mothers utilizing health-care facilities do not have significant knowledge of lactation.
183 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
A combination of questions based on knowledge were computed to determine whether the respondents are knowledgeable or not, about breastfeeding (Bf). Those who scored below 50% after computation were regarded as not being knowledgeable Table 1 revealed the outcome of the computation.
Table 1: Chi-square value and percentage distribution on knowledge of breastfeeding Responses Number Percentage DF (X2) Fe Fo Knowledgeable (242.5) 288 59.4 1 17 Not (242.5) 197 40.6 Knowledgeable TOTAL 485 100%
N = 485 Calculated X2 = 17 Df = 1 Tabulated X2 at 0.05 level of significance = 3.481 Fo - Observed Frequency Fe - Expected Frequency X2 - Chi - square Df - degree of freedom
The obtained chi-square (X2) value 17 is greater than the tabulated X2 value of 3.481 at 0.05 level of significance with one degree of freedom (df). On this basis, the null hypothesis was rejected. In other words mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta do have significant knowledge of breastfeeding. Similar result had earlier been reported in a study of knowledge and
184 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE attitude of adolescent school girls towards breastfeeding4. This study revealed that majority were knowledgeable about the advantages of breastfeeding. In contrast to the result of this study however, outcome of an earlier study has shown a delay in the initiation of breastfeeding indicating that the subject used for the study were not knowledgeable 5. Also at variance was the result of a study in a metropolitan area in the Philippines where health personnel are shockingly ignorant of basic aspect of breast feeding and lactation management6. A similar lack of knowledge was discovered in Maternity wards and MCH clinics in hospital in Kenya7 The finding of this present study is understandable considering the widespread publicity through the mass media which are being increasingly used for breastfeeding promotion. Also of positive contribution to mothers knowledge towards breastfeeding in Nigeria is the lactation management clinic organized by Family support Programme (FSP) officials throughout the Federation in 1995/96. Mothers were taught how to breastfeed and lectures were given on the importance, management and advantages of breastfeeding. Centres used were Ogun State Teaching Hospital, Sagamu and State Hospital, Sokenu, Abeokuta. The researcher is very much of the opinion that the awareness of breastfeeding in Nigeria is fast growing especially among the rural than the urban mothers although that differences between both areas appear to be narrowing by mid 1980. Sub-Hypothesis 2: Mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta do not significantly practice lactation (breastfeeding).
185 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
Table 2: Percentage distribution on breastfeeding practices. N = 485. Category of Infant feeding Number % Exclusive breast- Infant receive only breast-milk (including 26 5.4 feeding milk expressed or from wet nurse). No other liquid or solid is given. Predominant- Infant receive breast milk (including milk 39 8.0 breast-feeding expressed or from wet nurse). In addition liquids (water and water-based drinks, fruit juice, ORS and drips of syrup) Complementary Breast milk and solid or semi-solid feeds. 287 59.2 feeding Breast/bottle Breastfeed and/or bottle feeding. Any 133 27.4 feeding liquid or semi-solid feed and also breast milk from a bottle with nipple/treat TOTAL 485 100
Table 2 shows the percentage distribution on breastfeeding practices while table 3 shows the chi-square contingency table on whether mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta practice lactation significantly. Table 3: X2 Contingency table on whether mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta practices lactation significantly. N = 485
Respondents Number Percentage DF (X2) Practice Fe Fo Full (161.7) 65 13.4 Partial (161.7) 287 59.2 2 160 Token 133 27.4 (161.7) TOTAL 485 100
2 = Calculated X 160 df = 2 Sig. Level = 0.05 Critical Value = 5.99
186 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
Table 2 and 3 presented results on Sub-Hypothesis 2 which stated that mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta do not significantly practice Lactation. The tables showed a statistically significant difference, since the calculated X2 values was greater than the tabulated X2 value. It was concluded therefore that mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta Ogun State Capital significantly practice lactation. The exhibition of high level of knowledge and the positive attitude of the respondents towards lactation manifested itself in its practice. Also contributory, is the fact that majority of the respondents (97%) reported receiving prenatal care from medical and nursing staff of their various healthcare facilities. In support of the above view, some studies 8 pointed out that in many parts of the developing world, an increasing number of women deliver in hospitals, and so turn for advice and support from medical and nursing staff. According to them, the role of health workers is therefore crucial in helping to make the first days of breastfeeding as positive as possible. However, other studies 9, 10 in different parts of the world reported that health workers lack of understanding of lactation management have contributed to their inability to organize hospital routines for assisting the successful establishment of Lactation. Although the respondents in the present study showed a significant lactation practice, the study also revealed some hospital practices that are detrimental to the establishment of breastfeeding. For example only 30.3% initiated breastfeeding less than one hour after delivery. While 24.7% (percent) of the respondents claimed that their babies were kept away from them (that is kept in nurseries) after delivery thereby limiting demand feeding. A similar incident was reported in Kenya 8. In the present study only 31.3% intended to breastfeed above 6 months
187 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE while 41.7% intended to breastfeed between 4 months – 6 months, 18.8% intended to breastfeed for less than 3 months before introducing a substitute. The reasons given by those who intended to breastfeed below the recommended number of months before introducing a supplement were summarized as follows: (i) the need to support their family (that is the need to go back to their business) and (ii) the need to go back to work. This researcher 11. had earlier reported a similar attitude in a study he conducted on working mothers in Ibadan metropolis. It is worrisome today that many women, on leaving the hospital are forced to wean the child prematurely and put him/her into a day nursery for economic reasons. Some of these women like to breastfeed their babies but must work to support their family. Factors that prevent adequate breastfeeding includes: - The increase opportunities for women to be engaged outside the home in non -traditional activities. - The need for many mothers to resume work away from home soon after delivery and - The lack of facilities for children that allow for breastfeeding at work place 12,13,14.. It can be asserted that successful breastfeeding during the first few days after delivery is important in securing effective, Long-term lactation. Studies 15,16 had revealed that woman are more likely to breastfeed for longer durations, less likely to introduce weaning foods and milk supplements too early and more likely to develop a good loving relationship with their babies, if the first few days of breastfeeding prove to be a rewarding and positive experience. Furthermore, it was reported that for Lactation to be established in the first few days the following should be put in place. - early breastfeeding (within 1 hour of birth)
188 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
- constant contact between mother and baby through rooming-in - encouragement of demand feeding - an absence of glucose, water or milk supplements and - supportive care. In traditional societies women are guided through these first few days by other women, traditional birth attendants, family and friends. 8. The process of mothering comes naturally, supported by trusted family members. In these situations breastfeeding rarely falters. Mothers stay with their babies all times and allow the baby to suckle on demand.
Sub-Hypothesis 3 The level of knowledge of mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta will not significantly influence their practice of Lactation. In order to test for the above hypothesis, 485 questionnaire forms were computed and analysed. The summary of the findings on the influence of knowledge on practice is shown on table 4. Table 4 X2 Contingency Table on Influence of Knowledge on Practice. N = 485
Practice Full Partial Token Total Knowledge Knowledgable (38.6) (170.4) (79) 33 288 57 198 Not Knowledgable (26.4) (116.6) (54) 100 197 08 89 TOTAL 133 485 65 287
189 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
Calculated X2 = 98.6
Sig, level = 0.05
DP = 2
Critical value = 5.99
The calculated value of chi-square 98.6 was obtained. This was greater than the critical value of 5.99 at 0.05 level of significance. This showed that the obtained value of chi-square was highly significant. This null hypothesis was therefore rejected thus showing that the knowledge of Lactation of the respondents significantly influence their practice. In a similar study, the dependence of successful breastfeeding or the knowledge and attitude developed during adolescence had been reported 17. According to the study, knowledge of nutrition during this period is carried throughout life and important in feeding and rearing of children. Also reported was the declining trend of breastfeeding noticeable before 1970 in India being replaced by an upward trend due to intensive campaigning of promotion of breastfeeding by National and International agencies 18.. In support of the above finding it had been suggested that ante-natal care should incorporate emphasis on breastfeeding through a renewal of the “breast is best” message stressing the importance of breastfeeding to the non-nursing population, such that husbands, relatives and friends can positively influence breastfeeding practices among mother 19. The totality of all the studies cited shows that in most circumstances knowledge about lactation play a vital role in influencing practice.
190 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
Conclusions Based on the research findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. Mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, capital of Ogun State had significant knowledge of lactation. 2. Mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, Ogun State capital, significantly practice breastfeeding. 3. The level of knowledge of mothers utilizing healthcare facilities in Abeokuta, capital of Ogun State, significantly influence their practice of lactation.
Recommendation: It is recommended that health planners and practitioners should incorporate the following practice into the routines of healthcare facilities. 1. Women should be advised on the dietary needs during pregnancy and lactation. 2. Mothers should be advised on the value, benefits, management and maintenance of lactation. 3. Mothers should be provided with post-natal social support services.
References 1. Jelliffe, and E. F. Patrice Jelliffe (1979). Human Milk and Breastfeeding. Recent highlights J. Jrop. Pediatr. And Environ, Child Hlth. 25 (5). 111
2. Christie, L. J. Chyne, W. and Santoy, M. (1956). Principle and Practice for Pupil Mid Wives. London. Tonling and Co, Ltd.
3. Mata, L. (1978) Breastfeeding Main Promoter of Infant Health. Am J. Clin Nutron 31. (11) 2058 – 65.
191 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
4. Kapil, U; and Bhasin, S; and Manocha, S: (1990). Knowledge, Attitude Amongs Well – to – do Adolescent Schools Girls Towards Breastfeeding. Indian Pediatr 27 1281 - 1285.
5. Karnawat, B.S., Singh, R. V., Gupta, B.D.; and Chaudhry, S.P. (1987). Knowledge and Atitude of Hospital Employees Regarding Infant Feeding Practices. India Pediatr. 24 939 - 948
6. Burgess , Ann Patricia. (1980). Breastfeeding. The knowledge and Attitudes of some Health Personnel in Metropolitan Manila. J. of Trop. Pedia. 26 168 – 171.
7. Veldhuis , M. et al (1982) Knowledge Attitude and Practices of Health Workers in Kenya With Respect to Breastfeeding. Report of a Collaborative study by the Breastfeeding Information Group, UNICEF, Ministry of Health and Medical Research Centre Nairobi Kenya.
8. Bradley, J. E. and Meme, J. (Oct. 1992). Breastfeeding Promotion in Kenya:Changes in Health workers knowledge, Attitudes and Practices, 1982 – 89 J. of Trop Pedia. 38 228 – 234.
9. Breastfeeding Information Group (1982). Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Health workers in Kenya with respect to Breastfeeding Nairobi.
10. Relucio – Clavano, N. (1981). The Result of a change in Hospital practices A Pediatricians Campaig for Breastfeeding in the Philipines Assignment Children 55/56; 140 – 164.
11. Edegbai, Ben. (1986). The Views of Working Mothers on Why some mothers do Not Breastfeed their Babies. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis P.H.E. Dept. University of Ibadan
12. Jelliffe, D. B.. and E. F. Patrice Jelliffe (1979). Human Milk and Breastfeeding. Recent highlights J. Trop Pediatr. And Environ. Child HITH 25 (5). III
13. World Health Organization, United Nations Childrens Fund (WHO/UNICEF)
192 KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF LACTATION AMONG MOTHERS UTILIZING HEALTHCARE FACILITIES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE
meeting on Infact and Young Child – Feeding Statement and Recommendation. Geneva; WHO (1979).
14. World Health Organization (1979); Maternal and Child Health Unit. Breastfeeding Geneva WHO.
15. Siegel, E. (1982). Early and Extended Maternal Infant contact: A critical review. Am . J Dis Childhood. 136 251 – 7.
16. Wonikoff, B. ; and Castle, M. A. (1988): The Influence of Health Services on Infant Feeding, Winikoff, B. Caslte, M. A. and Laukaran, V. H. (Eds). Feeding Infants in Four Societies. New York: Green wood.
17. Kapil, U; and Manocha, S.; (1989) Knowledge, Attitude Towards Breastfeeding Amongst Auxillary Nurse Midwives in Rural DehiIndia Pediatr. 26 1003 – 1006.
18. Kumar, S., Singh, S.; Nath, L. M.; and Kapoor S. K. (1987). Changing Trends in Breast Feeding Attitudes and Practices in India, Need for Appropriate Intervention. India J. Comm. Med. 3 124 – 136.
19. Uchegbu, I. F. (1991): The Protection of Breastfeeding. Through a Review of the Existing Legislation Governing Working Conditions for the Nursing Mothers. Nig. J. Nutr. Sci., 12 , (1): 36 – 38.
193 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12- WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Bola Adeniji
Abstract
This study examined the comparative effects of 12-weeks circuit training programme on the anthropometric characteristics of pre- and post- menarcheal girls. A pre-test-post-test control group experimental design was used to carry out the study. A total of 80 Secondary School girls from St. Peter's College, Olomore, Abeokuta, with ages 10-17 years took part in the study. The subjects were not involved in competitive school sports. Stratified random sampling technique was used to select 40 pre- menarcheal and 40 post-menacheal girls who were later randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. At the end of the training programme, 40 subjects completed the post training measurements, so there were 10 subjects in each of the four study groups (Pre- menarcheal experimental, pre-menarcheal control, post-menarcheal experimental, post-menarcheal control groups). The training programme consisted of 12- weeks of circuit training maintained for one hour per contact session and three times per week. Subjects in the experimental group (Pre- menarcheal and post-menarcheal girls) took part in the training programme. Pre- test measures were taken for all subjects a week before the training programme started while post- test measures were taken at the end of the training programme. The dependent variables of interest were chest-breadth, biacronial diameter, and fat distributions in the body. The data collected were subjected to descriptive stastistics of mean and standard deviation and inferential statistics of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) 2-ways using difference score method to test the sub-hypotheses for the study at the 0.05 level of significance. Where there was any significant F, Scheffe post-hoc analysis was used for further analysis. The results showed that in general, maturation and training accounted for a lot of the differences in the performance of the study groups. There were no significant differences in chest breadth, of pre and post- menarcheal girls as a result of 12 weeks circuit training programme. The findings of this study also indicated that the main effects of factor A (status –pre and post-menarcheal girls and factor B (study conditions-experimental and
194 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS control) were statistically significant. The post-menarcheal girls had higher biacromial diameter than the pre-menarcheal girls (Post -test- 34,06;30.7), similarly, the experimental group had higher biacrominal diameter than control groups (post-test 33.02;31:74). The effects of the study condition – factor B (Experimental/control) was significant (f =93.71;p<.05). The interaction effect (AxB)1, 35 was also significant (F=95.07;p<.05) The pre-menarcheal girls had more % body fat than the post-menarcheal girls (post test 14.15; 13.36) The subjects in the control groups had more % body fat than subjects in the experimental group. The effect was significant (F =8.63, p<05). The implications of this study are that exercise training programme such as the circuit training used in this study can make observable differences in motor ability and anthropometric characteristics of adolescents. Effective exercise training programme should therefore be considered as an integral and inevitable aspect of school curriculum.
Introduction Physical activity is a great variable in energy expenditure and it improves the physical fitness levels of the participants if performed regularly with consideration to the intensity frequency and specificity of the activity. According to Cooper (1994), naturally occurring physical activities in humans play profound roles in tissue anabolism, growth and development. Maku (1988) investigated the effects of menstrual cycle on physical, physiological and performance variable of physical and health education female students and found that menstrual cycle has no significant effect on gross body weight, lean body weight, and percent fat body density of the subjects. One of the most important morphological features characterizing a human organism is body composition which is the proportion of lean fat – free body mass and depot fat (Keys and Brozek, 1953). According to Parizkova (1963, 1968); Dobeln and Eriksson (1972), Physical activity is an important factor in the regulation of maintenance of body weight and weight is a heterogeneous mass which is grouped into two components in growth and training studies, that is
195 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS lean body mass and fat. They also postulated that physical training generally produces an increase in lean body mass and corresponding decrease in body fat frequently without any appreciable change in body weight. The degree of change varies with the intensity and duration of the training regimen. Wilmore (1977) in his own study concluded that body composition can undergo substantial alteration with physical training. The differences in all skin folds measures of different groups studied by Sidhu and Pushpa (1981) were not statistically significant. Reynolds (1946, 1950), Garn and Haskell (1960) reported that early matures have more subcutaneous fat at all ages from 7½ to puberty while in adults no significant relation between age at menarche and adult weight, triceps skin fold and height is reported. In a study on the effects of 5-month daily physical training programme on 34 adolescent girls as compared to an equal number of control subjects, Wells, Parizkova, and Joki (1962) and Wells, Parizkova, Bohanan and Joki (1963) found a definite change in body composition, a significant increase in lean tissue and a corresponding reduction in fat in trained group, while no change was reported for the control group. Moody, Wilmore, Girandola and Roycee (1972) in their own study did not observe change in gross body composition after 15 weeks in an activity programme of walking and jogging involving 12 adolescent girls, mean age 16.5 years. However, a small decrease in fatness as shown in smaller skin fold thickness was observed. Bailey, Malina, and Rasmussen (1978) stated that physical activity is important in regulating levels of fatness, though the researchers were not sure of the potential of physical activity programmes, initiated early in life, in preventive role. Oscai, Babirak, McGarr and Spirakis (1974) postulated that training early in life effectively reduces the rate of fat-cell accumulation in
196 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS growing rats, and this produce a significant reduction in body fat later in life. According to Falkner and Tanner (1978), girls gain body fat early in adolescence and they later continue to put on fat as adolescence proceeds. The studies of Parizkova et al (1962) and Boileau et al (1971) to test the effects of various exercise regimens on body composition showed that there were greater loss of weight due to superimposition in diet control but gain of lean body mass (LBM) was prevented. Falkner and Tanner (1978) concluded with this finding that intense training is needed to appreciably affect the LBM. The purpose of this study therefore was to investigate the comparative effects of 12-weeks circuit training programme on anthropometric characteristics of pre-and post-menarcheal girls.
Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested in the study: 1. There would be no significant difference in chest breadth of pre-and Post- menarcheal girls as a result of 12-weeks circuit training programme. 2. There would be no significant difference in the biacromial diameter of pre- and post-menarcheal girls as a result of 12 – weeks circuit training programme. 3. There would be no significant difference in the fat distribution of pre-and- post-menarcheal girls as a result of 12 weeks circuit training programme.
Research Design The research design for this study was a pre-test, post-test control group experimental design with random assignment into group. The design helps to control for subject selection bias and also affords comparison between the control group and experimental group. It also helps to ascertain if treatment
197 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS really had effects on the experimental group.
Population The population for the study were students from St.Peter's College, Olomore, Abeokuta who were between 10 and 17 years. They were those students that were not in school sports.
Sample and Sampling Technique The study sample consisted of 80 girls from St. Peter's College, Olomore, Abeokuta who were apparently healthy and were between 10 and 17 years old. The subjects were screened by taking their relevant medical history and examining their cardiovascular and respiratory systems to determine their physical health status. This was done by a Physician. Those who were found to be free from conditions that could be aggravated by physical activity completed the informed consent form. The informed consent form was to inform all subjects about the nature of the training programme and the tests before commencement of the measurements. After signing the informed consent form, the subjects were selected by simple random sampling techniques into experimental and control groups. Each of the two groups was also sub-divided into pre-and post – menarcheal groups using the information collected from the pre-exercise questionnaire that was distributed to the subjects. There were 40 subjects in the experimental group that is 20 pre-menarcheal and 20 post menarcheal girls. The control group also consisted of 40 subjects (20 pre-menarcheal and 20 pot-menarcheal girls). The 4 groups took part in pre and post training measurements while the experimental groups alone
198 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
were involved in the 12-weeks circuit training programme. At the end of the training programme, only 40 subjects completed the post-training measurements. This was due to subject mortality.
Instrument and Test Items The following equipment, materials, instruments and facilities were used for the study. 1. Broad Blade Anthropometer calibrated from 1 to 61 cm was used for measuring diameters and breadth of the bones 2. Lange skinfold calliper was used to take the skinfold measurements. Measurements were in millimetres and recorded to the nearest 0.5 millimetre.
Data Collection All measurements and data collection took place at St.Peter's College, Olomoore, Abeokuta. Research assistants and Physical and Health Education teachers in the College helped to record and observe the subjects. The baseline measurements served as the pre-tests while the measurements taken at the end of training served as the post test. Demonstration was given by the researcher where necessary. The following procedures were adopted for the various measurements and tests: 1. Chest breadth: Procedure: The subject stood erect, with the feet shoulder width apart and arms slightly abducted to allow easy access to the measurement site. The researcher stood directly in front of the object. The measurement is made with the tips of the Broad blade anthropometer on the sixth rib in the midaxillary line.
199 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Upon palpation of each sixth rib, the researcher placed the anthropometer tips directly on the ribs, with her fingers just beneath the anthropometer tips to prevent them from slipping into intercostals spaces. Very light pressure was supplied. The sixth rib in the midaxillary line corresponds interiorly to the fourth costosternal joints. The fourth cost-sternal joint was located by palpation method whereby the researcher placed her index finger on the superior surface of the clavicle while the thumb located the first intercostals space . The index finger then replaced the thumb which was lowered to the second intercostals space. This procedure was repeated until the fourth rib was located. The fourth rib and its costal cartilage were followed medically to their articulation with the sternum. The level of the fourth costo-sternal joint was marked. A line was then drawn on the sternum between the junctions. Chest breadth was measured with the anthropometer tips in a horizontal plane, at the end of normal expiration to the nearest 0.1cm. 2. Biacromial diameter Procedure: This was measured from the rear of the subject in order to allow the researcher to locate the acromial process with ease. The subject stood up because sitting might interfere with the posture required for measurement. The heels of the subject were together and arms were hanging by the sides. The shoulder region was free of clothes. The position of the shoulders was of great importance. This was to have the subject relaxed with shoulders downward and slightly forward so that the reading was maximal. Tall subjects used a stool to allow accurate reading of the Broad blade anthropometer. Standing directly behind the subjects, the researcher moved her hands from the base of the neck outwards to the tips of the shoulders, relaxing any tension. The most lateral borders of acromial processes were palpated and, holding the anthropometer so that its blades were between the index and the middle fingers
200 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS and resting on the base of the thumb, the blades were applied firmly to the most lateral borders of the acromial processes. The width was read to the nearest 0.1cm.
Skinfold Measurement: The skinfold measurement was taken using the Lange Skinfold Caliper at the following sites: triceps, subscapular and suprailiac. a) Triceps Skinfold: Anatomical Landmark for the Skinfold Site: The back of the upper arm midway between the shoulder and elbow joints. That is, midway between the acromion and Olecranon. Procedure: Skinfold was lifted parallel with the long axis of the site and reading on the dial was recorded to the nearest 0.5mm. (b) Subscapular Skinfold: Anatomical Landmark for the Skinfold Site: The bottom point of the shoulder blade (Scapular) Procedure: Skinfold was lifted along the long the axis of the body with the arms hanging naturally at the side. The Caliper was applied and reading on the dial was recorded to the nearest 0.5mm.
Suprailiac Skinfold: Anatomical Landmark for the Skinfold Site Just above the top of the hip bone (crest of ilium) at the middle of the side of the body. That is superior vertical fold to the iliac crest at the midaxillary line. Fold runs anteriorly downwards. Procedure: Skinfold was picked up vertically and approximately 1.00cm above and 2cm medial to the anterior iliac spines. The calliper was applied and reading
201 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS on the dial was recorded to the nearest 0.5mm. Body density: The equation of Sloan, Burt and Blyth (1962) was used to compute body density. Body Density = 1.0764 – 0.00081 (suprailiac Skinfold) – 0.00088 (Triceps Skinfold) % Body Fat: The percent body fat for each subject was determined using Brozek's and Key's (1963) formula Percent Body fat = (4.570 – 4142) x 100
DB
DB = Body density
Data Analysis Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviations for each of the variables pre and post were computed. Inferential statistics of Analysis of Covariance was used to analyse the data. The 2–way Analysis of Covariance procedure was used to test the changes in the variables under the study caused by effect of the treatments. This method of analysis makes necessary adjustments needed within and between groups in respect of natural sources of variation in the pre-study values. Where there was any significant F-test; Sch?ffé post hoc analysis was used for further analysis. The significance level for all statistical analysis was set at 0.05. The results of the study are presented here with reference to the hypotheses set. The mean age of the pre-menarcheal girls is 13.7 while that of the post- menarcheal girls is 15.3.
202 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Hypothesis 1: There would be no significant difference in chest breadth of pre- and post- menarcheal girls as a result of 12-weeks circuit training programme. TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF TWO-WAY ANCOVA ON CHEST BREADTH
Source SS df MS F A 0.32 1 0.32 3.56 ns B 0.04 1 0.04 0.44 ns AB 0.01 1 0.01 0.11 ns S/AB 3.12 35 0.09
Table value = 4.08
The value of the chest breadth of the post-menarcheal girls was higher than that of the pre-menarcheal girls (Post test 23.62;21.1) . Similarly the chest breadth value for the experimental group was slightly higher than that for the control group (Post test 22.75;21.97). The summary of the ANCOVA analysis on the differences is presented in Table 1. Since none of the effects (main and interaction effects) was significant, hypothesis 1 was confirmed.
TABLE 2. MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION SCORES OF DEPENDENT MEASURES
Dependent Pre-Menarcheal Pre-Menarcheal Post-Menarcheal Post-Menarcheal Variable Experimental Control Experimental Control (N=10) (N=10) N=10) (N=10) - - - - X SD X SD X SD X SD Chest Pre-test 21.51 1.09 20.66 1.09 23.98 1.09 23.28 1.10 breadth Post-test 21.54 1.13 23.95 1.02 23.28 1.10 23.28 1.10 Biacromial Pre-test 31.85 1.35 29.48 6.63 33.92 4.20 33.85 1.98 Diameter Post-test 31.92 1.36 29.43 6.63 34.12 4.28 34.00 2.04 % Body fat Pre-test 14.10 1.93 15.70 1.93 14.10 1.93 12.91 0.03 Post-test 13.00 1.52 15.30 2.07 13.40 1.58 13.31 1.26
203 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Hypothesis 2: There would be no significant difference in the biacromial diameter of Pre-and post- menarcheal girls as a result of 12-weeks circuit training programme.
TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF TWO –WAY ANCOVA ON BIACROMIAL DIAMETER
Source SS df MS F
A 0.12 1 0.12 1.71
B 6.56 1 6.56 93.71*
AB -6.66 1 -6.66 95.07*
S/AB 2.52 35 0.07
Table Value = 4.08 *P<.05
Table 2 shows that the values of biacromial diameter of post-menarcheal girls were higher than those for the pre-menarcheal girls (Post test 34.06; 30.7). Similarly, the values for experinmental group were higher than those for the control groups (post-test 33.02; 31.74). The ANCOVA analysis on the data as presented in Table 3 showed that the main effect of status (Pre-menarcheal/post menarcheal) was not statistically significant. However, the
effect of study condition factor B (experimental, control) was significant (F1,35=93.71 P<.05).
The interaction effect (AxB) was also significant (F1,35=95.07;P<,.05). The interaction is disordinal. Irrespective of study condition (experimental /control) the biacromial diameter values for the post-menarcheal girls were higher than those for the pre-menarcheal girls, Therefore, hypothesis 2 was rejected.
204 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Hypothesis 3. There would be no significant difference in the fat distribution of pre-and post–menarcheal girls as a result of 12 – weeks circuit training programme.
TABLE 4
SUMMARY OF TWO – WAY ANCOVA ON % BODYFAT Source SS df MS F A 0.67 1 0.67 0.64 B 8.97 1 8.97 8.63* AB 0.10 1 0.10 0.10 S/AB 36.44 35 1.04 *P<.05 Table value = 4.08
Table 2 shows that the pre-menarcheal girls had higher % body fat than the Post- menarcheal girls (post–test 14.15; 13.36). While the subjects in the control group had higher % body fat than those in the experimental group (post test, 14.31; 13.20). The ANCOVA analysis as shown in Table 4 indicated that the differences between the pre-and post-menarcheal girls were not significant. But the differences between the experimental and control groups were statistically significant. After the training programme, the % bodyfat in the experimental group was significantly lower than those in the control group. Therefore, hypothesis 3 was rejected for study condition but not for status of subjects.
Discussions. Chest Breadth: The post-menarcheal girls in this study had higher chest breadth than the pre-menarcheal girls. The findings of this study is similar to that of Low, Ng and
205 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Fung (1978) who reported that girls with early onset of menarche have broader shoulder than girls with a late onset of menarche during their puberty growth. Broader shoulders can bring about a broader chest due to maturation. The subjects in the experimental groups had broader chest breadth than the subjects in the control groups, though the differences were not statistically significant. This might be in line with the comments of Howell (1917) that growth in diameter of bones is influenced by exercise. This study also confirmed what Fox and Mathews (1981) said about physical activities and bone growth. The authors stated that physical activities of different intensities contribute to increase in bone growth.
Biacromial diameter The post-menarcheal girls had higher biacromial diameter than the pre- menarcheal girls. The result of this study is in line with that of Sidhu and Pushpa (1981) who found that the early maturing girls had broader biacromial diameter than the late maturing girls. The difference in this study was not statistically significant. The subjects in the experimental groups had broader biacromial diameter than the subjects in the control groups. This result is also similar to the contention of Fox and Mathews (1981) who found that physical activities of different intensities contributed to increase in bone growth.
% Body fat The pre-menarcheal girls in this study showed more percent body fat than the post-menarcheal girls though the difference was not significant. This result was unexpected. The post menarcheal girls are supposed to have more body fat than the pre-menarcheal girls because for a girl to menstruate she has
206 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS to have a certain percentage of body fat. According to Tanner (1962), girls develop more fat after puberty. This is contrary to the result of the present study . The subjects in the control group had more percent body fat than those in the experinmental groups. This was expected. This result is in line with those of Wells, Parizkova, and Joki (1962) and Wells, Parizkova, Bohanan and Joki (1963) who in their studies on effects of 5 month daily physical training programme on 34 adolescent girls as compared to an equal number of control subjects, found a definite change in body composition, a significant increase in lean tissue and a corresponding reduction in fat in trained group while no change was reported for control group. The result of the study showed that there was no change in the percent body fat of the subjects in the control group.
Conclusions: Based on the findings and limitation of this study, the following conclusion were made: (i) Circuit training programme undertaken three times a week for 12- weeks did improve the anthropometric characteristics of pre–and post-menarcheal girls who participated in the study. Therefore, a general statement can be made that regular participation in circuit training can improve anthropometric characteristics of pre-and post- menarcheal girls. (ii) Post – menarcheal girls performed better than the pre-mernarcheal girls in Chest-breadth and biacromial diameter. Therefore, it may be stated that all increase to some extent with maturity.
Recommendations Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are made:
207 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
(1) To improve the anthropometric characteristics of pre-and post- menarcheal girls, one has to subject them to physical activities or exercise. This must be done regularly , about 3 times a week, and the duration of the physical activities or exercises should be long enough (about 15 to 60 minutes depending on the intensity) and be specific in order to obtain the desired effects. (2) Physical activity participation should be optimized in the development of female subjects so that when they grow up, regular participation in physical activities will become an integral part of their lives. This is to contribute to a healthy way of living in general, and improve antropometric charactistics in particular. In order to have a wide spread opportunities to encourage females to participate in physical activities as suggested above, there is great need for government agencies, private individuals and organisations to find and support productive physical activity programmes in which females can participate. (3) In conducting exercise programmes that are aimed at influencing the antropometric characteristics of youth, effort, should be made to control any other variable that may influence the results. Some of the factors are the dietary habits and extra-curricular activities of subjects.
References
Bailey, D. A., Malina, R.M. and Rasmussen, R. L.(1978). The Influence of Exercise, Physical Activity, and Athletic performance on the Dynamics of Human Growth . In Falkner and Tanner, J. M. Human Growth 2 Postnatal Growth. New York: Plennum Press
Boileau, R. A. Buskirk, E. R., Horstman, D. H., Mendez, and Nicholas, W. C. (1971). Body composition changes in Obese and lean men during physical conditioning. Med. Sci. Sports 3:183
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Cooper, D. M. (1994) Evidence for Mechanisms of exercise modulation of growth –an over – view. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
Dobein, W. Von, and Eriksson, B. O. (1972) . Physical training maximal oxygenuptake and dimensions of oxygen transporting and metabolizing organs in boys 11-13 years of age. Acta paediatr. Scand. 61:653-660
Falkner, F. And Tanner, J. M. (1978). Human Growth 2 Postnatal Growth new York: Plennum Press
Fox, E. L. and Mathews, D. K. (1981). The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics 3rd Ed. Philadephia. Saunders College Publishing.
Garn, S. M. and Haskell, J. A. (1960) . Fat thickness and Development status in childhood and adolescence Am. J. Dis child. 99: 746 – 751
Howell, J. A. (1917). An experimental study of the effect of stress and strain on bone development. Anat,. Rec. 13: 233 - 253
Keys, A and Brozek, K. (1953). Body fat in adultman. Physiol. Rev. 33 245 – 325 Low, W. D. Ng. C. K. And Fung . S. H. (1978) Relationship between the age at menarche and the growth in biacromial and biilliac diameters. Z Morph. Anthrop 69(3) 308 -315.
Maku, (1988). Effects of Menstrual cycle on Physical, Physiological and Performance variables of Physical and Health Education Female students. (Unpublished master's Thesis of University of Ibadan)
Moody, D. L., Wilmore, J. H., Girandola, R. N. And Royce, J. P. (1972). The effects of a jogging programme on the body composition of normal and Obese High School girls. Med. Sci. Sports 4: 210 – 213
Oscai, L. B., babirak, S. P. McGarr, I. A and Spirakis, L. M. (1974). Effect of exercise adipose tissue cellularity. Fed. Proc.33:1956 - 1958
Parizkova, J. (1963). Impact of age, diet, and exercise on man's body composition. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 110: 661 – 674
209 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF 12-WEEKS CIRCUIT TRAINING PROGRAMME ON ANTHROPOMERIC CHARACTERRISTICS OF PRE- AND POST- MENARCHEAL GIRLS
Parizkova, J. (1968). Body composition and Physical fitness . Curr. Antropol. 9: 273 – 287
Parizkova, J. Vaneckova, M: and Vamberova, M (1962). A study of changes in some functional indicators following reduction of exercise fat in Obese children. Physiol. Bohemoshov 11: 351
Reynolds, E. L. (1946), Sexual maturation and the growth of fat , muscle and bone in girls. Child Developpment 17 : 121 – 144
Reynolds, E. L. (1950) . The distribution of subcutaneous fat in childhood and adolescence. Monogr Soc. Res. Child Development 15:2, 189
Sidhu, L. S. And Pushpa, S. (1981). Relationship between age at menarche and adult Morphology in Sports Women. Journal of Sports medicine 21: 401 – 406
Tanner, J. M (1962). Growth at Adolescence 2nd Ed. Oxford: Blackwell Psychological and Social Development U.S.A. Harvard University Press.
Wells, J. B. Parizkova, J. And Joki, E. (1962). The kentricky physical fitness experinment. J. Assoc. Phys. Ment. Rehab 16: 69 – 72
Wells, J. B., Patrizkova, J., Bohanan, J., and Joki, E (1963). Growth, body composition and physical efficiency. J. Assoc. Phys. Ment. Rehab. 17: 37- 40, 56 – 57
Wilmore, J. H. (1977) Athletic Training and Physical Fitness. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
210 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Godwin A. Omoyinmi
Abstract Accumulation of agro-wastes is becoming more of a contemporary issue. Recent achievements in the basic biology of larval rearing and utilisation of live invertebrates as feed in aquaculture were examined. Some common invertebrates such as earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae), garden snail (Limicolaria aurora), palm grub (Oryctes rhinoceros) and housefly maggot (Musca domestica) were cultured under Laboratory conditions on different organic substrates. Earthworms were cultured on mixtures of sand and cattle dung, maize cobs or saw dust; garden snails on banana peels, maize chaff, pawpaw leaves, spinach weeds; palm grubs on stumps of palm tree, mesocarp fibre of palm kernel, inflorescence of oil palm tree, maize stem and rice straw and maggots on pig dung, pig hairs, chicken droppings and chicken feathers. The growth rate of each species on each of the organic mixtures was assessed. Proximate analysis and the amino acid profile for each species were conducted on each of the raised invertebrates. Each of these farm-raised invertebrates was formulated into experimental fish diet as the only source of animal protein while the control diet had fish meal as source of animal protein. The experimental diets (A, B, C & D) and control diet (E) were fed to different sets of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and of Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) for 35 days each. Proximate analysis of the fed fish was also conducted. The culture and growth performance of raised invertebrates and fed fish were statistically analysed by single-factor and two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). The specific growth rate (SGR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and food conversion ratio (FCR) were determined to evaluate the growth performance of the fed fish species. With the level of significance chosen at P<0.05, the differences among raising the invertebrates on different substrates were accepted or rejected. The culture of earthworm on organic wastes showed that all wastes would support culturing of earthworm but cattle dung emerged the best. At different proportions of organic matter to sand, worms on 4:1 emerged the best. Garden snail survived and grew on all substrates but growth performance on Amaranthus weed appeared to be the best with 95% survival rate and 1.40g average growth performance. The maggots were
211 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) best raised from medium having chicken dropping (15g/kg). Palm grubs were best obtained from medium with chopped decomposing palm trunk; with average weight response of 1.60g within 95days. Media having grinded organic substrate did not support much growth. Suggestions were made so that farmers could convert wastes on their farm into prospect by utilising the waste to raise invertebrates that could further be upgraded to animal protein consumable by man; most especially through fish production.
Key words: Cultured invertebrates, waste conversion, waste utilisation, fish feed
1.0. Introduction 1.1. Animal protein in Human diet Importance of animal protein in human diet cannot be over emphasised. An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food is required to achieve optimum, quality of life, human welfare and development in any society. One of the causes of dietary deficiency is poor selection of foods (Dafwang and Shwarmen, 1996). Inadequate consumption of animal protein can result in malnutrition (Olayide, 1982). Animal protein can improve the quality of meals of individuals so; efforts should be geared towards improving the productivity of livestock as well as enhancing the consumption of animal protein in the locality. Meat, milk, egg and fish are sources of animal protein. Fish is one of the most important animal protein foods available in Nigeria. Its usefulness in alleviating malnutrition is well known. At present, fish constitutes 40% of animal-protein intake (Olatunde, 1989; Papka, 1993). It is difficult to formulate a diet totally free of animal products that is nutritionally adequate for the very young and elderly ( Sansoucy, 1995). Animal products are an important source of proteins and amino acids and also contain vitamins and minerals.
1.2. Fish farming Fish are sourced from capture and culture fisheries. Capture fisheries entail fish hunting in the wild lentic and/or lotic waters, which can be fresh, saline or
212 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) brackish. Culture fisheries involve management of resources to increase fishery production beyond that which is normally available from wild stock. Available statistics indicate that between 1980 and 1989, domestic fish production in Nigeria declined from 476,198 metric tonnes (mt) to 362,706 mt per annum (Olatunde, 1989). Within this period also, the total fish supply increased from 597,342 mt in 1980 to 679,693 mt in 1989. With the demand in fish and fish products that was estimated at 2.0 – 2.5 million metric tonnes per annum, domestic fish production could hardly meet 20% of the national demand. Even with an increase in importation of fish in 1989 there were still short falls in fish supply by over 50% (Olatunde, 1989). The National fish demand of 1, 920, 000 mt is under supplied to such a level that a demand-supply gap of 1,000,000 mt exists despite the fact that fish is responsible for 55% of the protein intake sources of Nigerian citizens (Adekoya, 1998). Ocean fish stocks were long considered almost inexhaustible, but modern technology to find and capture fish has led to increase in marine catches (Fagade et al 1986; Fagade, 1998). Fish production from sea increased at a high rate, with the expansion of fishing fleets, development of efficient methods of fishing and improvements in processing and transportation of catches. Overfishing and depletion of stocks have become a living reality and the need to enhance or create new stocks by human intervention has become imperative. Pollution of river, lake and marine waters by sewage, industrial effluent, acid rain and agricultural chemicals can reduce the survival rate of aquatic organisms, contaminate fish and shellfish, and create human health problems. The need to increase production of fishery resources, by discovering new resources and by adopting more efficient methods of hunting and utilisation is identified in aquaculture. Aquaculture augments the dwindling fish supply from capture fisheries.
213 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
1.3. Feed in fish farming In aquaculture fish feed are of two types: feed that becomes available as a result of natural productivity of the pond, and that feed supplied as supplementary feed. Pillay (1985) opined that for ensuring adequate availability of food to dense stocks and for enhanced growth and production, supplementary feeding should be resorted to. The shift to more intensive culture practices has contributed to a global increase in aquaculture production of about 10 - 12% per annum from 1984 to 1997 (FAO, 1997; Tacon and Dominy, 1999). This shift has only been possible because of the increased availability of commercial or formulated diets. The supply of commercial, pelleted fish food has become expensive in large scale fish farming accounting for up to 70% of the recurrent costs of a fish farming venture (Pillay, 1985; Ayinla, 1988). Large-scale commercial culture depends on the development of cost-effective diets (Allan et al; 2000). The major constraints in formulating cost-effective diets are a lack of information on nutritional requirements of fishes, the digestibility of suitable feed ingredients (Tacon, 1994; McGoogan and Reigh.1996). One of the consequences of this lack of information is a heavy reliance on high-quality fishmeal as a protein base for most intensely farmed aquaculture species (Lovell, 1989). Fishmeal is the major protein source used in poultry and swine industries including aqua feeds. Fishmeal prices have risen in real terms in the past three decades (Hossain et al, 2001) and are likely to increase further with continued growth in demand. Fish meal production is also rather heavily localised in some regions of the world resulting in it becoming more expensive and difficult to obtain in many countries practising aquaculture (Hossain et al; 2001). The high cost of fishmeal can be deterrent to optimal diet compilation in aquaculture system. If formulated fish food is not available substitution must be arranged. Many aqua culturists prefer to compound their own recipes. To make aquaculture a profitable venture, the fish farmer should not find it difficult to feed the fish with balanced feed. Otherwise, the advantages
214 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) of fish farming to small-scale resource poor fish farmers who derive some of their rural incomes through farmed fish will be obliterated. Such feeds must be cheap, accessible and cost effective (Fagade et al 1986). Resource-poor rural fish farmers have identified locally derived supplementary fish feed from agro- industrial wastes e.g. brewers waste, flour sweep, spent grains, bone meal meat meal, blood meal, palm kernel cake, groundnut cake, etc. The search for alternatives to fishmeal is an international research priority (Manzi, 1989; New, 1991; Tacon, 1994; Hardy and Kissil, 1997; Allan et al, 2000; Hossain et al, 2001). All over the world, aquaculturists are engaged in the search for alternative protein source to fish meal in the diet of fish; more so, because of the exorbitant cost of fishmeal. The composition of feed mixes vary from region to region and usually reflect the availability of agricultural by-products, industrial by-products or wastes of activities dominant in such region.
1.5. Objectives of the Project The objectives of this project include: a. identification of farm by-products and resources which the local farmers have been utilising as supplementary to fish feed; b. assessment of the nutritive status of the identified by-products or resources c. determination of which of them can be produced in large quantities by the farmers on his own farm and how to produce them; d. improvisation of simple technology for fish food preparation and making available some important information necessary in formulation diets for fish under culture at cost-effective level; e. assessment of the effectiveness of the growth performance of Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis niloticus fed on animal protein from various invertebrates;
215 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
f. economic evaluation of fish culture using invertebrates as diets; and g. application of the findings into cost-effective fish production through conversion and utilisation of wastes.
Materials and Methods 3.1.0. Culture of Invertebrates Preparation of experimental sites: Each of the experiments was set up at the farm site of Agricultural Education Department, Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria and was replicated. Culture of earthworms – Eudrilus eugeniae Three different organic substrates, namely: crushed maize cobs, sawdust and cattle dung were each mixed at varying proportions – 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 2:1 and 4:1 with sterilised, oven dried sand and placed under a shade in 15 wooden boxes each measuring 40cm x 25cm x 20cm, screened to avoid predation. Each box was labelled and abundantly sprinkled with water to remain damp in order to stimulate decomposition, Each of the beds was inoculated with five live earthworm hatchlings of 0.5g average weight each, initially raised by incubating cocoons on wet filter paper in a Petric dish at room temperature. The experiment lasted 12 weeks. Culture of palm grubs – Oryctes rhinoceros Each of five different organic matter types namely decomposing stump of palm tree (DPS), mesocarp fibre of palm kernel (MFP), inflorescence of oil palm tree (IPT), maize stem (MST) and rice straw (RSW) served as bedding material in each wooden box. Each box measuring 40cm x 25cm x20cm was filled with a particular organic matter chopped or powdered, watered to initiate decomposition. Each of the ten boxes was inoculated with ten palm grubs (larvae of rhinoceros beetle)
216 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) after taking the initial weight and length. The experiment lasted 150 days. Culture of garden snails – Limicolaria aurora Four different organic matter types: wild African spinach (Amaranthus sp.) (WA), pawpaw leaves (Carica papaya) (PL), wet chaff of fermented, milled or ground maize (Zea mays) (MC) and rinds of plantain (Musa paradisica) (BR) were used. Each of four medium-sized wooden baskets having 36cm diameter and 30cm height was filled with sand to a depth of 20cm and screened with nylon mesh to prevent escape but allow ventilation. Each medium was maintained damp and cool by repeated watering. Each was inoculated with ten baby garden- snails, initially hatched and nursed at the experimental site, after obtaining their initial weight. The experiment lasted 6 weeks. Culture of maggots – Musca domestica Each of these four organic substrates: pig dung (PD), chicken dropping (CD), pig hairs (PH) and poultry feathers (PF) was kept in a plastic container measuring 40cm x 25cm 10cm. Slurry of 25cm depth of each was made to initiate putrefaction. Each container was left opened under a shade at the experimental site to allow housefly lay eggs. The eggs hatched into larvae which were then harvested daily. 3.1.1. Estimation of growth Growth of the earthworms in each medium was determined bi-weekly by sorting and noting the weight of the earthworms therein. At the end of 12 weeks, earthworms in each box were sorted by hand; the number and biomass were recorded. Weight and length of the palm grubs were taken bi-weekly until pupation. As the grubs continued to feed, more weighed organic materials were added and summed with that previously given. At the end, left over matter in each box was weighed and food conversion ratio was obtained.
217 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Thorough and repeated watering was carried out to ensure favourable moist medium for the snails. Hygiene of the substrate was ensured by repeated replacement of organic matter. The survival rate (%) and growth performance (g/wk) and food conversion ratio of the snails were analysed bi-weekly and comparison drawn. The substrate for the maggots was maintained as homogenous muddy liquid mixture through regular wetting. Harvesting of maggots was on a daily basis, commencing from the fifth day and lasted for six days. Maggots were harvested with fine meshed hand net after being thoroughly washed with water which was allowed to drain out. The wet weight was then recorded. The experimental design for the culture of earthworms, palm grubs and garden snails was replicated and mean values of each replicate was computed. 3.2.0. Proximate analysis of the cultured invertebrates The proximate analysis of each of the cultured invertebrates was carried out to determine the nutritive contents. Dried and well mixed samples of the raised invertebrates, earthworms, palm grubs, garden snails and maggots, were analysed for protein, lipid, water, ash and carbohydrate. The protein content was estimated by the Micro kjeldahl method from the total nitrogen after conversion of the protein nitrogen to ammonium salt by digestion involving acid hydrolysis. Nitrogen (crude protein) was calculated using the formula: Blank-Titre x 0.0016 x 100 Weight of sample used =gm of N2% in sample The lipid extraction was carried out by the method of Blight and Dyer (1959). Sample of minced invertebrate (4.00g) was analysed for water by the Azeotropic method of Dean and Stark (1992). Moisture was estimated as the loss in weight between previously weighed sample .A known weight of sample was placed in a weighed crucible and dried in the oven. The crucible was then removed, cooled
218 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) in a dessicator and weighed. The process was repeated until a constant weight was obtained. The ash content was determined when a known weight of sample was placed in a weighed crucible and ignited for 24 hours at 550oC in muffle furnace. The crucible was then removed, cooled in a dessicator and weighed. The process was repeated until a constant weight was obtained. The total carbohydrate was determined by the method of Clegg (1956). The amino acid profiles of the cultured invertebrates were determined using the methods described by AOAC (1995). 3.3.0. Experimental feed formulation Four experimental diets were formulated with maggot meal (diet A), earthworm meal (diet B), garden snail meal (diet C) and palm grub meal (diet D) replacing fish meal as source of animal protein in respective diets. The control diet was prepared with fish meal (diet E) as the sole source of protein. All the diets were formulated to contain 35% crude protein level of inclusion (Table 1). In each diet, appropriate quantities of milled ingredients were measured, mixed, pelleted and sun dried to constant weight after which the diets were crushed into crumbs with pestle and mortal (to enhance ingestion) and then stored in airtight containers. 3.4.0. Experimental feeding trial with fish species 3.4.1. Experimental feeding trial with African catfish – Clarias gariepinus . Thirty (30) apparently healthy C. gariepinus fingerlings of mean weight 30+/_ 2.00g were obtained from the Nursery pond of Ogun State Farm Settlement, Eweje, Odeda, Ogun state. They were acclimated for 5 days, before the commencement of the experiment in aerated plastic basins in the Agricultural Education Department Laboratory, Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta; and fed a standard compounded feed of 35% crude protein. The fingerlings were starved overnight prior to stocking, then randomly sorted,
219 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) weighed and stocked into the experimental tanks. They were stocked in concrete tanks (each measuring 1.0m x 0.5m x 0.5m and filled with water to ¼ of its 50L- capacity) at a density of 6 fingerlings per tank. Approximately 10% of the water in each tank was replaced everyday with fresh dechlorinated tap water. The experimental condition monitored throughout the experimental period (Table 2), were within the limits normally considered acceptable for the growth and survival of C. gariepinus. Each treatment had two replicates and the initial weight of the experimental fingerlings was taken. Fish were fed twice (06.00 and 17.00 hours) daily at the rate of 5% of total biomass. Sampling was undertaken fortnightly to record the growth performance (weight) of the fish and to adjust the feed quantity. After 70 days of rearing, all the fish were harvested and the final data on growth parameters (FCR, SGR, and PER), total survival and weight gain were determined. The growth parameters were obtained using the following formulae: i. Mean weight gain=( Wf – Wi )n (where Wi = initial body weight, Wf = final body weight n = number of fish) ii. Relative growth rate = weight gain/ initial body weight x100 iii. Specific growth rate =(Log Wf –Log Wi) t x100 iv. Food conversion ratio = Feed supplied (g)/ Mean protein intake v. Protein efficiency ratio = Mean weight gain (g)/ Mean protein intake (where mean protein intake = feed supplied x % protein of diet). vi. Survival rate = Number of fish at the end of experiment/ number of fish stocked x 100. The temperature was taken daily with a mercury-in-glass thermometer. The dissolved oxygen was measured weekly using pH calorimetric method and bromothymol blue as indicator. The results were statistically analysed by single- factor and double-factor analyses of variance (ANOVA) at P<0.05.
220 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
3.4.2. Experimental feeding with Nile tilapia – Oreochromis niloticus. The same procedure was followed as in the case of Clarias gariepinus (3.4.1.) . 4.0. Results 4.1. Results of raised invertebrates. Table 1 shows the mean growth of earthworms on the different organic substrates. The best growth, 1.41g/wk was on sawdust mixed with sand at ratio1:1 while the least was in earthworms raised on maize cob mixed with sand at 1:1 with 0.91g/wk. The statistical analysis shows that the mean values with the same alphabets are most significantly different from each other. Table I: Mean growth performance (g/wk) of Eudrilus eugeniae fed different ratios of organic substrates. Ratio Maize cob: sand sawdust: sand Cattle dung: sand 1:1 0.91 1.41 1.24 2:1 1.04 1.11 1.34 4:1 1.00 1.06 1.40 1:2 1.05 0.97 1.16 1:4 1.00 1.01 1.04 Total 5.00 5.56 6.18 Means 1.00b 1.11ab 1.24a Cv (%) = 12.27 Lsd (0.05) (Ratio) = 0.259 Lsd (0.05) (Substrate) = 0.201 Table 2 shows that palm grubs had higher growth in chopped organic fibre than those in powdered organic fibre. Those reared on chopped decomposing palm stump gave the best growth with an average weight of 1.60g/wk. The statistical mean values with the same alphabets are not significantly different from each other.
221 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Table II: Growth response (g/ wk) of Oryctes rhinoceros on different types of organic matter Substrate DPS MFP MST RSW IPT Total Mean Chopped: Average wt. (g) 1.60 1.40 1.40 0.90 0.97 6.27 1.25a Survival (%) 90 60 80 80 80 Powdered: Average wt. (g) 0.92 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.90 4.54 0.91a Survival (%) 50 40 50 40 40 Mean 1.26a 1.16a 1.15a 0.90a 0.94a 5.41 1.09 Cv (%) =19.32% Lsd (0.05) (Alteration) = 0.367g Lsd (0.05) (Substrate) =0.580g Table 3 shows that spinach weed, pawpaw leaves, wet maize chaff and banana rinds supported growth in snails producing 1.40g/wk, 1.36g/wk, 1.20g/wk and 1.15g/wk respectively. Table III: Growth responses (g/wk) of Limicolaria aurora fed different plant residues T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Total Mean Survl.(%) Amaranthus 0.95 1.25 1.35 1.55 1.60 1.70 8.40 1.40a 80 Pawpaw leaves 0.95 1.00 1.20 1.60 1.70 1.70 8.15 1.36a 80 Maize chaff 0.95 0.95 1.10 1.20 1.60 1.60 7.20 1.20b 60 Banana rind 0.95 0.90 0.95 1.20 1.50 1.50 6.90- 1.15b 50 Total 3.80 4.10 4.60 5.55 6.10 6.50 30.65 Mean 0.95a 1.03cd 1.15c 1.39b 1.53a 1.63a 1.28 Cv (%) =7.32% Lsd (0.05) (Time) =0.141 Lsd (0.05) (Substrate) =0.115
222 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Table 4 shows that maggots were obtained from putrefaction of all organic matter types. Chicken droppings gave the highest biomass of 22.17g maggots/ kg/day followed by pig dung with 17.83g/kg/day and pig hair, 10.17g/kg/day with the least value of 8.67g/kg/day from poultry feathers. Table IV: Production of maggots (Musca domestica) (g/Kg/day) on different types of decomposing organic matter Substrate T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Total Mean Chicken dropping 15 25 30 25 20 18 133 2.17a Pig dung 18 30 26 18 10 05 107 7.83a Pig hair 10 15 15 10 08 03 61 017b Poultry feather 10 10 12 12 05 03 52 8.67b Total 53 80 83 65 43 29 353 Mean 13.25b 20.00a 2 0.75a 16.25ab 10.75bc 7.25c 14.71 Cv (%) =25.11% Lsd (0.05) (Substrate) =4.544 Lsd (0.05) (Time) =5.565 The mean values with the same alphabets were not significantly different from each other. 4.2. Results of proximate analysis Table 5 shows the result of proximate analysis of the cultured invertebrates. The moisture content was high in each of the invertebrates. The crude fat was highest in palm grub meal (11.00%) and least in earthworm meal (3.64%). The crude fibre was highest in maggot meal (2.41%) and least in earthworm meal (1.74%) The crude protein was 31.28% in snail, 30.63% in grub, 22.97% in maggot and 15.31% in earthworm. Table 5: Proximate analysis (%) of the cultured invertebrates. Sample Moisture content Crude fat Crude fibre Crude protein
223 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Earthworm meal - 3.64 1.74 15.31 Snail meal 10.60 5.00 1.82 31.28 Grub meal 11.31 14.00 1.82 30.63 Maggot meal 11.81 10.00 2.41 22.67
Table 6 shows the amino acid profile of the cultured invertebrates. The essential and non-essential amino acids were identified in all the raised invertebrates. Tryptophan could not be determined. The first ten amino acids on the table are the essential amino acids. It became obvious that the concentrations of arginine, leucine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid were high in each of the invertebrates, while those of methionine and citrulline were low. Table 6: Composition of amino acids (g/100g Protein) of the Cultured Invertebrates Amino acid Maggot Garden snail Earthworm Palm grub Arginine 6.06 9.48 6.54 5.57 Histidine 3.01 2.09 4.63 3.35 Isoleucine 3.05 8.07 2.05 2.42 Leucine 6.35 6.48 4.81 5.38 Lysine 4.23 9.95 2.38 4.00 Methionine 1.82 1.85 1.98 2.04 Phenylalanine 3.53 4.01 2.01 4.36 Threonine 2.09 3.94 2.55 3.06 Valine 1.91 6.95 2.27 2.93 Alanine 3.84 2.01 2.33 2.14 Aspartic acid 4.31 5.07 3.41 6.07 Citrulline 0.45 0.38 0.80 1.26 Glutamic acid 13.87 11.97 10.93 13.45 Glycine 2.76 0.53 1.13 2.97
224 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Hydroxyproline 2.17 0.60 0.64 2.02 Serine 3.14 0.93 3.17 3.16 Tyrosine 2.47 0.52 3.32 3.27 Table7 shows the composition of experimental diets. Table 7: Composition (%) of formulated Experimental (Test and Control) Diets. Ingredients Diet A Diet B Diet C Diet D Diet E Maggot meal 56.28 - - - - Snail meal - 52.30 - - - Earthworm meal - - 53.57 - - Grub meal - - - 59.29 - Fish meal - - - - 48.84 Groundnut cake 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 Cassava flour 14.24 15.57 15.14 13.24 16.72 Maize flour 18.48 21.13 20.29 16.47 23.44 Vitamin premix 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Mineral premix 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Table 8 shows the summary of water parameters during the experimental period. Table8: Water parameters during the 70-day Experimental period Parameters Values Temperature 27.66 – 29.00oC pH 7.00 – 8.00 Dissolved oxygen 5.40 – 6.50 m/L
225 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
Table 9 shows growth performance of Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis niloticus.
Table IX: Growth Performance (g), Survival (%) and Feed Utilization of Experimental
MEAN Exptl Fish Treatment Initial TFW Final TFW TWH S u r v ival rate FCR PER SGR C.gariepinus Maggot meal 30.00+/-2.00 33.8 3.80ab 100 17.83 14.81 10.86 Snail meal 30.0+/-2.0 33 3.00c 100 22.04 17.77 8.57 Earthworm meal 30.0+/-2.0 33.5 3.50bc 100 19.22 15.31 10 Grub meal 30.00+/-2.00 30.7 0.70e 66.66 91.54 84.7 2 Fish meal 30.0+/-2.0 34.5 4.50a 100 16.78 12.06 11.57 O.niloticus Maggot meal 15.0+/-1.25 17.2 2.20ab 66.66 15.57 25.58 6.29 Snail meal 15.0+/-1.25 16.7 1.70b 66.66 19.55 31.35 4.86 Earthworm meal 15.0+/-1.25 17 2.00b 83.33 16 26.79 5.71 Grub meal 15.0+/-1.25 16.06 1.06a 50 30.81 55.93 3.03 Fish meal 15.0+/-1.25 17.06 2.60a 66.66 13.15 18.79 7.43
Fig. 1 Comparative growth performance of Clarias gariepinus fingerlings on various sources of animal protein.
Fig.2 Comparative growth performance of Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings on various sources of animal protein.
226 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
The experimental fingerlings fed actively on each diet provided. Increase in weight of fish was observed from each diet. The growth parameters (FCR, PER, and SGR) and survival rate were analysed and presented as Table 9. The comparative growth performance of each of the experimental fish species, on each diet throughout the experimental period was determined and expressed as Figures 1 and 2 for C. gariepinus and O. niloticus respectively. The survival rate of the experimental fish was 100% on all other experimental diets except with fish on grub-based diet which had 66.66%. The mean weight at harvest revealed that fish on fish-based diet (4.05g) had the highest growth, followed by those on maggot-based (3.80g), earthworm-based diet (3.50g) and garden snail-based diet (3.00g) whereas, those fish on palm grub-based diet had the least with 0.70g. From Table 9, mean values from fish fed with fish meal, maggot meal and those fed with earthworm meal were not significantly different at P>0.05. 5.0. Discussion All the experimental organic matter types were found to be suitable for the growth of the cultured invertebrates. The invertebrates survived, grew and developed from one stage to another. This agrees with the reports of Tanaka and Tadano (1972); Mba (1983) and Vorsters et al., (1992) which confirmed how earthworms could be utilized to rid wastes that were of plant origin. Consequently, instead of expending energy or capital on incinerating or evacuating the farm waste, it could be converted into invertebrates as reported by Phang (1991) and Anton (1992). Chironomid larvae were raised from palm oil effluents in Malaysia and formed valuable live-food for fish or cultured invertebrates by Habib et al., (1992) and Yusuff et al., (1996). The heat and smoke generated when large quantities of sawdust are burnt have implication on global warming and pollution (Sowande et al., 2002) but from these experimental results, it is shown that as much as 1.41g/wk biomass of earthworms could be
227 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) raised from sawdust when mixed with sand at ratio 1:1. Cattle dung that would have constituted a nuisance if left to accumulate, supported earthworm production to as much as between 1.04 and 1.40g/wk. the results revealed how farm wastes could be converted into animal protein instead of being dumped and left to rot as well as constituting danger to other living organisms. The spectrum of amino acids in the cultured invertebrates shows that individual species could be cultured to enhance the supply of specific amino acids; for example, lysine is best produced by garden snail, histidine by earthworm and methionine by palm grub; it is also feasible to combine two or more invertebrates to fortify diets. Amino acid profiles of the cultured invertebrates revealed that protein from a single source could not easily and adequately support body growth and maintenance because, each protein lacked amounts of one or more essential amino acids. This agrees with the opinion of Harper and Yoshimura (1993) that varied diets would generally provide high quality protein, since a complementary protein pattern would result. The results of growth obtained showed that there was significant weight gain and specific growth rate of fingerlings fed with each of the raised invertebrates as source of protein. These results support previous observation obtained with several fish species. Poultry-by-product meal (PBM) has been reported to partially replace fish meal (FM) in Pacific salmon and Chinook salmon diets (Fowler, 1991) at levels of up to 20% of the diets, however when PBM was used in Chinook salmon diet at 30% of the diet, reduced growth of fish was observed. Similarly, Fowler (19910; Cho and Bureau (1998) observed that 15% feather meal, could be included in the diet of smelting Chinook salmon without adverse effect on growth, feed efficiency and osmoregulatory function of the fish. From the results, growth of the experimental fingerlings was only poor on palm grub meal. This poor growth could have been due to higher FCR and lower PER (Table
228 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
9). Higher FCR and lower PER have also been previously reported in Yellow-tail (Vivyakarn et al., 1992) and Japanese flounder (Kikuchi, 1999) when Soya bean meal (SBM) was included at high levels in the diet. The fact that there was no significant difference between fingerlings fed with fishmeal based diets and maggot, earthworm or garden snail meal indicates that the raised invertebrates are equally good sources of animal protein in the diet of C. gariepinus and O. niloticus. The survival rates show that the water was not rendered toxic and did not inhibit growth or cause a negative feed response with the inclusion of the raised invertebrates in the diets of the fish species. The fact that food conversion efficiency in fingerlings fed with fishmeal was as good as in fingerlings fed with maggots; invertebrates can substitute fishmeal in the fish feeds. Live organisms have been reported to reduce mortality of early stages of fish thereby, increasing survival rates during culture (Ugwumba and Abumoye, 1998; Ugwumba et al., 2001), so also substitution of fish meal with raised invertebrates, have merged to be efficient at reducing mortality and increasing survival rates in C. gariepinus and O. niloticus. This study supports the fact that a wide range of locally available ingredients of both plant and animal origins could be used in the development of cost effective supplemental feeds. With careful manipulation and little creativity, the raised invertebrates could be utilised as effective substitute in place of fishmeal (which is available but expensive) in the feed ingredients for livestock and fish. This is potentially a farm-based procedure for reducing cost of production. This culture of invertebrates' technique will support and maintain the soil fertility by returning all locked-up nutrients in the organic wastes back to the environment with little or no damage to the environment. It is environmentally friendly, cost effective and entrepreneurial. Farm wastes are harnessed, utilised and converted into animal protein thereby enhancing food security.
229 EVALUATION OF FARM-CULTURED INVERTEBRATES AS DIET FOR AFRICAN CATFISH- Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and NILE TILAPIA- Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas)
6.0. Recommendations .Further evaluation of different types of invertebrates (larvae/ adult) and their breeding grounds (of which agro-industrial waste can substitute) should be conducted in the future. .Further studies on the availability and integration of amino acids of invertebrates are needed to optimise the use of these ingredients in the diets of livestock and fish. .Further studies on how to improvise how non-conventional feed ingredients can be formulated into fish diets. .Further studies should be on how to culture and capture invertebrates without losing the organic substrates and without overloading the fish water or endangering the health of people and other lives around. .Further studies should be on how to reduce wastes on the farm but enhance food production at little or no cost.
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Tanzo, KER and RF Barraga (1989): Managing the Golden Kuhol Pest Problem; Agribusiness. Weekly. 15pp. Ugwumba, AAA and OO Abumoye (1998): Growth Response of Clarias gariepinus Fingerlings fed Live Maggots from Poultry Droppings In: Sustainable Utilisation of Aquatic/Wetland Resources, Nigerian Association for Aquatic Sciences Selected Papers from 9th-10th Annual Conference, 1995. Otubusin et al (Eds). pp 60-66.
Ugwumba AAA, OA Ugwumba and AO Okunola (2001): Utilisation of Live Maggots as Supplementary Feed on the Growth of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell) fingerlings. Nigerian Journal of Science. Vol 35. No 1.(2001).
Vivyakam, V; Watanabe, T; Aoki, H; Tsuda, H; Sakamoto, H; Okamoto, N; Iso, N; Satoh, S. and T. Takeuchi (1992): Use of Soybean as a Substitute for Fishmeal in Newly Developed Soft Dry Pellet for Yellowtail- Nippou suisan. Gakkaichi 58: 1991- 2000.
Vorsters, A; Ajayi,A and F. Demey (1992): The use of Eudrilus eugeniae and Eissenia fetida in Tropical Conditions. RADAR Bulletin 2 (1): 3. Dr EB Sonoya Ed: Animal Sciences Dept. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria.
Yusuff, MF, Om, AD; and SH Cheah (1996): Use of Agro-industrial Effluent in Augmenting Microalgal Production and Fish Fry Growth in Hatchery Tanks. J. Aqua. Trop. 11, 119-126.
236 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
F. A. Oyenike Akinnusi
Abstract
Series of feeding trials were carried out with 36 West African Dwarf sheep, 32 ewes and 4 rams, at the Animal unit of the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. This was to assess the performance of ewes on various planes of nutrition prior to mating and lambing and the effect of these on live-weight changes of the ewes, gestation lengths, birth weights of lambs, litter size, milk production and consumption, and the growth rate of lambs. The first stage of the study involved the establishment of grass paddocks and browse plants – Panicum maximum, Leucaena leucocephala, Gmelina arborea, Gliricidia sepium and Musa sapientum. The second stage was the formulation of the experimental diet, termed, the Production ration, using maize and some crop by products such as Palm Kernel Cake (PKC), Brewer's Dried Grains (BDG), Wheat offal and Rice bran as energy/protein sources, Bone meal & Oyster shell as mineral sources and salt for palatability. During the third stage, the 32 experimental ewes were grouped randomly into 4, Groups A, B, C, D with 8 ewes and 1 ram per group. For 6 weeks prior to mating ewes in groups C and D received concentrate supplementation while those in Groups A and B were maintained on grazing and browsing. For 6 weeks pre- partum, ewes in Groups B and D also received concentrate supplementation while those in Groups A and C were on grazing and browsing. The live weight changes of the ewes were monitored during 6 weeks pre-mating, 0 - 14 weeks of pregnancy and during the last trimester of pregnancy - week 14 to lambing. Ewes in Groups C and D had significant higher mean daily weight gains P< 0.01 than those in Groups A and B pre-mating. There were significant differences P< 0.01 in the mean daily live weight gains of the ewes pre-partum. Lamb birth weights were slightly significantly different P< 0.05 between the concentrate supplemented ewes (Groups B, C and D) and the ewes on grass & browse alone (Group A). Male lambs were heavier at birth than female lambs. Most of the lambs born were males. with a ratio 4.89 : 1 of male : female. Ewes on pre-mating concentrate supplementation (Groups C and D) had higher rates of multiple births than those on pre mating grazing and browsing (Groups A and B). The ratio of single to multiple births was 5:3, 4:4, 1:7 and 1:7 respectively for Groups A, B, C and D. Total lamb yield of supplemented ewes (groups B, C and D) was significantly higher P<0.01 than for the non-supplemented ewes in Group
237 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
A. The daily milk production by ewes in Groups B, C and D was significantly higher than for Group A. Live weight gains of lambs were highly significantly correlated P<0.01 with the milk production of the ewes. Male lambs grew faster than the female lambs. There was a highly significant difference P<0.01 between the weaning weights of the lambs of supplemented ewes B, C and D over the non- supplemented Group A ewes. 9 of the 53 lambs born died, giving a pre-weaning mortality of 16.98% overall. The percentage mortality was 27.3% for Group A, 16.7% for Group B, 13.3% for Group C, and 13.3% for Group D. Adequate nutrition plus proper management will help to produce a highly prolific sheep flock with a good lambing performance and a low mortality rate. Also, incidence of Pregnancy toxemia associated with multiple births in ewes could be markedly reduced or totally eliminated by concentrate supplementation during the reproductive cycle
Introduction More than ten thousand years ago, man first domesticated the sheep. (Thear and Fraser 1986). Modern sheep breeds descended from the wild sheep of Europe and Asia that inhabited relatively dry, unrestricted upland areas with sweet but sparse vegetation (Thear and Fraser 1986). The transition of the sheep to modern farming with its high and fenced enclosure has been achieved only by a long process of selective breeding. Many breeds still possess an inborn urge to escape from the restrictions of their allotted grazing areas, and they prefer the short, sweet grasses when these are available. The domestication of the sheep brought under man's control, an animal that could provide him with wool and skins for clothing, meat and milk for his nourishment. The sheep has continued throughout history to provide these benefits, making it in many ways perhaps the most useful of the domestic species. (Thear and Fraser 1986). The domesticated sheep was probably originally developed as a milch animal, being milked after it had weaned its lamb to provide milk, butter, yogurt and cheese for human consumption. Later the sheep was developed for meat and wool production. Some modern breeds of sheep are highly specialized for the
238 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. production of one commodity, while others are of a more general type and can be described as dual-purpose or even triple-purpose. On this basis, sheep breeds can be grouped into various categories according to the purpose for which they are reared. For example, there are milch/milk breeds, wool breeds, hill and range breeds, general purpose breeds and meat breeds.
Classification of Sheep Sheep are hollow–horned, even-toed ruminants belonging to the: Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Artiodactyla Sub Order Ruminantia Family Bovidae Sub Family Caprinae Genus Ovis Species aries The Genus Ovis includes all sheep, while domesticated sheep belong to the species aries. A total of 7 distinct wild forms of sheep divided into some 40 different varieties have been recognized. Among the wild species thought to have contributed significantly to domesticated sheep are the Argali (Ovis ammon) of Central Asia, the Urial (Ovis vignei) also of Asia, and the Moufflon (Ovis musmon) of Asia minor and Europe. In humid Southern Nigeria, small ruminants are an integral component of the household where they contribute to the cultural, food and socio-economic life of the people. The potential returns from sheep and goat keeping under the
239 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. traditional management system are high. Inadequate feed supply has been incriminated as one of the major constraints to increased production of these small ruminants (Adu et al, 1996). Increasing productivity is one of the primary goals in animal production research; and growth is also of major concern to livestock farmers. One of the ways of enhancing productivity is through adequate nutrition. A sufficient intake of energy and protein is required for good reproductive performance. A diet providing sufficient protein and energy encourages sexual maturity. Conception and pregnancy proceed smoothly to produce young ones with relatively high birth weights and strong constitution. A low mortality of new born is achieved at birth and the young animals have a good basis for subsequent growth and productivity. A high level of fertility is a pre-requisite of an efficient animal production system since profitability is closely associated with the prolificacy of the animal. The level of fertility in the female reproductive cycle depends upon the number of ova shed and fertilized, the number of fetuses that survive and are born alive, and the number of offspring that grow to maturity. Losses which occur at any of these stages are due to nutritional, environmental and disease factors. Sheep, just like goats display a unique ability to adapt and survive in a wide geographical zone in Nigeria, and they serve as a flexible financial reserve for the rural population. Sheep play other socio-cultural roles in the customs and traditions of many Nigerian cities. (Gefu et al, 1994). In Nigeria, especially in the northern part, it is an important source of meat to both urban and rural dwellers.
Sheep Feeding Sheep can usually get all the nutrition they need from grazing. Grass growth in Nigeria is however seasonal, growing rapidly during the wet season thus
240 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. becoming highly lignified within a short time with much lower protein content. During the dry season, grass growth declines seriously followed by an almost completely dry environment devoid of any vegetation during the dry harmattan period which may last up to four months in some cases. Under these two extreme conditions, the WAD sheep suffers from a low level of nutrition during the period of rapid grass growth and practically almost goes hungry during the dry season period. The number of ewes to keep then has to be adjusted to suit the early grass growth and efforts made to conserve the surplus as hay or silage.
For mating and other reproductive activities, it is necessary for the ewes to be in condition to be able to impart quality characteristics on the offspring. It is often therefore necessary to give them additional concentrate feed: this can be in form of pellets, cubes, mash or in form of free access feeding blocks which can be left in the field for the sheep to eat at will. Forage crops are sometimes used for green succulent feed when grass is not adequate. But these, according to Thear and Fraser (1986), are not satisfactory at mating times as they tend to depress fertility. Minerals are essential for sheep and could be in form of general purpose licks. Special provision is needed in areas where specific minerals such as copper or cobalt are deficient. This is because copper deficiency will cause sway-back in the lambs and cobalt deficiency will cause pine in the ewes. Another critical period of feeding starts around six weeks before lambing. For the old ewes, special feeding could start as from twelve weeks before lambing to enable them devote more of the nutrition to their own bodily condition. A special diet of a combination of roughage and concentrate is recommended for all ewes six weeks before lambing. A daily ration for medium-sized ewes of 70- 75kg with an expected prolificacy of 160-175 percent lambing could be as below:
241 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Table 1: Ration for Medium-Sized Ewes
Weeks before Lambing Roughage (kg) Concentrate (kg)
Six 1.8 0.2
Five 1.8 0.3
Four 1.4 0.4
Three 1.4 0.5
Two 0.9 0.6
One 0.9 0.6
The level of feeding could be varied according to the size of the ewe and her expected level of performance. The concentrate could contain 14% crude protein and be either compounded feed or a home-mix of cereals plus a high protein ingredient. It is considered necessary to intensify efforts in areas of nutrition both at mating and during pregnancy to ensure high postnatal performance of the lambs. A high level of ewe nutrition for a few weeks prior to mating is known to increase ovulation rate. In a study conducted by Goodlettt et al (1984), the ovulation rate of ewes was positively associated with live-weight gain during the flushing period using different legumes. For each 1kg increment of live-weight gain up to 8kg, ovulation increased by 0.05 ova per ewe. Improved nutrition 5 weeks prior to ovulation increased the incidence of twin ovulation by 2.5% for each additional kilogram of body weight at the time of ovulation. Increased feed supply to ewes in late pregnancy has been associated with increase in body weight. Studies have shown that good nutrition especially during the last 6 to 8 weeks of pregnancy affects not only the performance of new-born lambs in post natal life, but also the lactational performance of the ewes. For example, Osuagwu et al (1980) noted that 70% of the final weight of the fetus is laid down in the last 40-50 days of gestation. Adequate feeding
242 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. imposed during late pregnancy substantially improved the performance of the Nigerian Dwarf ewes measured in terms of lamb weight and milk production. Kayongo et al (1984) showed that pre-lambing supplementation improved weight gain of pregnant ewes, improved birth-weight of lambs and prevented extreme weight loss of ewes during the subsequent lactation. Gatenby (1991) recorded an increase up to 30% in the production of twin and triplets by sheep flushed about four weeks before mating. The pregnant ewe must eat enough to maintain herself and to feed the growing fetus. Devendra and Mcleroy (1982) suggested that a higher level of feed be offered to the pregnant ewe in the last two months of pregnancy. This process, called “steaming-up” , leads to a low ewe and lamb mortality, high birth weight of lambs, increase in milk flow in the ewe, hence greater live weights of lamb and a heavier live weight of the adult stock. Alhassan (1988) found that diet supplementation with cotton seed cake and molasses improved animal performance. Nouwakpo et al (1988) also reported average daily weight gains from Leucaena and Gliricidia supplements. According to a project by ILCA (1993/94), a group of ewes was mated in May to lamb at the end of the dry season (October), while another group was mated in January to lamb at the end of the dry season in May/June. This confirms the possibility of two lamb crops in one year. After mating, the ewes were given a concentrate supplement until lambing to ensure good body condition. Such good nutrition before and after mating and during later stages of pregnancy goes a long way at improving the reproductive performance of sheep.
The Nigerian Livestock Industry Livestock rearing is an age long practice in Nigeria. It is estimated that over 90% of the cattle, 70% of the sheep and 75% of the goats are found in the northern parts
243 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. of Nigeria, a high proportion of which is in the hands of the traditional pastoralists. In Southern Nigeria, greater emphasis has been placed on crop production, while the livestock population has generally been left to fend for itself, being regarded as occasional source of funds (in emergency) and for slaughter as part of the rituals on social and festive occasions. However, records of performance of the indigenous livestock breeds managed under the organized systems of production practices on some government stations and University research farms have consistently shown better performance. Such results, to some extent, indicate the promising prospects of increased production that may be derived from the application of improved systems of production to the indigenous population. The world production of meat from different livestock species is an indication that the proportion of dietary protein and energy available from livestock products alone in the developed countries outweighs that for the developing countries. With the exception of poultry where some investments are on the large scale, the structure of livestock production is such that 80% - 90% of the nation's livestock lies in the hands of small scale producers. The gap between demand and supply of livestock products continues to widen. The consequence of the supply deficit is a high rate of increase in the prices of livestock products. While increases in meat production may be small even for the developed nations of the world, conscious efforts are still being made by them to ensure that net supply satisfies consumer requirements. Many problems have impeded the growth and development of the livestock industry in Nigeria. These include: §Absence of up-to-date and reliable human and livestock population figures which makes planning difficult. §An environment which has not proven favourable to a successful
244 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
execution of programmes to increase domestic livestock production. §A low input supply and its ineffective distribution throughout the country. §Inadequate infrastructural facilities for production. §Poor implementation of programmes meant to evolve self-sufficiency in production. §Programmes which have been hampered by bureaucracy and under- funding. §Low investment in agricultural production on the part of government in comparison with other sectors of the economy. §Inadequate funding of research on livestock. §Lack of a sound financial policy for lending to small scale producers who are responsible for not less than 80% of the production. §Inability of government to impact production to the extent of satisfying the animal protein needs of the population. Livestock is the most important aspect of agriculture in terms of the nutritional needs of the people. Its role as a private economic enterprise and as an employment-generating venture at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of activities needs no emphasis.
Case for Increased Sheep Production The rapidly expanding human population and increasing urbanization will likely increase the demand for meat, milk, eggs and other animal products. Nutrition is one of the most important factors of food animal production. It not only affects the level of production but also the reproductive ability and even the survival of the various species used for human consumption. The ruminant species in Nigeria depend entirely on natural pastures (rangeland) for their feed. These sources are adequate for survival and little production during the wet season
245 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. only. Adequate nutrition is one of the ways to enhance the productivity of the West African Dwarf (WAD) sheep. This will increase the protein available for human growth and development. Sheep can utilize grasses for tissue development. However, the quality of the grasses fluctuates with seasons and stages of maturity.
However with modern physical development and expansion of arable crop areas all over the country, global grazing is diminishing, and conflict between livestock rearers and arable farmers is now a frequent occurrence all over the country. Forages with crude protein levels below 7% cannot sustain live-weight in animals. This necessitates supplementation with proteinous feeds. Some of the reasons for promoting sheep production in tropical countries include; 1. Rapid growth of human population which is creating a significant and increasing demand for additional animal protein foods. 2. Easier possibility of increasing the population of small ruminants than that of large ruminants due to low capital investments, small land holding requirement, high reproductive turn over and possible management by family labour. 3. High genetic variability within and between tropical breeds such that selection for improved animal productivity is possible and when combined with improved feeding and health can lead to overall production gains.
Justification for the Study The shortfall in animal protein intake in the country can be alleviated through increased production of small ruminants. A high level of fertility is a prerequisite of an efficient animal production system, and profitability is closely associated
246 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. with the prolificacy of the animals (Osuagwu et al, 1980). The level of fertility of the female reproductive cycle depends upon the number of ova shed and fertilized, the number of fetuses that survive and are born alive and the number of offspring that are reared to weaning. Good nutrition at the onset of the breeding and during the later stages of pregnancy greatly affects the performance of new-born animals in post-natal life. This fact has been widely accepted, recognized and applied in the management of breeding animals.
In order to develop a vigorous sheep industry, it is necessary to assess the production requirements and capabilities of the indigenous breed in terms of growth rate, sexual maturity, pregnancy, lambing and lactation. Any programme of improvement of sheep production would require less capital and efforts for its execution because sheep require cheap housing facilities, less intensive care and management, compete less with man for the scarce and expensive foods such as cereal grains and roots, breed all the year round with up to two lamb crops per annum, and above all, sheep meat has a wide acceptability throughout the country. This study was therefore carried out to assess productivity parameters basic to the programme of improvement of the indigenous West African Dwarf (WAD) sheep of the humid zone of Nigeria. Concentrate supplementation at pre-mating and pre-partum stages of production is aimed at improving the reproductive performance of the WAD ewe to produce more meat and thus increase the protein content available in human diet in humid Southern Nigeria.
Objectives This study was carried out with the following objectives; 1. To determine the effect of good nutrition on ewe performance prior to mating.
247 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
2. To determine the effect of concentrate supplementation on pregnant ewes. 3. To estimate the effect of high protein concentrate supplementation on the number and birth weight of lambs. 4. To determine the gestation length of ewes subjected to different planes of nutrition prior to mating and parturition. 5. To estimate the milk yield and composition in ewes on different planes of nutrition before mating and during late pregnancy.
Materials and Methods
All experiments were conducted at the Animal unit of the Department of Agricultural Education of the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta. The unit carries out both practical and class work on various types of livestock, both ruminants and non-ruminants. Lecturers and students conduct experimentsz on growth, nutrition, reproduction and economics of production of poultry, sheep, goats, rabbits and snails. Similar studies on the nutrition and reproduction of the WAD sheep and goat have been conducted at the Department to ascertain the nutritive requirements and the reproductive behavior and ability of sheep and goats. Rainfall distribution in Osiele area is bimodal with peaks in June/July and September/October. The month of August usually experiences a distinct period of dryness termed the “August break”. The major preoccupation of villages around the College is farming, and farmers cultivate large areas of land in addition to rearing animals, predominantly sheep and fewer goats. These small ruminants are usually allowed to roam around with no definite attention paid to their quality of feeding and health.
248 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Arising from the results of studies conducted in the Animal unit of the College, a number of small ruminant farmers have responded to advice on improving feeding, care, health and management of their animals.
Experimental Animals The animals used in this study were the West African Dwarf breed. Komolafe et al (1981) reported that the West African Dwarf sheep, also described as the Fouta Djallon, the Djallonke or the Southern breed occurs in the whole area of West Africa South of latitude 140N where a greater percentage of them is confined almost entirely to the coastal areas. Within this geographical zone are many variations of type, resulting mainly from differences in environmental conditions and each territory uses different names to describe the West African Dwarf sheep in their area. In the Cameroons for instance it was known as the “Cameroon Dwarf”, in the Chad as the “Kirdi” or “Lakka”, while in Nigeria it was originally known as the “Nigerian Dwarf”. These varieties do not differ in basic features and are all now generally referred to as the West African Dwarf sheep.
The Federal College of Education Ruminant Flock The ruminant flock of the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta is typical of the Southern variety of the West African Dwarf sheep and goats in terms of coat colour and body conformation. The unit was established in 1990 by the Agricultural Science Education Department of the College for teaching and research purpose. The foundation stock was purchased from project farmers of the Ogun state Agricultural Development Programme (OGADEP). This comprised of five goats (1 buck and 4 does) and nine sheep (1 ram and 8 ewes). A number of weaners were later purchased for experimental purposes. The sheep used in this research work were obtained from the offspring of the
249 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. foundation stock. This made it possible to maintain some level of purity and uniformity. The animals were housed in a simple open-sided, dwarf-walled building partitioned into compartments. The floor is made of rammed earth and covered with wood shavings. The roof is made of asbestos roofing sheets. Raised platforms are provided as bedding for the animals. Adjacent to the animal house is a large expanse of land established with Guinea grass (Panicum maximum). The area is fenced round with bamboo, it is divided into paddocks and is rotationally grazed by the animals. A number of browse plants particularly Gmelina arborea, Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala, also exist around the house. Routine vaccination, deworming, dipping as well as treatment of sick/pregnant animals were carried out by the Veterinary staff of the Ogun State Ministry of Agriculture as well as Ogun State Agricultural Development Programme.
Sample Size The sample size consisted of thirty-two weaned ewes with a weight range of 16.0kg to 23.5kg and four rams with a weight range of 19kg to 24.0kg. The thirty- two ewes were randomly grouped into four, with eight animals in each group. One ram was allowed to run with each group of eight ewes. The initial weights of the experimental ewes and rams per group are shown in Table 2 below. TABLE 2: Initial Weights of Experimental Ewes and Rams
S/N Animal’s Identification Number (ID) and Group A B C D ID Wt ID Wt ID Wt ID Wt 1 005 21.0kg 001 16.0kg 003 20.0kg 004 23.0kg 2 007 20.0kg 009 22.5kg 006 19.5kg 008 20.5kg 3 014 22.0kg 017 21.0kg 011 22.0kg 016 19.5kg 4 018 18.5kg 019 19.7kg 012 20.0kg 020 19.5kg 5 021 22.5kg 024 22.0kg 013 18.5kg 023 17.0kg 6 032 17.0kg 025 20.5kg 015 17.5kg 029 20.5kg 7 033 20.5kg 026 19.5kg 022 20.0kg 030 22.0kg 8 034 20.0kg 028 20.5kg 027 23.5kg 031 18.5kg Total initial Wt (kg) 161.5 161.7 161.0 160.5 Mean initial Wt X (Kg) 20.19 20.21 20.13 20.06 RAMS 042 23kg 044 19.00kg 041 24.00kg 043 23.5kg
250 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
The Design Thirty-two ewes were balanced for weight and allotted at random to four treatment groups of eight ewes each. Twenty-four of the animals received a common experimental diet termed the “Production ration” before mating and/or before parturition. The pattern of treatment is shown in Fig. 3.1. The first two groups (A and B) of sixteen ewes were maintained on a normal daily grazing throughout the mating period with no supplemental concentrate. The other two groups (C and D) of sixteen ewes received supplemental concentrate feeding prior to mating in addition to normal grazing. Among the two groups, eight ewes in each group received additional concentrate feeding during pregnancy just prior to parturition while other eight ewes in each group were not provided with any additional feeding throughout pregnancy but were maintained on grazing only. All the thirty-two experimental ewes had access to the various browse plants around the house.
Feeding Procedure For six weeks prior to mating, ewes in Groups C and D received concentrate supplementation at the rate of about 2-4% of the individual body weight (Adu, 1975). After successful mating and conception, ewes in Groups B and D received concentrate supplementation in the last trimester of pregnancy also at the rate of 2-4% of live weight of each ewe.
Ewes in Group A did not receive the concentrate supplementation at anytime during the reproductive cycle. They were however maintained by grazing on good nutritious pasture of Panicum maximum.
251 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Group A: 8 ewes Low-Low plane of nutrition Group B: 8 ewes Low-High plane of nutrition Group C: 8 ewes High-Low plane of nutrition Group D: 8 ewes High-High plane of nutrition Browse plants such as Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium and Gmelina arborea were cut and fed to the animals. All other ewes in Groups B, C and D as well as the rams used for mating were allowed to graze and to feed on the forage leaves.
Experimental Ration The experimental ration consisted of a high protein concentrate which was adequate in energy, minerals, vitamins and fat but low in fibre. Percentage composition of the experimental ration is shown in Table 3. The calculated percentage crude protein in the experimental diet is in line with other previous works (Adu, et al 1974, 14.05-17.68%, Adu, 1975 14.74%, ESCA, NSCA and WSAC 1983 15-16%)
252 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
TABLE 3: Percentage Composition of the Experimental Ration
INGR EDIENT COMPOSITIO N %
Yellow Maize 20
Palm Ker nel Cake (PKC) 20
Brew ers’ Dried Grain (BDG) 20
Wheat Offal 18
Rice Bran 17.5
Bone Meal 2.0
Oyster Shell 2.0
Salt 0.25
Premix 0.25
100.0
Calcula ted Protein % 14.33 Calculated Energy (ME)K Cal/Kg 2354.5
The study was divided into 6 Experiments thus Experiment 1 Establishment of Grass Paddocks & Browse Plants A half-hectare plot of land adjacent to the College Animal house was cleared and fenced round with low block wall and bamboo sticks. It was partitioned with bamboo into four paddocks each measuring 12m x 12m. Young shoots of Panicum maximum (Guinea grass) were uprooted from other established plots and transplanted into the cleared plot. No fertilizer was applied. Browse plants such as Gmelina arborea, Gliricidia sepium as well as a crop plant Musa sapientum (banana), (leaves which sheep feed on) had previously been established as shade trees around the College land. Pruning of these trees was done as the need arose. Seeds of Leucaena leucocephala were obtained from nearby Federal Livestock Department. The seeds were initially nursed before being transplanted into the
253 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. premises of the animal house. The trees also served as browse plants for the experimental animals
Experiment 2 Formulation of the Experimental Diet- The Production Ration The concentrate used for the experiment was formulated using some quantity of maize as energy source, various types of crops and animal by-products such as Palm Kernel Cake (PKC), Brewers' Dried Grains (BDG), Wheat offal, Rice bran, Bone meal and Oyster shell. The crop by products supplied the bulk needed by ruminant animals in addition to some plant proteins. The animal by-products were used as mineral sources. Salt was included for palatability and also as a source of minerals. A little quantity of premix was used as a source of both vitamins and minerals needed during growth, reproduction and production. Proximate Analysis of The Production Ration The proximate composition of the experimental diet was determined at the Livestock Laboratory of the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Moor Plantation, Ibadan. The feed sample was analysed for dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, crude fibre, nitrogen-free extract, total ash and gross energy. All chemical analysis followed the conventional AOAC (1990) methods. All the results were expressed as percentages on dry matter basis while energy was expressed as kilo calories per kilogram of feed.
Experiment 3 Measurement of Feed Intake of the Experimental Animals All experimental animals on the concentrate diet were fed twice daily at 7:00am and at 4:00pm. The amount of feed consumed was determined daily by difference of refusal from the amount of feed offered. At the end of the concentrate feeding, all the experimental animals were
254 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. allowed to graze freely in their various groups in separate paddocks with one ram for each group of eight ewes. All the experimental animals in Group A were maintained on grazing and foraging only.
Table 4: Feeding Schedules of Experimental Animals
Groups Treatment
Before Mating Before Parturition
A Grazing and Browsing Only Grazing and Browsing Only
B Grazing and Browsing Only Grazing + Concentrate
C Grazing + Concentrate Grazing and Browsing Only
D Grazing + Concentrate Grazing + Concentrate
Experimental Design (2 x 2 Factorial)
Experiment 4 Measurement of Live Weight Changes during Pregnancy and Parturition All the experimental ewes together with the rams were weighed individually at the beginning of the experiment and fortnightly thereafter after an overnight fast using a spring balance. They were first put in empty feed bags before being suspended on the spring balance. The lambs were weighed at birth and also fortnightly thereafter by putting them in small bags and suspending them on the spring balance.
Initial Selection and Treatment of Experimental Animals Thirty-two female weaned sheep of the Nigerian Dwarf Breed were selected from the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta flock for this study. The average age of the female animals was 15 to 18 months with a weight range of 16.0kg to
255 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
23.5kg. Four rams with a weight range of 19kg to 24.0kg were also selected from the flock for mating the female animals. All the animals in the flock received an annual PPR Vaccination during the months of November to December. This was administered by the staff of the Ogun State Agricultural Development Programme (OGADEP) in collaboration with the Federal Livestock Department staff designated for such jobs. Routine de-worming of all the animals was also carried out using Banminth F de-wormer at the rate of one table spoonful per animal. The animals were dipped against ecto-parasites using Asuntol. Those selected from the flock for the experiment were certified to be in good health.
Experiment 5 Measurement of Milk Production and Consumption Milk production was estimated weekly. Lambs were allowed to suckle their dams three times, at 8.00am, 12 noon and 4.00pm on the estimation day. Weighing of the lamb was done before and after the suckling. The difference in weight of the lamb was assumed to be the amount of milk consumed.
Experiment 6 Determination of Milk Composition Ewes were hand milked on days 1, 3 and 5 after lambing and at weekly intervals thereafter to collect Colostrum on days 1, 3 and 5 and ordinary milk afterwards for chemical analysis. Chemical Analysis All milk samples collected were analyzed for milk fat, milk protein, milk ash, total solids and lactose. Production Characterisitcs of the Experimental Sheep at FCE Animal Unit The production characteristics of the West African Dwarf sheep at the Animal unit of the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta are shown in Table 5
256 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Table 5: Production Characteristics of the West African Dwarf Sheep at FCE Animal Unit
Parameter Male Female
Age at first mating (days) 252 280
Age at first lambing (days) - 432
Mean gestation lengt h (days) - 152
Mean birth weight(kg) 2.65 1.98
Mean live weight at 6 weeks (kg) 4.84 4.12
Mean live weight at weaning (12 weeks)(kg) 8.14 7.82
Table 6: Nutritive Composition of Forage Plant/Crop
Forage/Crop Percentage Composition
CP EE CF ASH Ca P NFE
Banana leaves 14.2 2.7 29.5 18.5 - - 35.06
Gmelina arborea 11.0 4.8 38.4 - 1.01 0.4 -
Gliricidia sepium 16.0 4.6 31.6 - 0.9 0.3 -
Leucaena leucocephala 21.8 7.1 27.1 6.8 1.3 0.2 51.1
Panicum maximum 7.7 1.7 37.3 13.9 - - 39.4
Source: Aduku (1993)
Table 7: Proximate Composition of the Experimental Ration
Parameters Concentrate mixture %
Moisture content % 7.58
Dry Matter % 94.42
Crude Protein % 16.95
Ether Extract % 3.79
Crude Fibre % 19.93
Ash % 8.23
Calcium % 0.31
Phosphorus % 0.59
Nitrogen-free Extract % 43.52
Gross Energy (Kcal/g) 3.96
257 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Pre-mating Concentrate Intake of the Experimental Ewes The mean concentrate intake of the experimental ewes in Groups C and D fed the Production ration prior to mating is shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Pre -Mating Concentrate Intake of Experimental Ewes
Animal Groups
Parame ters A B C D SEM
No of Animals (Ewes) 8 8 8 8
Experimental Period (days) 42 4 2 42 42
Mean initial live w eight (kg) 20.19 20.21 20.13 20.0 6 0.25
Mean concentrate intake 6 w eeks pre-mating (g/day) - - 583.8 501.5 18.74
Mean concentrate intake 4 w eeks pre-mating (g/day) - - 622.8 661.8 17.51
Mean concentrate intake 2 w eeks pre-mating (g/day) - - 731.0 704.6 16.58
Mean concentrate intake at mating (g/day) - - 739.5 737.9 18.95
Total concentrate intake pre-mating (g/day) - - 2677.1 2605 .8 50.69
Mean concentrate intake pre-mating - - 669.3 651.5 14.42
Mean intake as % of live weight - - 3.0 2.9
Note: Groups A and B were maintained on grass only throughout this experimental period.
The condition of the ewes at mating has an important influence on the number of lambs born. The condition of ewes is related mainly to their level of nutrition. Generally, sheep in poor condition will benefit from additional concentrates and minerals. The health of the ewes also affects their condition. For reasons of health, the experimental ewes were de-wormed before the start of the experiment. They were also vaccinated against PPR which was done on an annual basis throughout the mating, pregnancy and lambing periods. The daily intake of dry matter was higher for ewes in Group C than for those in Group D. The daily dry matter consumption of the WAD ewes which ranged between 3.01% to 3.51% and 3.13% to 3.42% of body weight for ewes in Groups C and D respectively falls with the range of values quoted for sheep and cattle (mean figure of 2.8%) by Devendra and Mcleroy (1982). The figures are also comparable with the figures 3.0%, 3.23% to 3.53% reported by Devendra
258 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
(1967) and Adu (1975) respectively. The findings of this trial also fall in line with the recommended practice that the daily dry matter intake of animals is 3% of body weight, a norm which has been generally adopted in British feeding standards (Adu, 1975)
Table 9: Performance of Ewes on Pre-mating Concentrate Supplementation
Parameters Treatments
A B C D SEM
Ewe per treatment 8 8 8 8
Concentrate Supplementation Nil Nil Yes Yes
Experimental Period (days) 42 42 42 42
Mean live-weight, 6 weeks pre-mating (kg) 20.19 20.12 20.13 20.06 0.612
Mean live-weight, 4 weeks pre-mating (kg) 20.54 20.56 20.76 20.68 0.604
Mean live-weight, 2 weeks pre-mating (kg) 21.08 21.09 21.50 21.35 0.586
Mean live-weight at mating (kg) 21.65 21.85 22.41 22.36 0.589
Weight gain pre-mating (kg) 1.46a 1.64a 2.28b 2.30b 0.589
Mean daily weight gain/ewe (g) 34.76a 39.05a 54.29a 54.76b 3.2
a, b: means in the same row with different superscripts differ significantly P<0.01
Pre-partum Concentrate Intake of the Experimental Ewes The mean concentrate intake of experimental animals in Groups B and D during weeks 14 to 21 of pregnancy and until lambing, is shown in Table 10. Dry matter intake was significantly higher (P<0.01) with the ewes in Group D than those in Group B. It should be noted that ewes in Group B were only maintained on grazing and browsing prior to mating and throughout the period of 10-14 weeks post mating. The total weight gain during the 14 weeks of pregnancy and the mean daily weight gain per ewe in Group D were significantly higher (P<0.01) than those of Group B both of which received the pre-partum concentrate feeding.
259 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Table 10: Pre-Partum Concentrate Intake of Experimental Ewes
Animal Groups
A B C D SEM
No of Animals (ewes) 8 8 8 8
Experimental Period (days) 42 42 42 42
Mean Live weight 14th week of pregnancy (kg) 25.44a 25.29a 28.06b 28.18b 0.573
Mean concentrate intake 14th week of pregnancy (g/day) - 834.6 - 929.1 19.74
Mean concentrate intake 16th week of pregnancy (g/day) - 811.6 - 900.9 20.79
Mean concentrate intake 18th week of pregnancy (g/day) - 802.1 - 870.3 19.01
Mean concentrate intake 20th week of pregnancy (g/day) - 791.8 - 871.1 17.94
Mean concentrate intake 21st week of pregnancy (g/day) - 781.1 - 828.9 16.49
Total concentrate intake pre-partum (g/day) - 4021.1 - 4400.3 86.24
Mean concentrate intake pre-partum (g/day) - 804.2 - 880.1 18.47
Mean intake as % of live weight - 2.78 - 2.76
Note: Groups A & C were maintained on grass only throughout the experimental period.
Liveweght Changes during the last Trimester of Pregnancy In the last trimester of pregnancy, ewes on pre-partum concentrate supplementation (Groups B and D) had significantly higher (P<0.01) weight gains and mean daily weight gain per ewe of 3.64kg, 74.29g and 3.70kg and 75.51g respectively over the values of 2.11kg, 43.06g and 2.86kg and 58.37g for Groups A and C ewes respectively (Table 11). However, Group C ewes still had significantly higher P<0.01, total weight gain and mean daily weight gain per ewe than Group A due to the earlier concentrate supplementation received by Group C ewes during the pre-mating period.
260 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Table 11: LIVEWEGHT GAINS OF EWES DURING THE LAST TRIMESTER OF PREGNANCY (WEEK 14 TO LAMBING)
Parameters Treatment Groups
A B C D SEM
Ewe per treatment 8 8 8 8
Experimental period (days) (Supplementation) 49 49 49 49
Mean live-weight 14th week of pregnancy (kg) 25.44a 25.29a 28.06b 28.18b 0.573
Mean live-weight 16th week of pregnancy (kg) 26.03a 26.18a 28.63b 28.06c 0.567
Mean live-weight 18th week of pregnancy (kg) 26.66a 27.19b 29.20c 30.01d 0.550
Mean live-weight 20th week of pregnancy (kg) 27.11a 28.28b 30.12c 31.11d 0.545
Mean live-weight 21st week of pregnancy (kg) 27.55a 28.93b 30.94c 31.88d 0.563
Mean live-weight gain 14th – 21st week of pregnancy (kg) 2.11a 3.64c 2.86b 3.70c
Mean daily weight gain/ewe (g) 43.06a 74.29c 58.37b 75.51d 3.9
abcd; means in the same row with different superscripts differ significantly(p<0.01)
As the Group B ewes received the concentrate supplementation in the last trimester of pregnancy (week 14 to lambing at about 21 weeks), the live weights increased rapidly giving a total weight gain of 3.64kg compared to a weight gain of 2.11kg for Group A ewes which were maintained on grazing and browsing only throughout mating and lambing periods. The mean live-weights of ewes in Groups C and D were significantly higher P<0.05 than those of Groups A and B ewes due to the concentrate supplementation received by the former groups prior to mating. As a result of the initial higher live weight of Group D ewes at week 14, the concentrate intake was significantly higher P<0.01 than the concentrate intake of Group B ewes throughout the last trimester of pregnancy when the concentrate was given to them.
Lambing and Lamb Birth Weights All the experimental ewes successfully gave birth to live and healthy lambs at various times during the experimental period. The records of gestation and lambing of the experimental ewes are shown in Table 12.
261 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Table 1 2: Gestation and Lambing records of Experim ental Ewes
Treatment Ewe ID Gestation Birth Weight of Type of Sex of Lambs
Group No Length (days) Lambs (kg) Birth
A1 032 154 2.4 Single Female
2 033 150 2.2 Twins Male, Male
3 034 154 2.5 Single Male
4 021 152 2.1, 2.1 Twins Male, Male
5 005 154 2.5 Single Male
6 018 154 2.4 Single Male
7 007 152 2.2, 2.2 Twins Male, Male
8 014 156 2.6 Single Male
X=153 .25 X=2.27±0.0 74 5:3
Treatment Ewe ID Gestation Birth Weight of Type of Sex of Lambs
Group No Length (days) Lambs (kg) Birth
B1 024 152 2.5, 2.5 Twins Male, Male
2 025 150 2.5, 2.4 Twins Male, Female
3 026 152 2.8 Single Female
4 028 152 3.0 Single Male
5 017 148 2.3, 2.3 Twins Male, Male
6 001 150 2.0, 2.0 Twins Male, Male
7 009 152 3.0 Single Female
8 019 154 2.8 Single Female
X =15 1.25 X=2.51±0.068 4:4
262 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Treatment Ewe ID Gestation Birth Weight of Type of Sex of Lambs
Group No Length (days) Lambs (kg) Birth
C1 013 154 3 Single Male
2 022 150 2.6, 2.6 Twins Male, Male
3 027 152 2.7, 2.4 Twins Male, Female
4 006 150 2.6, 2.6 Twins Male, Male
5 015 150 2.1, 2.2 Twins Male, Male
6 012 150 2.6, 2.5 Twins Male, Male
7 003 150 2.5, 2.3 Twins Male, Male
8 011 152 2.4, 2.4 Twins Male, Male
X=150.75 X=2.50±0.057 1:7
Treatment Ewe ID Gestation Birth Weight of Type of Sex of Lambs
Group No Length (days) Lambs (kg) Birth
D1 020 150 2.5, 2.5 Twin s Male, Male
2 029 147 2.8, 2.8 Twin s Male, Male
3 030 152 2.8, 2.8 Twin s Male, Male
4 031 149 2.2, 2.5 Twin s Female, Male
5 023 154 3.0 Single Male
6 016 147 2.1, 2.3 Twin s Female, Male
7 004 150 2.3, 2.8 Twin s Female, Male
8 008 152 2.4, 2.4 Twin s Male, Male
X =1 50.13 X=2.5 5±0 .067 1:7
263 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Table 13: Mean Chemical Composition of Whole Milk of Experim ental Ewes
Treatment Groups
Constituents A B C D SEM
Water % 82.98 80.69 82.28 81.04 6.33
Total Solids % 17.02 19.31 17.72 18.96 0.44
Fat % 6.20 6.80 6.70 6.60 0.07
Protein % 3.43 4.52 3.86 5.86 0.06
Lactose % 4.01 4.20 4.20 4.64 0.06
Total Ash % 0.64 0.58 0.69 0.81 0.04
Solids-not-fat % 10.82 12.51 11.02 12.36 0.09
Gross Energy Kcal/g 6.12 6.23 6.10 6.55 0.05
Lamb Yield of Experimental Ewes Table 13 shows the lamb yield expressed on weight basis per group of experimental ewes. Effect of supplementation significantly increased litter size particularly for ewes in Groups C and D whose diets were supplemented prior to mating. Incidence of multiple births was higher in these ewes than in Groups A and B ewes, which were maintained on grazing only prior to mating.
Table 14: Total Lamb Yield of Experimental ewes
Parameters Treatment Groups
A B C D
Total No. of lambs born 11 12 15 15
Total birth weight of lambs (kg) 25 30.1 37.5 38.2
Mean birth weights of lambs (kg) 2.27 2.51 2.50 2.55
Total live weight of lambs at weaning (kg) 54.3 82.4 109.1 115.3
Mean live weight of lambs at weaning (kg) 6.79 8.26 8.19 8.87
264 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
Conclusion
The reproductive performance of West African Dwarf sheep whose diet was supplemented with concentrate prior to mating and/or lambing was assessed using 32 ewes and 4 rams at the Animal unit of the Department of Agricultural Education of the Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
The 32 ewes were randomly allotted to four groups of eight ewes each with one ram per group. The pattern of treatment was thus:
Group A 8 Ewes No pre-mating and no pre-partum concentrate supplementation.
Group B 8 Ewes No pre-mating concentrate supplementation but with pre-partum
concentrate supplementation.
Group C 8 Ewes Pre mating concentrate supplementation but no pre-partum
concentrate supplementation.
Group D 8 Ewes Both pre-mating and pre-partum concentrate supplementation.
The pre-mating concentrate intake of the experimental ewes in Groups C and D during the forty two days experimental period ranged from 583.8g to 739.5g for ewes in Group C and 501.5g to 737.9g for ewes in Group D. The total pre-mating concentrate intake per day and the mean concentrate intake were 2677.1g/2605.8g, 669.3g/651.5g for ewes in Groups C and D respectively, while the pre-partum concentrate intake for the ewes in Groups B and D were a total of 4012.2g and 4400.3g and mean values of 804.2g and 880.1g respectively. The mean intakes during the two separate experimental periods represented 3.0%, 2.9%, 2.78% and 2.78% of the live weight of ewes in Groups C, D, B, and D respectively. The eight ewes in Group A never took the concentrate
265 PRE MATING AND PRE-PARTUM CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENTATION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF (WAD) EWES IN ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. supplement throughout the experimental period. There were statistically significant (P<0.01) differences in the mean daily weight gain per ewe prior to mating across the four treatment groups. There were also statistically significant (P<0.01) differences in the weight gain per ewe pre- partum across the four treatment groups. From this study, it can be recommended that the diet of ewes for reproduction be supplemented with high protein concentrate prior to mating which will assist in the shedding of more ova and thus ensure multiple births. The diet of pregnant ewes should be sufficiently rich enough throughout pregnancy to ensure the birth of healthy and heavy lambs which would be able to attain heavy weaning weight. Supplementing the diet of ewes prior to mating can therefore significantly improve the rate of multiple births and thus increase the West African Dwarf sheep flock in the humid zone of Nigeria
References
ADU, I.F. (1975): The Effect of “Steaming Up” on the Birth Weight, Lactation and Growth of West African Dwarf Sheep. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University Of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria. Pp. 50-62.
ADU, I.F., OLALOKU, E.A. AND OYENUGA, V.A. (1974): The Effects of Energy Intake during late Pregnancy on Lamb Birth Weights and Lactation of Nigerian Dwarf Sheep. N.J.A.P. Vol. 1 No.2:151 -161.
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ADUKU, A.O. (1993): Tropical Feedstuff Analysis Table – Dept of Animal Science, Faculty of Agric A.B.U. Zaria, Nigeria.
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ALHASSAN, W.S (1988): Studies on Untreated Crop Residue Utilization in Red Sokoto (Maradi) Goats – In Goat Production in the Humid Tropics (Eds. O.B. Smith and A.G. Bosman) Pudoc Wageningen pp 62-66.
DEVENDRA, C. (1967): Studies on the Nutrition of the Indigenous Goats of Malaya. Malays. Agric. J. 46: 80 -97.
DEVENDRA, C. AND MCLEROY (1982): Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. Longman, London
ESCA, NSCA AND WSAC (1983): East of Scotland College of Agriculture, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, West of Scotland Agricultural College - The Scottish Agricultural Colleges, Management at Lambing. Publication No. 22 (Revised), Pillons and Wilson Ltd, Edinburgh.
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GEFU, J.O., ADU, I.F., ALAWA, C.B.I. AND MOGAJI, S.I. (1994) Characteristics of Small Holder Sheep and Goat Management Practices In South East Nigeria - Observation from Anambra State. Nig J. Anim. Prod. 21 (1&2) 127 – 134.
GOODLETT, M.M., DOUGHERTY, C.T. AND ELY, D.G. (1984): Intake and Reproductive Performance of Ewes fed Different Legumes Prior to and at Mating – International Goat and Sheep Res. 2(3) Pp 193-195.
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KOMOLAFE, M.F., ADEGBOLA, A.A., ARE, L.A. AND ASHAYE, T.I. (1981): Agricultural Science for West African Schools and Colleges. University Press Limited. Ibadan
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268 PART 4
269 LANGUAGE, RELIGION AND CULTURE
1. FAMILY CULTURE ORTHODOXY IN SELECTED NOVELS OF YORUBA EXPRESSION –FOLAKEMI SOLAJA
2. LANGUAGE ATTITUDE STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA- ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE – RAFIU A. SOYELE
3. STYLISTIC FEATURES OF YORUBA JINGLES AND ADVERTISEMENT DISCOURSE ON RADIO – SOJI ADEREMI FAJENYO
4. UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBA LAND : THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. – AYODELE A. AJAYI
5. DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA. - GEOFFREY AJEMIJOYE ARUEYINGHO
270 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE
LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE
Rafiu A. Soyele
Abstract Language is a sensitive social phenomenon. Previous studies have shown that people have different attitudes towards language and factors such as status, role assignment and political considerations often condition users' disposition. This study, therefore, investigated the attitudes of selected Yoruba-English bilinguals Government workers in Ogun State in order to determine their disposition to the use of Yoruba, the low code, which is constitutionally assigned to function at the domestic domain. Insights from mentalist and behaviourist frameworks were adopted to interpret speakers' motivation. Data were collected through a validated questionnaire administered on 550 participants selected through stratified random technique in these work domains: Judiciary (100), Legislature (75), Media (125) Sports (100) and Education (150). 58% of the population agreed that Yoruba is the preferred language of communication with spouse and family members while 42% preferred the English language. 68% preferred English in keeping notes and writing letters as against 32% who preferred Yoruba. 61% of the participants indicated that they code-mix and switch both English and Yoruba. In the same vein, 69% preferred to watch and listen to programmes scripted in English while 31% subscribed to Yoruba based programmes. Also, 347 respondents i.e. 63%, preferred to listen to music and electronic advert in English while responses in favour of Yoruba have 207 respondents which translates to 37%. The finding goes to show that English, an instrumental code is favourably competing and displacing Yoruba language at the domestic domain where Yoruba language is expected to function. Stakeholders in the studies of Yoruba should therefore rise up to the challenges of diminishing value characterising the indigenous languages in the society at large.
Introduction Nigeria is a multi-lingual nation with complex language situation. There are several categories of language in use but the complementary existence of the English language on one part and over 400 indigenous languages on the other is
292 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE spectacular. Little wonder, Oyeleye (2004) posited that there is a linguistic pluralism in Nigeria which manifests itself in the creation of a diglossic situation. In most modern societies where language problem exists, language policy making is imperative in order to ensure an organised and chaos-free speech community. In Nigeria today, what could be regarded as language policy is reflected in section 55 and 97 of the 1999 constitution and also in the National Policy on Education (1981). Sections 55 and 97, which are language related constitutional statements, border on role assignment for politics and governance. The English language is allocated official transactions while the indigenous languages are to be used for domestic interaction. Ogunsiji (2001) and Oyeleye (2004) further clarify the functional allocation to language in Nigeria. While Ogunsiji submitted that English enjoys dominant configuration in the field of administration commerce, education, etc, Oyeleye posits that the indigenous languages are used for courting or cementing intimate relationships. The English language in Nigeria is therefore synonymous to the High code while the indigenous languages are the low code. Interestingly however, researchers have found out that the languages are not being used by people in straight jacket manner as functionally allocated by the policy. Both the English language and the indigenous languages are used at the official and domestic domains respectively. The fact is that language use is determined by several factors such as the participants, context, competence in the use of the language, attitudes and loyalty to the language, etc. In sociolinguistics, attitudes and loyalty to language use are quite significant and in fact in any language policy formulation, implementation and evaluation the knowledge of attitude is a desideratum. Hence, this paper investigates attitudes of Yoruba-English bilingual government workers to the use of Yoruba at the domestic domain.
293 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE
2.0 Language Attitudes Language attitudes, according to Adegbija (1994), are the evaluative judgments, opinion, whether superficial or deep rooted, temporal or lasting, individual or societal that are made about a particular language, its speakers and or preference for its use. Language is an attitude object which is motivated by several factors. William (1974) posits that the mentalist school of thought identifies instrumental motivation as a basis for attitudinal disposition. In a social context, human beings develop positive attitude to an attractive language because of the personal benefit of the language learning process. This kind of attitude is described as self-oriented and individualistic because it overlaps with the need for achievement. The behaviourist school of thought on the other hand identified integrative motivation as a factor that affects peoples attitude to language. Integrative motivated attitude is social and interpersonal and it is conceptually linked with the need for affiliation. In a multilingual context, the attitude exhibited by language users reveals the desire for culture which invariably brings about loyalty to the mother tongue, i.e. the low code, as against the second language. According to Adegbija (1994) integrative attitude is inward looking and finds expression in the demand for language policy and usage with a focus on the development of the indigenous languages. English in the Nigerian multilingual context is having the prestigious status. Its instrumentality is a factor that thus attracts more favourable attitude to its use over the native languages by Nigerians. The English language is assigned the official roles and functions while the native languages are given the domestic role for interpersonal relationship. The English language in Nigeria is the language of administration, politics, instruction in school, media, law, etc. It is the language of the elites in the power domains and as such, people in the lower rungs of the socio-economic ladder want to learn it so as to improve their socio-economic
294 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE status in the polity. The domestic domain in the sociolinguistic context is that setting devoid of official protocol, for example, the home, traditional and community activities, etc. The expectation of the language policy makers is that people make use of the indigenous languages at the domestic setting so that children can acquire them for use and the languages do not go into extinction. The reverse is however the case as found out by some researchers. Soyele (2009) for instance, submits that as a result of the diminished instrumental value attributed to the indigenous languages people show positive attitude to the English language over an above the indigenous languages at the domestic domain. There is therefore the need for re-engineering efforts to be taken on the indigenous languages so as to have instrumental values.
3.0 Methodology The samples chosen for the study are basically government workers in Ogun State. The reason is that it is only among the literate government workers that bilinguals in Yoruba, the dominant indigenous language in Ogun State, and English could be readily found. The work domains from which the participants were drawn are the: judiciary, legislature, media, sports and education. In all, there were five hundred and fifty subjects randomly chosen as follows:
Table 1: Random sampling statistics
Work Sector N % Judiciary 100 18% Legislature 75 14% Media 125 23% Sports 100 18% Education 150 27% Total 550 100%
295 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE
It should be noted that stratified sampling technique was also used. The efficacy of stratified sampling technique cannot be underestimated considering the socio-linguistic variables of the study. As such, there is the stratified sampling techniques categorizing the cadre and gender of the study population as follows:
Table 2: Stratified sampling statistics: cadre of participants Work Sector N % Senior 391 71% Junior 159 29% Total 550 100%
Table 3: Stratified sampling statistics: gender of participants Work Sector N % Male 323 59% Female 227 41% Total 550 100%
Attitude items measure attitudes and the items are subject to scales, which respondents indicate through agreement or disagreement. Attitude scales typically yield a total score indicating the direction of the intensity of the individual toward attitude object. Hence, Likert scale of preference questionnaire is chosen because it has the fixed format, which is easier to quantify. It begins with a series of statement, each of which expressed an attitude that is either clearly favourable or clearly unfavourable. The 'strongly agree' and 'agree' responses of participants to the items on the questionnaire were regarded as positive declaration while the 'disagree' and 'strongly disagree' were taken as negative declarations. The major statistical tools used are frequency count and percentages.
296 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE
Questionnaire Item Scale Work domains frequency count Sub total Total % Jud. Leg. Med. Sport Edu. freq freq
14 I communicate in SA 18 18 27 12 35 110 Yoruba language with A 37 18 56 30 66 207 317 58% my spouse and other D 38 25 34 47 45 189 family members at SD 7 14 8 11 4 44 233 42% home TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100 15 I prefer the English SA 24 30 50 49 45 198 language to Yoruba for A 30 22 42 29 55 178 376 68% writing letters and D 34 13 24 16 39 126 keeping personal notes SD 12 10 9 6 11 48 174 32% and diary TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100
16 I like reading news SA 12 7 16 6 20 61 paper/magazines A 32 20 30 27 45 154 215 39% written in Yoruba D 45 32 46 49 65 237 language SD 11 16 33 18 20 98 335 61% TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100 17 I combine Yoruba and SA 15 13 23 18 25 94 the English language A 44 33 53 54 55 239 333 61% when discussing with D 33 23 40 19 60 175 family members and SD 8 6 9 9 10 42 217 39% people in the community TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100 18 I prefer using Yoruba SA 14 20 31 16 45 126 language for buying A 40 33 60 50 66 249 375 68% and selling D 43 15 28 30 29 145 SD 3 7 6 4 10 30 175 32% TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100 19 I prefer watching SA 17 22 32 18 36 125 drama and video films A 43 31 56 61 65 256 381 69% scripted in the English D 34 19 27 18 39 137 language SD 6 3 10 3 10 32 169 31% TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100 20 I prefer listening to SA 21 16 36 14 26 113 music and electronic A 36 33 53 56 56 234 347 63% advert in the English D 33 21 30 25 59 168 language SD 10 5 6 5 9 35 203 37% TOTAL 100 75 125 100 150 550 100
The data on table 4 reveals the attitudes of Yoruba-English bilinguals to the use of Yoruba and English at the informal/domestic situations. As regards the language used in communicating with spouse and other family members at home. 58% i.e. 317 of the total population, agreed that Yoruba is the preferred language of communication with spouse while 42% of the respondents preferred the English language. Responses to items 15 and 16 show that majority of the Yoruba-English bilingual workers even at informal situations, like the home, still keep records
297 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE and write letters, in English. They read more of papers, magazines and tracts written in English than those scripted in Yoruba. While 68% preferred English in keeping notes and writing letters 32% of the respondents preferred Yoruba. Also, while 39% preferred to read papers and magazine scripted in Yoruba, 61% preferred reading those written in English. With the responses to item number 17, 61% of the respondents, indicated that they code-mix and code-switch both English and Yoruba in their communication within the community, while 39% indicated that they do not combine the two languages. On the use of language for buying and selling, 68% i.e. 375 respondents preferred Yoruba while 32% i.e. 175 respondents preferred English. Greater responses are recorded for English as against Yoruba as the language preferred for watching and listening to programmes on the electronic media. 69% of the sampled population preferred to watch drama and video films scripted in English while 31% subscribed to Yoruba based programmes. Also, 347 respondents, i.e. 63% preferred to listen to music and electronic advert in English while responses in favour of Yoruba have 207 responses, which translate to 37%.
Discussion of findings on Language Preferred By Yoruba-English Bilinguals for Domestic And Personal Activities
In the complex Nigeria language situation, the indigenous languages have been designated for use at informal situations like the home, market, community meetings, etc. However, findings of researchers have revealed that the English language is competing favourably and in fact, displacing the indigenous languages in the areas where those indigenous languages are expected to function. In this study, 'Language Attitudes among selected Yoruba-English Bilinguals in Ogun State', 58%, a little above average of the population sample,
298 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE agreed that they communicate at home in Yoruba with their spouse and family members. On the other hand, 42% responded that they do not communicate in Yoruba at home. This finding goes in line with Fasold's (1984) position that in a community with diglossia, the low language is the one that will be selected in the family domain. The implication of this result, wherein 42% of the population invariably uses English at home is a pointer of positive attitude to English at the domestic domain. This means that an average educated Yoruba-English bilingual parent in Ogun State, introduces English, the instrumental language to his or her children at home. The belief of such parent, according to Igboanusi and Peter (2005), is that early exposure to English places the children at an advantage in the highly competitive Nigerian society. Majority of the bilinguals in Nigeria combines indigenous languages with English at informal situations. From the results of this study, 61% as against 39% of the population sample agreed that they combine English and Yoruba in their domestic/interpersonal relationship. This finding corroborates Lawani's (2005) who studied pattern of language use in a Yoruba-English bilingual community. According to her, the mixed codes in English and Yoruba are very much used by both husbands and wives in homes and social gatherings. It is therefore evident from the responses to questionnaire items 14 and 17 that majority of the Yoruba-English bilinguals have ambivalent attitudes to the use of Yoruba in communicating within the community. Code mixing and switching of English and Yoruba seem to be more frequent in utterances than pure Yoruba during informal/domestic conversations. The findings tally with Ogunsiji's (2001) submission that hardly can any educated bilingual Nigerian sustain discourse in his indigenous language without mixing some elements of English. As for the language preferred for writing letters and keeping personal diary, 68% of the respondents subscribed to English while 32% uses Yoruba. In
299 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE the same vein, the Yoruba-English bilingual subjects have overwhelming positive attitudes to reading newspapers/magazine written in English as well as watching drama and video films scripted in English. They equally preferred listening to music and electronic adverts carried in the English language. The reason for the positive attitudes to English instead of Yoruba language in the domestic and personal affairs of the bilingual subjects is not far fetched. The fact, as posited by Igboanusi and Peter (2005) is that most educated Nigerians are more literate in English than in their indigenous languages. Not many educated Nigerians are comfortable with reading or writing in their mother tongue because their courses of study are largely conducted in English. Another factor that encourages positive attitude to English at the domestic domain is the fact that the bilingual has the capability and freedom to control the domain in line with his or her own principle and belief. For instance, a Yoruba-English bilingual parent can decide to buy English version educational video compact display/films and abhor the purchase of Yoruba films. However, this freedom or control power is not readily applicable at the market scene. In this study, high positive attitude is shown by Yoruba-English bilinguals to the use of Yoruba for buying and selling activities. 68% of the sampled population showed preference for Yoruba as against the 32% for English at the market situation. Majority of the interlocutors at the market setting are illiterates and as such the bilingual government worker would better go along with the language of the sellers so as to save time and possibly 'have a good buy'.
Conclusion Results from the study indicate that significant number of parents who are bilingual government workers have negative attitude to the use of Yoruba language at home especially when communicating with their children. This is
300 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE against the government hope of having the Nigerian child equipped in the language of the immediate environment right from the home up to primary three. The projected period is about nine years, which it is believed would afford the child the opportunity to be acquainted with the cultural norms of his or her society. However, it is good to note that majority of the parents in the society have negative attitude to Yoruba because it is not a language of social and economic mobility when compared with the English language. Hence, the educated bilinguals among whom are the policy makers ban Yoruba usage in their homes. The less educated parents, who are government workers, the artisans and even the market women have followed suit in the attitude. Having realised the effect of not acquiring or mastering the English language in their life, they want their children to be better than them. As such they struggle to send their children to fee-paying private schools and also attempt to speak the English language to the children at home. The effect is that they succeed in laying poor grammatical and phonological foundations for their children. Such children would therefore neither master Yoruba nor the English language properly. Attitudes of Yoruba/English bilingual parents to the use of Yoruba at the domestic domain need to be refocused. If a child is made to develop a negative attitude to his mother tongue, learning it or being teachable in it may be a great problem. Bilingual government workers should not encourage their children to have the same biased orientation for indigenous language like they had. Thus, the findings in this study bring about implications for the development, promotion and re-engineering of indigenous languages in Nigeria.
301 LANGUAGE ATTITUDINAL STUDY OF SELECTED YORUBA-ENGLISH BILINGUALS AT THE DOMESTIC DOMAIN IN OGUN STATE
References Adegbija, E. (1994) Language Attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Sociolinguistics Overview. Clevedon Multilingual Matters.
Fasold, R. (1984) The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981) National Policy on Education (revised) Lagos: Federal Government Press.
Igboanusi, H. and Peter, L. (2005) Languages in Competition. Franfurt: Peter Language Gmbh.
Lawani, M. (2005) “The Pattern of Language Use in a Yoruba/English Bilingual Community and Its Implication for Teaching and Learning”. Ph.D Thesis Dept. of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan.
Ogunsiji, A. (2001) 'Utilitarian Dimension of Language in Nigeria' in Igboanusi, H. (ed) Language Attitude and Language Conflict in West Africa. Ibadan: Enicrownfit Publishers pp. 152 – 163.
Oyeleye, L. (2004) “The New Linguistic Order: A Critical Examination of the Impact of Globalization on the English Language in Nigeria”. Lead Paper Presentation at the 4th National Conference of the School of Languages. Federal College of Education, Abeokuta.
William, C. (1974) “The Identification of Linguistic Attitude”. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 3:21 – 32.
Soyele, R. (2009) Language Attitudes Among Selected Yoruba-English Bilinguals in Ogun-State, Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis” Department of English, University of Ibadan.
302 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES.
UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES.
Ayodele A. Ajayi
Abstract
Church growth in Pentecostal and Charismatic ministries has received much academic attention. Most of these studies specialized on institutional factors that generated organizational growth. However, the veracity of the claim to Church growth and the nature of it in order to corroborate the efforts of Barrette has not been done by many previous researches. The desire to fill the gap led to this study. Through the data gathered from responses to a set of questionnaire, it was established that the number of worshippers increased in Lagos from 24 in 1989 to about 120,000 in 2006; in Abeokuta, the number increased from three to 3,200 in 2006; while the number in Ibadan rose from one to 4,700 in 2006. Church planting increased from one to 125 in Lagos; one to 38 in Abeokuta and one to 28 in Ibadan. Spiritual growth of the worshippers as evidenced in their claim to improved devotional exercises and structural developments confirm the growth of MFM. However, for consistent pattern of growth to be sustained, it is important that more emphasis be placed on the revival of apostolic patterns by churches in Yorubaland.
Introduction There is a wide acclaim that the centre of gravity of world Christianity has shifted from the Northern Continents1 to the Southern Continents owing to the growth of the church. The burgeoning of Christianity in the south is accounted for in the phenomenal emergence and proliferation of new Christian religious groups tagged ministries that are nearly all Pentecostals2 among which is the Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries3 (MFM). Since its establishment over twenty years ago, the MFM has witnessed unprecedented numerical growth and geographical spread4.
315 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES.
Studies on church growth have been narrowed down to concepts, principles and institutional factors leading to growth rather than determining the veracity of the claim hence the skepticisms expressed on the assertion of church growth in Africa. Some allege that what is occurring is more of a drift of worshippers from some denominations to another hence the tag sheep stealing5. Unfortunately, apart from Barrettes' there are no corroborative efforts of statistics to determine the extent and rate of church growth in Yorubaland. In the light of this background, therefore this study seeks to provide answers to the following questions: What is Church Growth? Are churches growing in Yorubaland? What is the nature of the growth?
Methodology This work investigated the growth rate of MFM using various indices. Growth in terms of quantity and quality were x-rayed using the headquarters of MFM in Lagos, Ogun and Oyo States of Nigeria. The study is limited to these towns in order to make for an in-depth study and also for quality intention. The analysis and interpretation of data was based on the principles of historical method6. This involves an attempt to interpret past trends for the purpose of understanding the present conditions and predicting what conditions are likely to be met in the future7. Data was collected through the interview of one hundred and eighty-six (186) people who were randomly selected. Analysis of documents in the possession of MFM pastors and workers was done. 352 sermons and messages preached by Pastor D. K. Olukoya the General Overseer and by some of those who head the Regional headquarters in Yoruba land were read or listened to and assessed. The first section of the questionnaire sought for background information about the respondents. The second section examined the trend of spiritual growth in the life of MFM worshippers by assessing whether and when they were born again and how regular they performed spiritual exercises. One 316 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. thousand, two hundred (1,200) copies of the questionnaires were distributed in the selected towns and one thousand, one hundred and fifty-one (1,151) were collected back within an interval of two weeks. Some sets of questionnaires were not filled properly hence only one thousand, one hundred (1,100) copies were used for analysis. The outcome of all the responses was subjected to appropriate analysis in order to deduce reliable conclusion. The responses were treated using simple percentages. These methods were complemented with direct observation and participation. Two hundred and eighty-five services of the church under study including Weekly, Monthly and Special programmes were attended on regular basis between 2003 and 2006 while this study lasted. Several lectures at the institute of spiritual warfare in Lagos were attended in 2006.
Church Growth Defined Between the year 1936 when the term 'church growth' was given currency and taught by McGagvran8 and contemporary times, the word has assumed various meanings. McGavran's initial conception of church growth was the growth of churches or Christianity in foreign countries. He passionately believed that the chief and irreplaceable purpose of mission is church growth. Thus, in his views, it is only a return to classical missions with its stress on evangelism and church planting that ensures church growth. This is a myopic view of church growth. He fails to realize that the aims of missions go beyond mere growth through church planting but also involves the bringing of the kingdom of God into the lives of people. In addition to spreading the gospel to accentuate conversions, missions also have to nurture new Christians and train Christian leaders. The British Church Growth association says that Church Growth investigates the nature, function, structure, health and multiplication of Christian churches as they relate to the effective implementation of Christ's great
317 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. commission. This suggests that church growth is not only concerned with the increase in the numerical strength but also the development of other areas of church life. We considered church growth with regard to the MFM horizontally and vertically. These are divisible into four aspects according to Abejide10 namely Quantitative Growth in terms of increase in the numbers of worshippers11 (this is what Sarpong calls primary evangelization);12 and increase in the number of branches, Qualitative growth (the spiritual development of Christians); and Structural growth (the development of structures in the MFM). Applying these dimensions to our study sheds light on the growth of MFM in terms of quantity and quality.
Church Growth in MFM
Records of average number of worshippers and branches in each of the selected towns between 1989 and 2006 were assessed. Church records of worshipers in Lagos show a progressive phenomenal increase in the number of those who worship at MFM branches on Sundays as shown in table 1 below.
Table 1: 1MFM Sunday Worshipers Record in Lagos13 S/N Years Average No. of Worshipers 1. At Inception 8 2. 1989 24 3. 1994 13,436 4. 1999 67,436 5. 2004 100,000 6. 2006 120,000 Sour ce: International Headquarters of MFM, Lagos (2007).
At its inception, eight people gathered for the first meeting in the house of the General Overseer, Dr. D.K. Olukoya. The number increased to twenty-four within the year and kept on rising in a geometrical manner. Actual head count was eventually stopped in 1999 when the crowd became uncontrollable and since
318 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. then estimates have been used based on the capacity of the venue and available number of seats. The estimated figure of worshippers at the International Headquarters in Lagos in 2006 was put at 120,000. In Abeokuta, MFM started in July 1995 with three worshippers and increased to 15 before the end of the year. Five years later, the worshippers were 750 and in 2006, the number had gone up to 3200. The Ibadan branch of MFM began with only one person in 1996, increased to 600 in 2001 and increased to 4,700 in 2006.14 Two issues of concern with regard to these figures are: how accurate is the measurement in relation to the actual as opposed to merely reported or estimated number? How satisfactory is the use of numbers in determining church growth? It is difficult to authenticate these figures because of complexities involved in headcount and the tendency to exaggerate. Many of the mega churches in Nigeria claim to hold the single largest congregations.15 Moreover it would be quite confusing to equate the number of worshippers with church growth. Doubtlessly, it is not all those who congregate in worship centers that can be taken as genuine church members. Among the people that were interviewed, a man claimed to attend some MFM programmes for the purpose of surmounting the menace of household witchcraft even though he belongs to a different church denomination.16 People who belong to other religions, especially Islam also attend MFM in order to get solutions to some of their spiritual problems through warfare prayers.17 These difficulties call for caution in concluding that the MFM is growing geometrically as a result of the population of worshippers. However, there is no denying that number of worshippers is one of the important determinants of Church growth because it was discovered that some of those who attend MFM programmes as 'prayer collectors' sometimes get converted to Christianity and settle down as church members. Nine (9) out of the one thousand and one hundred (1,100) respondents to the questionnaire claimed to have been traditional religion adherents before they joined MFM. Although
319 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. this is only 0.8% of the total, it is significant when we bear in mind that Jesus says there will be joy in heaven over one sinner that repents.18 Similarly sixty-six (66) persons representing 6% of the respondents claimed they were Muslims before joining MFM. There is no gainsaying that genuine church growth is happening in MFM even though the rate may be low. The increase witnessed in the number of worshippers has as expected,29 led to the planting of new branches of MFM in Yorubaland. Many branches have been established from the 'mother' or 'headquarters' centres as shown in table 2 below.
Table 2 Branches of MFM in Lagos, Abeokuta and Ibadan Location No. of Branches 2004 2006 at Inception Lagos1 1 79 125 Abeokuta 1 33 38 (SWI )2 Ibadan. 1 18 28 (SWII)3
rd th Source: International and Regional Headquarters in South West 1 and 11 on 23 February, 2007; 10 December, 2006
th and 8 April, 2007 respectively.
Apart from population explosion, branches of MFM are established as a result of other factors such as proximity to the people, peculiarities of the communities and administrative considerations. In Nigeria, where many people are living below the poverty line, cost of transportation could be a major contributory factor to not being regular in the church. According to Pastor Adeneye, between 2004 and 2006 when the establishment of branches was stepped up, significant growth occurred all over MFM churches in Yorubaland.22 This agrees with the submission of Mathews Ojo on the Deeper Life Church that
320 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. the increase in the number of branches in 1990 accounted for the growth of the church.23 Some branches were established to conduct services purely in the indigenous languages spoken by a large proportion of residents in an area24 in order to enable the people hear and comprehend the gospel in their native tongues rather than hearing through interpretation from English.25 It is common among Pentecostal churches in Yorubaland to adopt English as the language of ministration because the official language in Nigeria is English and as noted by R. Marshall, many of the Pentecostal churches began with cosmopolitan membership.26 However, the recognition given to worshippers' peculiarities by virtue of which language churches were launched in MFM is a welcome development. The art of establishing 'language churches' was perhaps copied from the Deeper Life Bible Church in order for the members to have the benefit of hearing the message directly in their local or native languages and no longer through interpreters.27 Another reason why the MFM establishes new branches is for administrative convenience. The split into a number of branches has aided population growth of the MFM.28 In understanding the nature of growth in MFM attempt was made to determine whether the worshippers became members by way of transfers from another church to MFM or as converts from other religions? An analysis of the composition of the congregations in Lagos, Ibadan and Abeokuta that were sampled indicates that the increase in the number of worshippers is caused more by incidences of transfer from other denominations than actual conversions from other religions. Out of the 1,100 respondents, a whooping figure of 1,025 representing 93.18% claimed to have belonged to other churches before joining MFM. Their distribution into various church traditions are indicated in table 3 below
321 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES.
Table 3 Last Church Affiliation of Worshippers before joining MFM29 Variables No.of Respondents Percentage Roman Catholics 176 16% Protestant (Mission Churches) 343 31.2% African Independent Churches, (CAC, 295 26.8% C&S, CCC) Pentecostals (Deeper-Life, Redeemed) 211 19.2% Total 1025 93.18% Sour ce: Analysis of data collected through the set of questionnaire.
These figures seem to have lent credence to the allegation that what is happening in MFM is more of sheep stealing than genuine church growth especially in so far as 515 (46.8%) of the people sampled claimed to have been born again before joining MFM. Nevertheless, a measure of spiritual growth could still be conceded to have taken place in view of the figure of those who claimed to have acquired the new birth experience in MFM. 585 (53.2%) respondents claimed to have been in this category. The implication is that 511 out of the 1025 worshippers who had been members of other churches got born again when they joined MFM. Thus 49.9% of those who were mere 'church goers' in former churches got born again in MFM. We are therefore compelled to have a rethink on the allegation that MFM is stealing 'the sheep' of other churches. Should 'nominal Christians' be considered as sheep? The answer is obvious. Jesus said that he knows his sheep because they hear and follow him.30 This is the characteristic of those who are born again. Qualitative Growth of MFM was also assessed. This refers to the spiritual growth of members. As we have noted earlier, spiritual growth constitutes a dimension that is very complex to determine. In the first instance what is spirituality? How can spirituality be measured? What are the indices that
322 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. describe spirituality? How satisfactory are each of the indices as a criterion for spirituality? How do we distinguish between merely reported and actual spirituality? The complexities involved in clarifying these issues have strengthened skepticism about the possibility of measuring spirituality. Nevertheless, we are aware that owing to the occurrence of certain religious experiences, the attitude of some people change significantly towards religion. It is in this light that we examined spirituality, in MFM. Spirituality, is specifically interpreted as the concrete or existential lived experience of someone who in docile and free response to God's invitation turns totally and completely towards God in all acts, choices and decisions of life with the singular aim of attaining final union with God as the ultimate goal of Christian life.31 Among the numerous indices that have been developed by social scientists to measure spirituality, three have been used in this work. These are the act of or claim to repentance from sins and confession of the Lordship of Jesus Christ that is otherwise called being 'born again', regular church attendance, devotional study of the bible as well as increase in the intensity of prayer. We examined the percentage of people who claimed to have acquired the new birth experience in MFM. Five hundred and Fifteen (515) out of one thousand and one hundred (1100) respondents representing 46.8% claimed they were born again before joining the MFM while five hundred and eighty five (585) that is 53.2% claimed to have acquired the new birth experience in MFM. Some of the interviewees argued that it is difficult to be in MFM and not be born again because the sermons of the pastors always emphasized the need for conversion before one can be delivered from the powers of darkness that have taken him or her captive. On further enquiry, our interviewees expressed evidence of their claims to being born again as including change of habits from bad to good and the development of more interest in spiritual matters.32 Some
323 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. even claimed to have done restitution by exposing the evils they had perpetrated before becoming born again.33 The act of eschewing evils and maintaining anti- corruption stance is one of the qualities that Nigerians expect from anyone who claims to be a Christian even though non-professors of religion are also known to have been in the vanguard of campaign against corruption in Nigeria as social critics. However, more often than not, it is considered to be an index of spirituality as they apply to individuals and their actions. Moreover, we cannot pretend that we are oblivious of the tendency towards false claims, cover ups and exaggerations by the respondents. Frequency of Church Attendance is also used to measure spirituality in Christians. This could be a defective assumption because of obvious reasons. Those who are present at church programmes are there for different purposes ranging from spiritual to political, economic and social issues. The use of regular church attendance as a yardstick for spiritual growth should be done with utmost caution only on the level of individual persons. A comparison of church attendance by worshippers in MFM with what obtained in their former churches reveals that there is a significant improvement on individual levels as a result of contact with MFM. Responses to the rate of Church attendance shows that Three hundred and Sixty one (361) of the respondents making (32.8%) claimed to have attended church on irregular basis before joining the MFM and only one hundred and sixty seven (167) of them used to attend church always. The situation improved with their contact with MFM. Eight hundred and fourteen (814) that is 74% of the respondents claimed to have attended church regularly, though not always. Some of the interviewees who said they attended church services on a very regular basis explained that the very few occasions when they missed church services during the year were due to either ill-health34 or being out of town.35 In
324 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. any given year, such occasions never exceeded five out of the fifty-two Sundays according to them.36 In response to the question of what was responsible for the improvement in attitude to church attendance? Answers were varied ranging from the acquisition of the new birth experience,37 to better understanding of the importance of church attendance through the systematic teachings of the General Overseer,38 interest in warfare prayers and exciting mode worship.39 Although, frequency of church attendance is a useful and measurable index we should not overlook the possibility of attending church without a corresponding deep religious feelings and beliefs. Nevertheless, if this index is considered alongside other variables, it could prove quite valuable as a determinant of spiritual growth in individuals. Private devotion which is the giving of one's time, energy and resources to expressing constant and strong love for God40 is another index of spiritual growth. It shows in acts of religious worship such as saying of private prayers and intense study of God's word among others. These two variables were assessed in the lives of worshippers in MFM vide questions on how they would rate their level of prayers and study of the bible in their former church and now in MFM? Attempt was made to assess how regularly they engage in private prayers and the study of God's word. Do they observe private devotion regularly in the mornings and evenings or do they do it seldom? We also endeavoured to find out how rich and deep the devotions used to be on daily basis. Expectedly these are highly subjective questions and the sincerity of the respondents cannot be proved. We therefore assessed the duration usually spent in private devotion. It was assumed that the length of time may be suggestive of how serious private devotion is regarded by the respondents. Among the Pentecostals, private prayers and study of God's word is to be done morning and evening everyday.
325 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES.
This is recommended as the secret of spiritual growth.41 The major problem is on how to verify the claims of the respondents? Exaggerations and falsifications can not be completely ruled out. How many people actually set a time for themselves when praying and studying the word of God on daily basis? In spite of these difficulties, the data is still considered valuable in the sense that it reveals a difference between what obtained in previous churches of the respondents as compared with what they now claimed to do in MFM. The results obtained from responses to the questionnaire reflect a steady rise in the private devotional life of the respondents as they commenced worshipping at MFM. Those who claimed to have prayed in their privacy on regular basis (either in the morning only or morning and evening) were 708 representing 64.4 % before they joined MFM. In MFM, the number has increased to 954 or 86.8 %. On the issue of how rich and deep their private prayer lives used to be in their former churches, 141 (12.8%) said they had cultivated very deep prayer life while 321 (29.2%) claimed that their prayer lives were fairly deep. These figures have increased to 370 (33.6%) and 554 (50.4%) respectively since they joined the MFM. Those who spent above two hours in prayers before joining MFM were 141 (12.8%) but they also increased to 273 (24.8%) in MFM. These figures indicate an increase in the intensity of respondents' commitment to private prayers in MFM. The reasons advanced in accounting for the improvement in private prayers according to some of the interviewees is that MFM leaders lay serious emphasis on saying of private prayers than their pastors in their former churches. A prominent slogan of MFM is 'do-it-yourself'. The leaders stress the importance of 'training one's hands to wage war and fingers to do battle'.42 In addition, unlike what obtains in many Pentecostal Churches, MFM publishes prayer bulletins on regular basis. List of prayer points are prepared for every
326 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. meeting or service. So the worshippers are not only instructed to pray but are also given prayer points. There are specific books on prayers in which prayer points have been arranged topically.43 The average MFM worshipper is therefore armed with almost an in exhaustive list of things to pray on in their closets or privacy. The amount of time usually devoted to prayer during MFM programmes or services also aid the prayer life of worshippers. Many breathtaking prayer rallies come up on weekly basis or at regular intervals in MFM44 With regard to the private study of the Bible, responses also show some tremendous improvements in worshippers' attitude. Before joining MFM 691 (62.8%) of our respondents, claimed to have read their bible regularly, at least once a day. The figure increased to 955 (86.8%) when they began to worship in MFM. The number of people who used to spend above one hour in their private study of the bible before joining MFM was 326 (29.6%). This has also increased to 765 (69.6%) in MFM. This difference is not unexpected. General Overseer Olukoya accompanies the prayer outlines with scriptural passages to be read before praying. The worshippers are therefore taught to combine the 'ministry of the word and prayer' as claimed by the apostles in the book of Acts.6: 3. Whether the bible passages read are understood and put into use in their lives is another issue altogether. But in so far as they claim to obey and adhere to the commandment that the books of the law must be regularly read and meditated upon45 as a condition for spiritual prosperity, we can conclude at least on individual levels that MFM worshippers are growing spiritually. The numerical increase of MFM worshippers has led to notable structural development. At the inception of the MFM, the founder was the overall head and the sole arbiter of the rules governing the ministries. Owing to population explosion, a complex and elaborate structure was evolved. At the helm of spiritual, social and financial matters of the MFM is the General Overseer
327 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. assisted by the Board of Trustees made up of seven people. The board members formulate policies and serve as the final arbiter of laws and regulations. After the Board comes the National Governing Council. This consists of the ordained ministers otherwise called the pastors. This council is responsible for the spiritual development and concern of the MFM. Administratively, MFM is divided into Regions, Zones and Branches. A region consists of a geographic area housing a number of branches and worshippers. An overseer designated as Region Overseer heads a region. A region is sub-divided into Zones and Branches that are headed by Zonal and Branch Pastors. The MFM makes a good and regular use of the committee system in the day-to-day administration of the church. There are statutory and ad-hoc committees of various sorts set up to take care of special matters. Notable among the committees are 'We Care', Goshen, Jehovah-Jireh, Marriage, Legal Advisory, Property, Senior Management, Financial, House Fellowship Monitoring, Search the Scripture, Prayer City Development and the Anointing Service.47 Committees. So, from a ministry that was administered by the founder at inception, MFM has grown into a superstructure with a fairly gargantuan administrative system that facilitate the smooth running of the ministry thus lending credence to Church growth.
Conclusions The four indices of number of worshippers, number of Church branches, spiritual exercises and structural developments that have been assessed in MFM in order to measure and understand the growth of the Church in Yorubaland have generated quite instructive findings. The growth of the Church in various dimensions is a reality even though at a rate lower than we often generally assume. The resilience of idolatry, the multiplication of new non-Christian
328 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. religious groups and the menace of social vices in Yorubaland call for concern. There is more work for the Church to do in terms of fulfilling the great commission. It is therefore recommended that Christian missions should concentrate more on primary evangelization and seek a return to apostolic practices in order to enable more worshippers to acquire the 'born again' experience that will facilitate continued personal spiritual and steady congregational growth.
Foot notes
1The Northern Continents refer to the whole of Europe and America while the Southern Continents include Africa, Asia and Latin America collectively called 'the Global South' in current geo-political terminology. See M. S. Miller 'Global Gospel: Christianity is Alive and Well in the Southern Hemisphere'. Retrieved February 23, 2004. from http://www. Christian Century.org/. 2Pentecostals refer to the religious movements that aim at a rediscovery of the spiritual fervour that characterized Christianity in the time of the Apostles. Churches of this nature are multifarious, hence the absence of a generally acceptable taxonomy. 3Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries shall be henceforth referred to as MFM. 4MFM claims to hare the following number of branches: 18 in USA, 31 in Europe, 3 in Asia, 4 in Canada and 325 in Africa as at June, 2005. Retrieved June 10, 2005 from http://www.mfm.Ireland.org./ The spread of a Church that portrays African world views in foreign land calls for close examination to determine whether foreigners actually constitute majority of the members or not. 5S. O. Abogunrin asserted this in one of his contributions to Post-Graduate Seminar on 17th March, 2007 at the Department of Religious Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. 6M. B. Ogunniyi. 1992. Understanding Research in the Social Sciences. Ibadan: UPL. 14. 7Adelugba. 22. . 8D. Mcgavran was born in India of missionary parents and he served as a Disciple of Christ Missionary for 33 years in the country. 9D. Mcgavran. 1990. Understanding Church growth, Third Edition. Revised and edited by C.P Wagner. Grand Rapid; Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 10E.O. Abejide. 2000. Church Growth in the New Millenium, Kaduna: Gamsons. 11-12 11Those who congregate at MFM branches are better referred to as worshippers rather than members because quite a number of them keep dual or multiple church memberships. 12K. Sarpong. 1974. Success of Faith and Healing Churches in Ghana. World Mission. 25 /2 .2 13Figures as supplied by Pastor Samuel Jesurinde the personal assistant to the General Overseer, Dr. D. K. Olukoya at the International headquarters of MFM in Lagos, Nigeria February on 23rd of 2007. 14Information culled from Church records in Abeokuta and Ibadan in December 2006 and April 2007 respectively. 15The Deeper Life Bible Church, the Living Faith Church and the Redeemed Christian Church of God have made such claims at one time or the other. See J. Ekwugum. 2002. Nigeria's Mega Churches. Life way. 2/2. 4. 16Mrs Kemi Oladele, a member of the Catholic Church, interviewed on 18th December, 2006 at MFM
329 UNDERSTANDING CHURCH GROWTH AMONG THE PENTECOSTALS IN YORUBALAND: THE CASE OF MOUNTAIN OF FIRE AND MIRACLES MINISTRIES. headquarters in Lagos. 17Alhaji Ishaq-Lawal, Muhammed, a practicing muslim, interviewed in Abeokuta on 17th August, 2006 18Luke 15: 7. 19Pastor Samuel Jesurinde, Personal Assistant to the G. O. , Lagos 20Pastor Edwin, MFM Pastor, Asero, Abeokuta 21Pastor Abraham, MFM Ibadan 22Pastor M. Adeneye. Region Overseer MFM South West II, Ibadan, Interviewed on 7th February, 2007 23Mathews Ojo.1993. Deeper Life Bible Church of Nigeria. New dimensions in African Christianity. P. Gifford. Ed. Ibadan: Sefer. 161. 24The churches are referred to and called as 'Language churches.' 25Pastor Oniyele gave the example of Iporo Ake Branch in Abeokuta where only the Yoruba language is used in ministration during an interview session on 23rd December, 2006. 26R. Marshall. 1993. 'Pentecostalism in Southern Nigeria: an overview. New dimensions in African Christianity. 27A. Ayodele. 2000. Indigenization of the Church: the experience of the Deeper Christian Life Ministry in Ogun State. M. A. Thesis. Department of Religious Studies. University of Ibadan. 83. 28Pastor K. Adenekan of Alogi Branch of MFM in Abeokuta Ogun State interviewed on 25th July, 2006. 29Figures were generated through responses to the questionnaire. 30John 10: 14, 3-4 31E. Nwosu. 2004. Pentecostalism: the new face of a Christian spirituality. Tradition and Compromises: Essays on the challenge of Pentecostalism. A. Akinwale and J. Kenny. Ed. Ibadan: Dominican Institute. 91 – 93. 32Sister Sola Adekunle Aged 35, Mr. Ghemi Akintunde, Aged 52 and Mr. Biodun Adeoti, Aged 47 at separate interviews in Abeokuta on 13th December, 2006. 33Sergeant Denis Ode interviewed on 10th August 2006 at Prayer city claimed that he joined the Nigeria Police with a forged certificate but he made the confession in writing to the Inspector General of Police. He was punished for about two years by demotion in rank but was later reinstated 34Among some of our interviewees who gave health problems as reasons for missing church services were Sis. Tolu Opeyemi, interviewed on 24th June 2006 at Ibadan, and Mr. Peter Adeyemo interviewed on 17th August 200t at Abeokuta. Mrs. Ogunnupe claimed childbirth as her own reason for mission Sunday worship for three times in the year 2005. (interviewed on 21st August, 2006 at Abeokuta) 35Mr. Wale Ileyemi, interviewed on 9th July 2006 at Abeokuta claimed to have missed Church only once in year 2006 because he traveled to Calabar on an official assignment. 36Mrs Bola Williams said three, Mr A. Ojo said two, and Mr Dayo Abati said not more than five Sundays during personal interview on 15th August, 2005. 37Bro. Sola Olorunfemi interviewed on 6th September, 2006 at Omi Adio, Ibadan. 38Mr. James Agboola, interviewed on 9th September, 2006 at Abeokuta 39Mr. Femi Ajani interviewed on 9th September, 2006 at Abeokuta 40J, Crowther. 1995. Ed. Advanced Learners Dictionary. Oxford: University Press. 319. 411Pet. 2: 2. Says Christians are to desire the sincere milk of the word so that they can grow thereby. 42In his introduction to the twenty – five ministry groups, General Overseer Olukoya made this submission. 43Examples of such publications include D. K. Olukoya. 1998. Prayer rain. Lagos: MFM. Olukoya. 1996. Breakthrough prayers for business professional. Lagos: MFM. Olukoya. 1997. Pray your way to breakthrough. Lagos: MFM. 44Examples include the Weekly 'Prayer Rain' on every Friday morning from 8.00 a.m.- 11. 00.a.m., the monthly 'Power Must Change Hands' on every first Saturday of the Month and the regular 'Seven Hours with God' which comes up at regular intervals. This is usually held on Friday nights from 10.00 p.m to 5.00 a.m. 45Joshua 1: 8 46Pastor Olukehinde interviewed on 21/06/2006. Also, Aderogba . 2004 .34 47Aderogba. 36.
330 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Geoffrey Ajemijoye Arueyingho
Abstract
This research investigates the standard form and ethnic identities of dress forms of the Guinea Coast peoples of West Africa between the 17th and 20th centuries. This is with a view to determining inter-ethnic relationships of the coastal peoples of West Africa. The work covers the geographical area adjoining the coast from Southern Ghana to the Niger Delta. The Guinea Coast consists of the Kwa language group area which includes major ethnic groups such as the Akan, Ewe, Mina, Fon, Yoruba, Edo and Igbo. This study concentrates on the Akan, Yoruba, Edo and Igbo dress forms. Each of these various peoples have dress forms by which they are recognised during the period focused by this study. Those of the children are different from the adults', and the dress forms of the adult males are also different from their adult females'. Although there are differences in the dress forms, obvious similarities are noticeable in them. These similarities are historically accounted for in the research. Published materials on the subject are recent. The research therefore depended mainly on oral historical sources and material evidence. The research findings show that loin cloths and wrapper, draped over the shoulder, were common in some parts of the Guinea Coast between the 17th and 20th centuries. Recent findings show similarities in the dress forms of Benin and Igbo-speaking women of Nigeria, and the Akan of Gnana. In the whole of the Guinea Coast of West Africa, the dressing pattern of the Yoruba male is unique and different from others. Yoruba men, for example, do not wear wrappers like the others. They wear different garments on trousers. In this respect, the dress forms of the Yoruba are closely related to those of the Nupe, Hausa and Kanuri in northern Nigeria. The research findings show that the cultural milieu of the Yoruba was strongly influenced by Islamic religion, probably starting from the 18th century. The same is evident in the dress forms of the people, north of Ashanti and some parts of Southern Ghana. On the other hand, however, the dressing habits of the Yoruba, Akan, Edo and Igbo women are influenced by Christianity, which was introduced to this part of the Guinea Coast in the 19th century.
331 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Introduction A sequential arrangement of the dress forms of the Guinea Coast peoples could be attempted. At the earliest time, the loin-cloth was in use throughout the area, as shown in Ekpo's book, 2000 Years of Nigerian Art1 . Bwari figurine terra cotta from Nok and a potsherd from Kutofo with a human figure drape wrapper at the waist level, (plates 74 and 75). Samples of this dress form are also found on Igbo- Ukwu bronze2 altar stand dated to the 9th century A.D. The male figure on it is naked except a piece of cloth passed between the thighs and held in position with a string round the waist, (plate 77).
Wrappers The next stage is wrapper round the waist also found in Nok sculpture dated to 500 B.C. – 200 A.D.(plate 78) and Ife royal figure got from Ita Yemoo3 dated to between the 12th and 15th centuries A.D., (plate 79). A twin figure in bronze, representing a king and a queen from the same place and probably of the same period, also drapes their wrappers at waist level, (plate 80). The same is found on Idena stone figure also from Ife. Dress form of this type is found also on a terra cotta figure from Igo 'Laja in Owo which is dated to the 15th century A.D., (plate 81). Benin bronze figures as found on a 'royal messenger' and reliefs have human figures with wrapper draped at the waist level, (plate 47). Although the famous seated bronze figure from Tada drapes its wrapper at the waist level and in-between the legs, smaller standing figures among the Tsoede bronzes also tie short wrappers to the waist. It is on the Gabi figure and Jebba bow-man that tunic garments are found. Even then the female figure in the same style is nude, (plates 82, 83 and 84). A big wrapper is a common sleeping dress in most of the ethnic groups in the Guinea Coast. Among the Akans, the wide wrapper which is like the Roman toga is the standard men's dress. The Yoruba
332 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA men however moved from it to tailored garment. The origin of it could be either from the sleeping dress or from the constant contact of the people with various religious images. Certainly, it was adapted earlier than the tailored garments. Among the Yoruba even in recent times to sleep in a garment used to be considered the height of poverty. In their saying “A wo ewu sun ti de opin iponju”, meaning it is considered more comfortable to sleep with a wrapper. It seems that the Akan men were impervious to outside influence after their adoption of the long wrapper as their standard dress form. The Yoruba appeared to have abandoned the toga-like wrapper style for tailored garments for prestige as supported by their adage, “Iwo to to ewu wo ti o so aso ko”, meaning “you have the means to wear garment, but choose to drape wrapper across the shoulder”. It implies that the Yoruba had moved a step further than the toga-like dress. However, as a result of the constant contact with the north, dansiki was initially adopted by the males and this was eventually replaced with buba. Much later the women also adapted their men's dress form as their buba. Old Oyo factor might have been responsible for this development4. As an established and domineering kingdom and Oyo as the capital of this kingdom, it was the most northernly of the Yoruba settlements5 except Kisi. She had a common boundary with Borgu in the North-West, the Nupe to the North East, while the south is bordered by the rest of the Yoruba states. In this vantage position of commerce6 and calvary7, she was able to elicit her political, military and technical influences to other Yoruba states8. Though, the exact extent of her territory is uncertain9 at the apogee of her power from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries10, the political control of Old Oyo was felt over a large kingdom extending from the Niger to the coast and even to the Republic of Benin (Dahomey)11.
333 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Eve de Negri opines that the dress forms12 of the Yoruba men were adopted mainly from the northern part of Nigeria. Some of the outfits, she explains, were given Yoruba names, while others retained at least a part of their original alien names. An example of this is gbariye, which means with pleats and it is of Bornu origin. She adds that dandogo derives from the Hausa word dogo, (getting larger), and means a small gown which has grown larger through the insertion of pleats. In support of this view, Adepegba explains that most names13 like agbada, suliya, dandogo and dan chiki are Yoruba's, but suggest that the garments were northern in origin. Dan chiki and dan dogo, he describes as Hausa, while gbariya and suliya were probably from the Islamic world. Samuel Johnson also supports the view of a northern origin14. The people of Benin used to drape their wrapper round the wasist from the early times until recently when they adopted tailored garments. The Edo tied wrappers before the arrival of the Europeans but were much later influenced by the Europeans through the coast, probably through the Itsekiri. This influence is more noticeable among the women who wear the short-sleeve blouse over two wrappers. They later adopted the buba, iro and sokoto of the Yoruba, west of them. The other dress form found among women from Benin eastwards and among the Akans of Ghana can be explained from the cultural and historical relationship between Benin and her other neighbours. Bradbury15, in his A Benin Studies, discusses the vantage position of Benin relative to its neighbours when he asserts that, within southern Nigeria, Benin occupies a geographical position between the non-centralized though structurally complex Ibo type of societies to the east and the urbanized centralized Yoruba kingdoms to the West. Dress form among the Guinea Coast women is a recent phenomenon. It appears
334 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA that the same influences have caused the Edo women to adopt another dress form different from the traditional rectangular buba and iro, which they adopted from their Yoruba neighbours. The new blouse seems to be an adaptation of the European blouse by the Akan women, which must have spread to the Niger Delta, through the Itsekiri to Benin, and the eastern parts of Nigeria. The men from Benin eastward must have been influenced by the European long sleeved shirts which most likely resulted from their long contact with the Europeans.
Notes and References 1. Eyo Ekpo, Two Thousand Years of Nigerian Art, Lagos, National Commission for Museums and Monuments, (1977). 2. Thurstan Shaw, Igbo-Ukwu: An Account pf Archaeological Discovery in Eastern Nigeria, Vol. II, Ibadan, University of Ibadan, Institute of African Studies, 1970. 3. Eyo Ekpo, Op. cit. 4. D. Agbaje-Williams, A Contribution to Archaeology of Old Oyo, Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan, 1983, p. 4 5. Robert Smith, 'Event and Portent: The Fall of Old Oyo, a problem in Historical Explanation', Africa, 1971, 41, p.187. 6. C.O. Adepegba, Old Oyo: its origin and arts in the light of new archaeological dates from Yorubaland and Beinin, Unpublished manuscript, p. 1. 7. Robert Smith, Kingdom of the Yoruba, Metheun and Co. Ltd., (1969), p. 37. 8. Robin Law, 'A West African Cavalry State: The Kingdom of Oyo', Journal of African History (1975). 9. Robert Smith Op. cit. pp. 40 – 46. 10.Ibidem 11.S.O. Babayemi, 'Oyo ruins', African Notes, (1968 – 69), Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 81. 12.Eve de \Negri, (1976) Op. cit. 13.C.O. Adepegba (1995), op. cit. p.73. 14.S. Johnson, (1969), Op. cit p. 110. 15.R. E. Bradbury, Benin Studies, London, Oxford University Press, 1973.
335 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Plate 47: A bronze figure of a royal messenger dressed in loin cloth. Source: Ekpo, E (1977)
Plate 74: An Igbo girl dressed in a single wrapper. Source: Arueyingho, G.A (2002)
336 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Plate 75: A Bwari figurine from Nok draped in loin cloth. Source: Ekpo, E. (1977)
Plate 77: Igbo-Ukwu bronze altar stand shows a male figure in loin-cloth (2nd from left.) Source: Fagg, W and List, H (1963)
337 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Plate 78:A human figure from Nok with wrapper draped at waist level. Source: Ekpo, E (1977)
Plate 79: A full length bronze statue from ItaYemoo, representing a king, dated between 12th and 15th centuries A.D., draped a short wrapper at waist level. Source: Ekpo, E (1977)
338 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Plate 82: Tada seated bronze figure in Ife style, dressed in cloth draped at wasist level. Source: Ekpo, E (1977)
Plate 83: Tada bronze figure (standing) dated to 16th or 17th century, draped in wrapper at waist level. Source: Ekpo, E (1977)
339 DRESS FORMS OF THE GUINEA COAST PEOPLE OF WEST AFRICA
Plate 84: Tada bronze figure dated to 16th or 17th century A.D. apparently wearing a tunic garment. Source: Ekpo, E (1977)
340 ne of the major gaps in the levels of development between the developed and the underdeveloped or Odeveloping nations of the world is the relevance, quantum and the usability of the research conducted by the scholars, The lacuna is most noticeable in the African continent where the Universities and Research Institutes are either deemed not performing or under performing. Feelings are rife that no meaningful or usable researches occur in many African countries, but this is arguable. What is incontrovertible is that often times there is a disconnect between those who conduct the research and those who are in the position to utilize the outcomes.
This publication is a collation of excerpts of the research efforts of lecturers in Colleges of Education in Nigeria. The first volume is made up of twenty-one articles derived from the works of scholars drawn specifically from the Federal College of Education, Osiele Abeokuta where the idea of the Journal originally emanated. It is disturbing that little is often known about the research works of other scholars by their colleagues presumably because the essence of most of the studies was for career elevation. The medium of disseminating the outcomes of the researches are often limited if not non-existed. It is in an attempt to bridge the gap that this project was embarked upon.
I S S N : 2 3 0 6 - 8 8 1 1