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Zooming in on Marine Microorganisms (Part 2) This Is Part Two of a Two-Part Series on Marine Microorganisms

Zooming in on Marine Microorganisms (Part 2) This Is Part Two of a Two-Part Series on Marine Microorganisms

Winter 2020

Zooming in on Marine (Part 2) This is part two of a two-part series on . By Jerilyn Ritzman, WSU Extension Island County Shore Stewards Program Coordinator.

Figure 1: A bloom of the noctiluca in Puget Sound in May 2019. While noctiluca itself is not toxic, blooms of noctiluca can disrupt the as they consume that are important food sources for other such as juvenile fish. Image Credit: Eyes over Puget Sound / Permitted use as free educational material. Washington State Department of (link). Introduction

Our last newsletter highlighted five common types of marine microorganisms: , , , , and . It covered their histories dating back hundreds of millions or even billions of years as well as their roles in supporting the , production, or the and cycles. While all of these functions are critical to as we know it, marine microorganisms can also present significant threats to marine and human health. Likewise, human activity can also threaten the health of marine microorganisms and thus the entire marine food web. This newsletter will address these interactions between humans and marine microorganisms, using examples from Puget Sound and the U.S. West Coast, and also what Shore Stewards can do to lessen these impacts.

When marine microorganisms aren’t so invisible

Although we don’t notice marine microorganisms often in our daily , there are instances when their presence is felt more directly in Puget Sound and other nearby waters.

Algal blooms and

Occasionally, changes in water conditions including temperature and levels can cause a dramatic increase of certain marine microorganisms known as algal blooms. If the particular bloom in question is harmful to other species, then it is known as a harmful (or “HAB”). Sometimes these blooms are visible as discoloration in the water. The term “HAB” is favored now over the more familiar term of “red ” because not all harmful blooms are red/visible in the water and not all visible blooms are harmful.

During summer months, coccolithophores occasionally form dramatic turquoise blooms in areas of the Pacific Northwest such as Hood Canal. The vibrant color in the water is caused by how sunlight reflects off their microscopic plates called . While the coccolithophores themselves are not toxic, their death and

Figure 2: NASA’s Landsat 8 captured this can deplete the water of dissolved oxygen, creating a image of a massive turquoise algal bloom in Hood condition known as hypoxia, with potentially dangerous Canal. Image Credit: NASA Observatory Image consequences for fish and . In Hood Canal, this situation can of the Day for July 29, 2016 by Jesse Allen, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey / Public be exacerbated by the length and shape of the channel itself, which (link). slows water circulation.

Shellfish poisoning and harvest closures

Some species of marine microorganisms produce toxic chemicals, either on their own or indirectly through their death and decomposition or through interactions with other microorganisms. Blooms of these species can raise toxin concentrations in the water to levels dangerous to humans and other animals, who can be exposed through contact with contaminated water or through consumption of contaminated fish or shellfish. Shellfish in particular can accumulate toxins in their flesh that exceed the levels found in the surrounding water and persist long after an algal bloom has subsided. The symptoms of fish or shellfish poisoning depend on the species of , and include paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Many algal toxins are odorless, tasteless, and heat-resistant, and accidental ingestion can require hospitalization or even be life threatening.

The health effects of toxic algal blooms are not the only risk posed to humans; the measures we take to avoid exposure to algal toxins can have their own repercussions. For example, a massive bloom of the Pseudo- nitzchia along the U.S. West Coast in 2015 led to high concentrations of the neurotoxin domoic acid (responsible for ASP) in shellfish such as Dungeness and razor clams. This event prompted closures of both commercial and recreational harvesting operations, negatively impacting some communities both economically and socially through the loss of long-held traditions. These types of blooms are not limited to the outer Pacific coast; temporary shellfish harvest closures have been instituted in the past in Puget Sound. There is evidence that harmful algal blooms can become more common as climate change warms waters, which means they may pose increasingly serious risks to coastal communities.

Bioluminescence

Not all close encounters with marine microorganisms need to be negative. As mentioned in the previous newsletter, dinoflagellates can produce beautiful displays of . This phenomenon can be seen around Puget Sound, but is most common during summer months when the waters are warmer. These displays are best viewed in the darkest conditions, well after sunset and on moonless nights, so take safety precautions if you’re going out on the water to view them. Remember that the waters need to be churned to produce the light show, such as by waves’ breaking on the shore or by the paddle of a kayak. If you’re less experienced on the water and still want a front Figure 3: Agitated waters such as those row seat to ’s aquatic light show, some local companies offer nighttime along shorelines can provide kayak tours in the summer. opportunities to view bioluminescence. Image Credit: Jed Sundwall / CC-BY-SA- 2.0. Wikimedia Commons (link). Human impacts on marine microorganisms

Marine microorganisms may be tiny, but they are not immune to the many ways in which humans influence the environment. While these impacts can be difficult to study, they can be of profound importance to understanding the risks that human activity poses to marine environments as a whole.

PCBs and other toxic chemicals

Figure 4: After entering the food web through marine microorganisms, contaminants like PCBs and DDT can be passed upwards to larger and larger predators, where they can concentrate to potentially dangerous levels. Image Credit: Øystein Paulsen / CC-BY-SA- 3.0. Wikimedia Commons (link).

The waters of Puget Sound are home to a cocktail of toxic chemicals largely as a result of human activity since the industrial revolution. This unsavory roster includes polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from electrical equipment, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) used as heat retardants, copper from automobile brake pads, and zinc from tire abrasion. Marine microorganisms are often the first stop for these chemicals after they enter Puget Sound as many toxins are hydrophobic, meaning they prefer to attach themselves to solid particles instead of staying dissolved in water. When these pollutants embed themselves in marine microorganisms, they can be carried upward through the food web where they concentrate in larger animals like fish, , and even us humans. This phenomenon is known as bioamplification (or ) and it can lead to toxin concentrations high enough to cause metabolic distress, disrupt the immune system, and hinder reproduction. To make matters worse, PCBs are slow to break down and can recycle through the food web many times as containing PCBs decomposes and releases the PCBs back into the water.

Nutrient inputs

Like any living thing, marine microorganisms need to survive. Two of the most important nutrients for – dissolved nitrogen and – are delivered naturally to the Puget Sound, largely by currents from the Pacific Ocean. However, an excess of nutrients from human activity can upset the balance of phytoplankton communities and create conditions favorable for harmful algal blooms. These blooms can block sunlight that other need, and their death and decomposition can contribute to other phenomena mentioned in this section, such as hypoxia and ocean acidification. In the most extreme cases, nutrient overload and algal blooms can create underwater “dead zones” where very few species can survive. Human activities known to increase nutrient loading include faulty septic systems, pet waste, runoff from agricultural operations (many fertilizers contain nitrogen), and effluent from sewage treatment . Most of these sources are expected to increase as the human population of Puget Sound, currently over 4 million, is expected to grow by another 1.8 million by 2050, leading to an estimated 40% more nutrients. The dependence of the food web on healthy plankton communities is only beginning to be understood, but excess nutrient loading appears to present an ongoing challenge to maintaining healthy plankton communities here and along much the world’s developed coasts.

Ocean acidification and higher temperatures

Figure 5: Although slightly larger than the microorganisms covered in this series, this pteropod shell provides a good illustration of how ocean acidification can impact organisms that use calcium carbonate to create their shells. This pteropod was placed in seawater mimicking projected acidity levels in the year 2100 and the dissolution occurred in 45 days. Image Credit: NOAA Environmental Visualization Laboratory (EVL) / Public Domain. Wikimedia Commons (link).

Ocean acidification is a trend associated with global climate change, where dissolved alters the carbonate chemistry in seawater and increases its acidity. Surface ocean water is estimated to be about 30% more acidic today than it was in 1750 and is predicted to rise to 100-150% higher in 2100 compared to 1750 if current rates continue. High seawater acidity can make life difficult for marine creatures that create calcium carbonate shells, including shellfish and many marine microorganisms, and can even dissolve shells under certain conditions. Conversely, higher concentrations of dissolved CO2 can be advantageous for other marine microbes, including some species of phytoplankton, that utilize it during .

The impacts of ocean acidification on marine microorganisms have been observed already but are difficult to predict in the future. The are part of a complex and dynamic system, and increased ocean acidity will likely be accompanied by increased ocean temperatures, disrupted currents, and changes in upwelling behavior. This will likely lead to divergent outcomes for different species of microorganisms, where not all species are impacted in the same ways, if at all. However, this divergent impact on different species of marine microorganisms could lead to changes in the structure of marine food webs or the cycling of different elements, leading to unpredictable outcomes. High acidity can be further exacerbated locally by certain types of pollution and the decomposition of organic matter, and it is particularly acute in Washington State, where upwelling offshore waters carry additional dissolved CO2 to the surface.

Plastic

Despite their small size, plankton are not immune to the effects of ocean plastic and can even provide a pathway for the pollution to reach higher levels of the food web. For example, larger that are accustomed to eating other plankton can mistake microplastic fragments and fibers for food and ingest the plastics instead, decreasing the amount of other plankton they consume and throwing off natural balances of species. This change in diet can be dangerous for the plankton themselves, with potential impacts on nutrient uptake and reproduction, but can also be dangerous for their predators who ingest plastic- contaminated individuals. Plastics large and small can also act as Figure 6: Plastic pollution often breaks down into smaller and smaller fragments like these in the ocean (note the vehicles for microorganisms, and more research is needed to centimeter ruler in the background). To a zooplankton, determine how these plastics might leach toxic chemicals, along microplastics can look like a tasty meal. Image Credit: with additives like bisphenol A (BPA), into the surrounding water or U.S. Geological Survey / Public Domain. Microplastics in our Nation's waterways (link). into the microorganisms themselves.

Human impacts on marine microorganisms: What we can do

Many of the threats to marine microorganisms can seem daunting to address; however, there are practical steps we can all take in our daily lives to help encourage healthy plankton communities in our local waters. Just a few examples include:

1. Properly dispose of pet waste, chemicals, and other substances (e.g. paint). 2. Report spills you see of chemicals, paint, vehicle fluids, etc. to the appropriate authorities (see the Resources section below). 3. Make sure your septic system is functioning properly. 4. Make sure your car is maintained and use commercial car washes rather than wash on your property. 5. Reduce plastic use and recycle. 6. Use compost rather than store-bought fertilizers or use “slow-release” fertilizers that help prevent excess nutrient runoff.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency also maintains a detailed list of actions you can take to help prevent nutrient runoff: https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/what-you-can-do.

Resources

Past editions of Shore Stewards News have addressed Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB), pet waste, shellfish safety and related information.

In the case of oil or other hazardous waste spill: • For emergencies, call 911. For spills on water, follow the guidelines on the Dept. of Ecology's spill page. • You can also fill out a web form to report an incident to Ecology: https://ecology.wa.gov/About-us/Get- involved/Report-an-environmental-issue/NWRO-issue-reporting-form • If spill does NOT reach the storm drainage system: (206) 440-4900WSDOT (state highways):

Before harvesting shellfish check the shellfish safety map (WA State Dept. of Health): https://fortress.wa.gov/doh/biotoxin/biotoxin.html

References

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