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A Review on in Situ Biodegradation of Methyl Parathion Through Soil Microbes

A Review on in Situ Biodegradation of Methyl Parathion Through Soil Microbes

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649

ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 4 Number 5 (2015) pp. 632-649 http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article A Review on In situ Biodegradation of Methyl through Soil Microbes

Jyoti Sharma*

School of Study in Microbiology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior - M.P., India

*Corresponding author

A B S T R A C T

Methyl parathion (O, O-dimethyl O-p- nitrophenyl phosphorothioate,MP) is an K e y w o r d s popular , used extensively and globally for the control of a wide range of insect, pests. Its residues are detected in fruit and Organo- vegetables and classified by the world health organization (WHO) in the class of , extremely hazardous pesticides. It inhibits the activity an Methyl important in the nervous system. Bioremediation is a technique by which parathion, the reduction or elimination of poisonous chemicals from soil, sediment water, or Bioremediation, other contaminated materials is possible with the help of . Soil is a Soil Bacteria good habitat for . Soil microflora is potential candidate for detoxification of pesticides. Soil microbes attack on wide range of organophosphorus insecticides. In this review we focused on rapidly degradation of methyl parathion by soil bacteria at optimized environmental conditions.

Introduction

Orgnophosphorus pesticides (OP) were first (Mulchandani et al., 1999). OP pesticides developed in Germany by Schrader in 1930 are acutely toxic and act by inhibiting the during World War II in the form of , an important enzyme tetraethyl as a byproduct of in the nervous system (Kanekar et al., 2004). nerve gas production (Dragun et al., When animals are exposed to OP, this 1984).Various groups of pesticide are used enzyme is unable to function causing the world over, but OP insecticides are most accumulation of acetylcholine, which widely used in agriculture field for interferes with the transmission of nerve protecting the crops which are harmed due impulses at the nerve endings (Synapses). to attack of insects, bacterial, viral, and OP pesticides are mobile in soil. It is fungal pests. OP pesticides also used in hydrophilic in nature and its little amount is homes, garden and in veterinary practices. In absorbed by soil particles. Continuous use of the United States, over 40 million kilograms OP pesticides contaminates different of OP pesticides are applied annually ecosystem of the world (US EPA, 1995;

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McConnell et al., 1999; Cisar and Snyder, Ultra-low volume liquid and 2000; Singh and Singh, 2003; Tse et al., microencapsulated product (FAO, 1997; US 2004). It is highly toxic substance to birds EPA, 2003). It is used for control of insects -1 with the LD50 beings 0.9-6.7 mg Kg (IPCS, and mites having chewing and sucking type 1993). Karalliedde et al. (1999) and Sogorb of mouth parts, including thrips, weevils, et al. (2004) has reported that it is causing and leafhopper in a very wide range around 3 millions poisoning with 20, 0000 of crops, including cereals, fruit, nuts, vines, deaths annually. vegetables, ornamentals, cotton, and field crops (Kidd and James, 1991; US EPA, OP insecticides are esters of phosphoric 2003). It kills insects and mites by contact acid, which include aliphatic, phenyl and stomach and respiratory action heterocyclic derivatives and have one of the (Balamurugan et al., 2010). Methyl basic building blocks as a part of their parathion is highly toxic for warm blooded complex chemical structure. Some of the animals the mammals and birds (CICOPLA- main OP insecticides are parathion, methyl FEST, 1997).It is potent inhibitors of parathion, chlorpyriphos, , acetylcholinesterase activity, an important and . But in this enzyme in the nervous system. It is applied we are focusing about only methyl parathion to agricultural crops by aerial or ground organophosphorus pesticide. spraying equipment. Methyl parathion has been detected in surface waters and Methyl parathion is an organophosphate sediments, rainwater, aquatic organisms, pesticides used extremely for agriculture cereals and pulses. crop protection (Kumar et al., 1996). It has been banned in many countries because of Methyl parathion can cause death by oral, its higher for mammals dermal or inhalation exposure and may (Keprasertsup et al., 2001; Sharmila et al., cause deaths. Males may be more 1989). It is highly toxic pesticide with trade susceptible than females to acute effects, name Dimethyl parathion, Mepaton, and children are more susceptible than Mepatox, Methyl E-605 and Methylthophos adults (PAN AP, 2008). Methyl parathion displaying insecticidal activity against a cause different types toxicity, acute toxicity, wide range of insect and arthropod pests sub-chronic toxicity, chronic toxicity, geno- (FAO/UNEP, 1996; US EPA, 2003; toxicity, oncogenicity, reproductive toxicity, Barbalace, 2006; Orme and Kegley, 2006). developmental toxicity, developmental Methyl parathion may also be found in neurotoxicity, immune toxicity and compounds with other insecticides such as hematologic effects (CEPA, 2010). , camphechlor, , , , , Methyl parathion degradation is very slow ethylparathion, , , and takes several months to degrade when , monocrotophos, phosal, applied in soil as a pesticide. When large propargite, petroleum oils, and concentration of methyl parathion applied in (Kidd and James, 1991; US EPA, 2003). soil as in an accidental sill, the degradation Methyl parathion is formulated as a number occurs after many years (Howard, 1989). of different commercial products. The most According to many authors (Pritchard et al., commonly available formulations include a 1987; Mathew et al., 1992; Buerger et al., wettable powder (WP), emulsifiable 1994; Reddy et al., 1994; Ortiz et al., 1995) concentrate (EC), dustable powder, and the half life of methyl parathion in natural

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 water is about one month, which is long Physical and chemical properties of enough to be toxic to many aquatic and methyl parathion (IPCS, 1992) terrestrial organisms. The physical and chemical properties of this Insecticides and their degradation products compound are given below Structure of generally get accumulated in the top soil and MP:- influence not only the population of various groups of ecofriendly soil microbes but also their biochemical activities like nitrification, ammonification, decomposition of organic matter and fixation (Agnihotri et al., 1981). *Structure according to California Department of Pesticide Regulation (1999)

Molecular formula C8H10NO5S IUPAC name O, O- dimethyl O-4-nitrophenyl phosphorothioate CAS No 298-00-0 Common name Methyl parathion, , metaphos (World health Organization, 1993) 35 - 38 ºC Boiling point 143ºC Vapour pressure 1.3m Pa at 20ºC Water 55-60 mg/litre at 25ºC Log octanol- water 1.83-3.43 Partition coefficient Freezing point about 29ºC (technical product) Non aqueous solubility S o l u ble in , Chloroform, aliphatic solvents and slightly soluble in light petroleum. (World health Organization, 1993) Odour like rotten eggs or (Technical grade) (Midwest Research Institute, 1975; Anon, 1984)

Fate of Methyl parathion in environment The distribution of MP in air, water, soil, and organism in the environment is The environment consists of a series of compartments like soil, water, air and other influenced by several physical, chemical and living macro and microorganisms. Once a biological factors (WHO, 1993). Methyl pesticide enters the environment, its parathion is an organophosphate compound, continuous transformation from one which have been used for the control of a component to another occurs. These wide range of insect pests all over the world. processes, in turn, are mediated by several When dispersed in the air, water and soil it significant biological activities which can be becomes pollutant. Pollution caused by both determined by the quantity of residual excessive and continuous use of pesticide. pesticides that persists in anyone These pesticides enter the environment by compartment for a certain period of time. diverse modes such as accidental spills,

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 direct applications residuals due to facility and soil in environment and less in amount cleaning of containers etc (Ortiz-Hernandez in plant and animal. It also concluded that et al., 2001). Many scientists have studied no movement of MP and its break down the degradation of MP and the concentration product was through soil to ground water. It of its metabolites present in soil sediment, also reported that the concentration of MP air and water. According to Howard (1989), after spraying declined rapidly over 3 days MP takes several months to degrade when and returned to background level after 9 applied in soil but when it is applied in days. WHO (2004) examined in agricultures higher concentration in soil, as in an area of USA and observed that the accidental spill, is degradation takes several concentration of MP in natural water was up years. According to Pritchard et al. (1987), to 0.46 µg/litre but higher level was Buerger et al. (1994) the half life of MP in recorded in summer. natural water is about one month, which is long enough to be toxic to many living WHO (2004) have reported the organisms in the environments. concentrations of MP in food is also present in very small amount, in different regions Stanley et al. (1971) collected the ambient the world. In the USA residues of MP in air sample from both high and low usage food have generally been reported at very seasons. After 12 or 24 hrs they found no low level. Methyl parathion residues were detectable concentration of MP at the site in highest in leaf up to 2 mg/kg and root California near the cities of Fresno and vegetables up to 1 mg/kg reported in the Riverside and detectable concentration as USA. Zhang et al. (2002) reported the MP high as 148 ng/m3 (average 29 ng/m3) in the from soil near Shanongda Pesticides rural areas of three of the eight states. Arthur Company in Hubei China. MP has been et al. (1976) reported the maximum detected in ambient air, surface water, concentration of MP 2,060 ng/m3 in ambient groundwater, rainfall, coastal fog, soil, air. Kutz et al. (1976) monitored ambient air sediments, fish, human breast milk, at sites located the 15 different state where umbilical cord blood, and foods (PAN AP, the MP was used. No detectable 2008). Methyl parathion is relatively more concentration of MP was observed in 85% mobile in soil (US EPA, 2003). It degraded samples. The higher concentration was rapidly in flooded non aerobic soil where its detected in Oklahoma. Kutz, (1983) half life period is 7 days but in aerobic monitored ambient air at 10 locations in flooded soil in half life period has been eight states (two urban locations in estimated as 64 days (ATSDR, 2001). California) for detecting breakdown product Castilho et al. (2000) studied that the half of MP and ethyl parathion. Out of 123 life of MP in water is 24-28 days. They samples, 15 samples showed the positive studied the degradation of MP in 12 rivers of result. Average equivalent concentration US cotton and growing regions, where was 2.9 ng/m3 with maximum level as high the concentration of MP was 0.42 ppb to 6 160 ng/m3. Sava (1985) monitored the air of ppb. Tariq et al. (2004) detected the MP in three residential sites of agricultural land in ground water in cotton growing districts of Salinas and California. They detected 17 Punjab and Pakistan. MP was also detected ng/m3 MP only in one sample in cotton in Ganges in India (Rehana et al., 1996). field. According to IPCS (1992) MP was Hermanson et al. (2005) examined the mostly used for protecting cotton field and residues of MP in ice cores collected from reported that partition of MP found in air the Austfonna ice cap in the Svalbard

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 archipelago in the arctic. Coupe et al. (2000) vegetables samples, it was up to 1 mg/kg in measured the highest concentration of MP in leaf and in root up to 1 mg/kg, in survey in rain water. the USA between 1966 and 1969.

WHO (1993) reported the concentration of OP pesticides are degraded quickly in water. MP in environment. They performed There is always the possibility that residues experiment in the towns in the centre of and by products will present in relatively agricultural areas of the USA. WHO also harmful level in the organism (Silva et al., examined the seasonal variation of MP 1999; Ragnarsdottir, 2000). Residues of MP concentration and observed mainly in the have been recorded in many foods, even range of 100-800 ng/m3 in occasionally in milk (ATSDR, 2001) and in August/September. They reported the drinking water sources such as in China (Na concentration of MP in natural water of et al., 2006). agricultural area in the USA and recorded the level ranged up to 0.46 ug/L in summer. Sanghi et al. (2003) reported residues of organochlorine and organophosphorus Application of Methyl parathion pesticides in breast milk samples from Bhopal. They observed that through breast Methyl parathion is an OP and milk infants consumed 8.6 times more , used to control boll weevils and and 4.1 times more malathion. many insect pests of agricultural crops, Organochlorine and organophosphorus having the biting or sucking type of mouth insecticide residues in market samples of parts (Adhya et al., 1981). Methyl parathion, meat were also reported by Suganathy and after ingested by the insect, is oxidized by Kuttalam (2003). the enzyme Oxidases in the insect body, to give , replacing the double bonded Toxicity of Methyl parathion sulphur with . This nature of MP offers the fundamental advantages in OP insecticide exhibits the high oral and controlling the pests in better way. It kills moderate dermal toxicity with a half life of insects by contact, stomach and respiratory 14-21days. The toxicologically relevant action (Tomlin, 1994). mode of action is the inhibition of esterase activities (Skripsky and Loosli, WSDA (2006) reported that MP at 0.25% to 1994) and also various clinical effects occur 0.5% is active ingredient per acre to control due to OP poisoning in human (Serdar et al., the Alfa alfa caterpillar, Aphids, Army 1985; Serdar, 1996). MP is lipid soluble and worms, Grass hopper. NRA reported that it can penetrate in skin also. It also enters the MP is used in agriculture field to control body through the respiratory and Helicoverpa larvae, mites scale aphids, gastrointestinal tracts and when absorbed mealy, bugs, lucerne, fleas and thrips. through alimentary canal, it is stored in adipose tissue. Its primary mechanism for Residues of Methyl parathion in toxicity is its slow release into the blood environment stream and subsequently to the nervous system. Some also enters the liver, where it According to the WHO (1993) reports the is changed into the more harmful methyl low concentration MP residue in the food in paraoxon. Methyl parathion and its the USA with few exceptions of individual metabolite may be transferred via the

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 placenta to the developing foetus (Edwards Sub chronic exposure to low doses of MP, and Tchounwou, 2005). caused abnormalities in the functions of in the liver and plasma, which is Acute toxicity the indication of the cellular toxicity (Kaur and Dhanju, 2004). Chronic dietary Normal functioning of the nervous system exposure to MP of rats decreased the and brain is interfered by MP (ATSDR, activities, neurological signs 2001). Methyl parathion hematological effects and nerve acetylcholinesterase inhibiting activity dimyelination. The reduction of the ChE causes the accumulation of the activity in the mice brain was the most neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the nerve sensitive toxicological endpoint (CEPA, synapse. According to CEPA (2010), when 2010). the rats are treated with MP in the laboratory, they appeared to be most Genotoxicity sensitive species. In the rats, the median oral lethal doses (LD50) ranged between 6-50 MP was observed as genotoxic in in vitro mg/kg (Category I oral toxicant), the dermal and in vivo causing gene mutations in rat LD50 was 67 mg/kg (Category I dermal bacteria, chromosomal aberrations in toxicant) indicating that the toxicity of MP mammalian cells, sister chromatid exchange via oral route or via skin is comparable. An (SCE); and was positive on the sex-linked acute (Single dose) oral exposure of rats to recessive lethal assay in Drosophila. In MP caused decrease in cholinesterase vitro, MP showed binding directly to the activities in the brain. cellular DNA (CEPA, 2010).

Sub-chronic toxicity Reproductive toxicity and developmental toxicity When the rats were exposed by oral and dermal routes with the sub-chronic MP, the The effects of MP on reproduction included: Inhibition of the ChE activities in brain was alteration in the levels of the luteinizing recorded and due to this the plasma and hormone in serum and early menopause in erythrocytes became most sensitive for humans, decreased pup survival in rats, toxicological endpoint. possible ovarian toxicity in rats and sperm abnormalities in mice. The lower fetal body The signs including constricted weight, increased resorption, reduced pup pupils , gait abnormalities decreased survival, abnormalities and variations of activity, abnormal breathing and impairment ossification, and cleft palate are the main of the cognitive and motor functions. The reproductive abnormalities caused by MP in deaths were observed in 5 to 95-day rats, mice and rabbits (CEPA, 2010). treatment (CEPA, 2010). Detrimental effects on the reproductive Chronic toxicity organs of both male and female along with the degeneration of placental cells have been Decreased hematocrit and erythrocyte level reported by Edward and Tchounwou (2005). caused the retinal regeneration and sciatic Methyl parathion caused fibrosis and nerve degeneration also by the MP due to hemorrhage of the endometrium during the chronic toxicity of methyl parathion (US pregnancy and significant changes in the EPA, 2003). duration of oestrus cycle (Edward and 637

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Tchounwou, 2005). It also causes cytotoxic (2001) reported its weak oestrogenic damage and tabular atrophy in the testis of activity. Liu et al. (2006) reported the rats (Narayana et al., 2006). Newborn exposure of a mixture of MP and th animals are more sensitive for acute lethality at 1/30 the LD50 increased than adults (Liu et al., 1999; US EPA, oestradiol level in male and female rats. 2003). WHO (1993) reported the short term Neurotoxicity toxicity of MP, using various routes of administration on the rat, dog and rabbit and Studies of developmental neurotoxicity observed the inhibitions of plasma, red revealed an increased sensitivity of blood cell and brain ChE, and related immature rats to the inhibition of the ChE cholinergic signs. Long term toxicity/ activity compared to adult rats after single or carcinogenicity studies were also carried out repeated exposures to MP (CEPA, 2010). on mice and rats. The exposure of MP caused the neuropathology and acetylcholinesterase When MP was inhaled, the first adverse inhibition in the central nervous system, red effects were a bloody or runny nose, blood cells and plasma (US EPA, 2003). coughing chest discomfort and difficulty in breathing. Skin contact may cause localized Edward and Tchounwou (2005) reported sweating and involuntary muscle that MP also causes , irritation and contractions. The further continuous effects purposeless chewing, lacrymation, reduced may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, spontaneous locomotor activity, abdominal cramps, headache, dizziness eye neuromuscular coordination, and impaired pain blurred vision, constriction or dilation memory due to exposure of MP. of the pupils, tears, salivation, sweating and confusion. In severe cases its poisoning Immunotoxicity affected the central nervous system, caused slurred speech, loss of reflexes, weakness, Repetto and Baliga (1996) reported the fatigue and eventual paralysis of the body effect of MP on the immune system. The extremities and respiratory muscles. Death weight of the thymus gland in rat and rabbit may be caused by respiratory failure cardiac was decreased due to its effects. They also arrest (EPMP US, 1994). recorded the decrease in the secondary antibody response in rat. Exposure of a Effects of methyl parathion and other mixture of MP and chlorpyrifos, at 1/30th the Organophosphorus insecticides on the LD50, affected immune function in rats (Liu activities of soil microorganisms et al., 2006). CEPA (2010) reported that in rats MP the lymphoid depletion and necrosis The recycling of essential plant nutrients, of spleen and thymus increased due to the humus formation and soil structure stability MP exposure. It also decreased IgG are main functions of soil microorganisms. production Soil fertility depends on type of microorganisms involved in Endocrine disruption ammonification, nitrification, denitrification etc. The wide use of organophosphorus US EPA, (2003) reported that MP is an pesticide has created the pollution of the endocrine disruptor in mammals. ATSDR environment and also may disturb the

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 equilibrium and thus fertility of the soil is nitrogen fixation etc was studied by ultimately affected. Agnihotri et al. (1981).

Sultan et al. (2010) conducted the Aggarwal and Gupta, (1996) worked on the experiment in laboratory to study the effect effect of organophosphorus pesticides of various OP pesticides on soil bacterial amidithion, DDVP and on population. Various concentrations of nitrification and ammonification by soil Chlorpyrifos (1000 ppm), Polytrin (2000 microbes. The nitrification and ppm), Endosulfan (100 ppm) and ammonification processes was not affected (10,000 ppm) were used to check the effect but slightly stimulated at lower on total number of bacterial population. concentrations (25 and 125 ppm), but it was Chlorpyrifos showed significant reduction in decreased at higher concentration of 1250 the bacterial colonies than other OPs ppm. Garg and Tandon (2000) conducted pesticides. research on the effect of OP pesticides on bacteria and actinomycetes of salt affected Farrukh and Ali (2011) reported the effect of alkaline soil of Banasthali region. The effect on growth, reproduction and variation in Bacillus, Arthrobacter, avoidance behavior of earthworm Eisenia Xanthomonas and Actinomyces population foetida. They observed that the weight of was an indication of either stimulatory or earthworm was decreased and reproduction inhibitory effects on different microbial and behavior was significantly affected by groups and had some role to play in the dichlorvos exposure. Gilani et al. (2010) degradation of OPs pesticides. studied the effects of 100 ppm and 1000 ppm chlorpyrifos on microorganisms of The effects of pesticides such as MP, DDT agriculture soil from a depth of 0-25 cm. and lindane on soil microflora, under Samples were kept under darkness; laboratory conditions, were investigated microbial activity was monitored after 6 (Singh and Alka, 1998). Slight changes in months and one year. The result showed that the fungal and bacterial population were the growth of Bacillus sp. was sensitive but recorded after 5 days but the higher a number of colonies of Klebsiella sp. were inhibitory effect was observed after 20 days. enhanced during the same treatment in the MP showed maximum inhibitory effect than experiment. Adiroubane et al. (2003) the lindane and DDT. Babu et al. (1998) conducted study to observe the impact of studied the effect of pesticide on monocrotophos 36 SL and phosphamidon 85 activity of soil. The effect of two pesticides, EC on the total heterotrophic bacterial and singly and in combination of nitrogen fixing bacterial population in the and Cypermethrin, was studied at rhizosphere soil and phyllosphere of concentration ranging 5 to 25µg/g soil. irrigated rice ecosystem. They observed a Protease activity of soils in combination sudden reduction in bacterial population with the pesticides was greater than or equal immediately after spraying, but to sum of protease activity obtained from subsequently the recovery was also recorded soils treated with one pesticide at lower the influence of insecticides on soil concentration. They concluded that it is due microorganisms. The influence of pesticide to synergistic or additive interactions on biochemical activities such as respectively. While the same combinations nitrification, ammonification, respiration, at higher concentrations, reacted

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 antagonistically by inhibiting 10-20 % It caused the significant reduction in number higher protease activity in soil. of soil bacteria. However in the field experiment, effect disappeared after 21 days Singh et al. (2002) studied the effect of of application. Roger et al. (1994) reported organophosphorus pesticide chlorpyrifos, the effect of pesticide on soil and water and chlorothalonil alone and in microflora and mesofauna in wetland rice combination on soil microbial activity. They field. They reported damaging effects on observed that the measured soil microbial microbial population or their activities when parameters, especially the enzyme activities pesticide was applied on soil and water. and total microbial biomass, was stable in the pesticide free control soils throughout 90 Bioremediation days of inoculation period, but they were all adversely affected in the presence of added Biodegradation or bioremediation is pesticides. Menon et al. (2004) reported that techniques to use the living organisms to the arginine ammonification activity of solve an environmental problem such as rhizosphere microorganisms was inhibited contamination and pollution of soil and by chlorpyriphos and its metabolites 3,5,6- groundwater. It s based on that different or trichloro-2-pyridinol and 3,5,6-trichloro-2- single microbe functioning together to methoxypyridine (TMP) in loamy sand and detoxify or remove the hazardous or sandy loam soils after seed treatment with pollutants, such as pesticides from the chlorpyriphos (5 gm/kg seed). They also environment (Gibson and Sayler, 1992). observed the stimulation of rhizospheric N Bacteria and fungi are significant detoxifiers mineralization by parent compound but of pesticides, herbicides and other toxic inhibition was recorded by its metabolites. compounds. Microbes use these compounds for their and growth. They Martinez-Toledo et al. (1992) studied the convert toxic organic compounds into non- effect of two methyl pyrimifos and toxic intermediate compounds, CO2 and chlorpyrifos, OP pesticide on soil microflora Methane gas (Singh, 2008). These in an agricultural loam. The organisms may be naturally occurring or methylpyrimiphos of 100 to 300µg g-1 or cultured in laboratory. Bioremediation chlorpyrifos 10 to 300 µg g-1 concentrations, processes apply for numerous applications, showed the significant decreased aerobic including clean up of ground water, soil dinitrogen fixing bacteria and dinitrogen lagoons, sludge and process waste streams fixation activities. The fungal and (Boopathy, 2000). Uses of such pesticide denitrifying bacterial populations were not degrading microbial systems for affected by the addition of the OP pesticide bioremediation thus have received a great to the agricultural soil. attention because of its low cost effectiveness and ecofriendly nature. This Ahmed and Ahmad (2006) studied the technology offers the potential to treat effects of Chlorpyrifos 40EC, contaminated soil and groundwater on site 200SL, Cypermethrin 10EC, Endosulfan without the need for excavation (Balba et 35EC, 20EC, 10EC al., 1998; Kearney, 1998). It requires little and Cypermethrin 10EC (OP pesticides). energy input for the preservation of the soil The effects of four concentrations of i.e. structure (Hohener et al., 1998). Perhaps the 125, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm were studied most attractive feature of bioremediation is on the number of soil bacterial populations. the reduced impact on the natural

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 ecosystems, which should be more provide the microbial system, a site of acceptable to the public (Zhang and Chiao, attack. If the molecule is present as 2002). Bioremediation has also several substituent of halogen or alkyl, it makes limitations because it depends on the nature more resistant to biodegradation (Cork and of organisms, enzyme which involved, Krueger, 1991). Minor difference in the compounds concentration and availability arrangement or nature of substituent in and finally survival of micro-organisms. . pesticides of the same class can influence There are two basic approaches to the rate of degradation (Topp et al., 1997). accomplish the process of microbial degradation of organic wastes. The aerobic Concentration of pesticides and the anaerobic bacteria are the major tools for the bioremediation. Production of The rate of pesticide degradation dependents methane gas may serve as fuel and sludge on the concentration of pesticides and obtained as a byproduct thus produced may amount of catalyst present in the microbial be used as fertilizer. With the advancement density, which involved in the degradation of biodegradation technology, different process. The rate of degradation decreases types of techniques have been designed and generally quantitatively with the residual used for the operation, which eventually pesticide concentration (Topp et al., 1997). maximized the optimum conditions for bacterial growth. The success of any Effect of temperature bioremediation process depends upon the physical and chemical characteristics of the The report of biodegradation reveals that the substrate such as nutrient status, moisture influence of temperature is outstanding. It content, pH and temperature, which has been emphatically stated that the entire influence as the environmental factors process of biodegradation is carried out at (Comeau et al., 1993; Boopathy, 2000; Zhu mesophillic and thermophillic temperature et al., 2004; Hazen, 2010). The biotic factors ranges. Whereas, the process becomes such as inoculum density play a significant viable at the mesophillic 30°C-37°C role in such process (Ramadan et al., 1990). temperature range, optimal temperature being at 35°C, the thermophillic digestion Factors affecting the bioremediations occurs between 50° to 60°C temperature range, with the optimum being at 55°C Several factors affect the bioremediation (Alexander, 1977). The optimal temperature process and are of physical and chemical required for both the ranges, is not characteristics of the substrate, invariably critical for the biodegradation. concentration of contaminants, amount of catalyst, temperature, pH, Moisture, Effect of pH additional energy source soil salinity inoculums density etc. Soil pH is an important factor, which affects the adsorption of pesticides for the abiotic Structure of pesticide and biotic degradation processes (Burns et al., 1975). According to Hicks et al. (1990) Structure of pesticide determines its physical it influences the adsorption behavior of and chemical properties and inherent pesticide molecules on clay and organic biodegradability. Introduction of polar surfaces. This also affects the chemical 3 groups such as OH , COOH and NH2 may speciation, mobility and .

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Racke et al. (1997) reported that degradation Bioremediation of Methyl parathion in of a given pesticides depends mostly on the soil soil alkaline or acidic pH. In fact the biodegradation depends upon the The environmental conditions and microbial susceptibility of the microorganism in the degradation decide the fate of OPs in the optimum pH of the medium. soil. Microbial degradation is the most Effect of moisture significant and successful key of disappearance of organophosphorus Moisture is an environmental factor and pesticides from the soil. Microorganisms affects the rate of biodegradation. Water acts possess the unique ability of completely as medium for the movement and mineralization of many aliphatic, aromatic of pesticides it is necessary for microbial and heterocyclic compounds. functioning. Moisture (water) influences the rate of contaminant metabolism because it Several microorganisms have been isolated influences the type and amount of soluble from soil which degraded the MP in the materials that are available in the environment. Increase in cell biomass environment. It maintains the osmotic stimulated increase in the pressure and pH of terrestrial and aquatic rate (Lewis et al., 1984). It is hydrolyzed in systems. The amount of water in the pore soil (Kishk et al., 1976) and also in flooded spaces of soil affects the exchange of soil (Sharmila et al., 1989). reparatory gases. Under saturated conditions, oxygen can be consumed faster Rani and Lalithakumari (1994) studied the than it is replenished in the soil space and degradation of MP by Pseudomonas putida the soil becomes anaerobic. This retards the and reported that the MP is utilized by this rate of biodegradation and causes major bacterium as sole and phosphorus changes in microbial metabolic activity to source and hydrolyzed the MP to p- occur. Generally the soil moisture content and it is further into degraded should be between 25-85% of the water into hydroquinone and 1, 2, 4-benzenetriol. holding capacity, and a range of 50-80% is Three isolates pseudomonas diminuta, optimal for biodegradation. pseudomonas putida and pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated from soil of Effect of salinity Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) which were capable of degradation of 1200mg/L MP at ph 7.0 Not more information is available and 30°c temperature after 48 hrs of concerning the effects of salinity on the incubation. However when optimized degradation of pesticides, although, salinity different parameters such as pH, is a severe problem in many arid, semiarid temperature, salinity, and growth sources, and coastal regions. According to Reddy and these three isolates showed rapid growth and Sethunathan, (1985) the parathion degradation proximate at 36 hrs of degradation is faster in non saline soils. incubation (Sharma et al. 2014). Many However reports on the stability of researchers studied on MP degradation. pesticides in estuarine and sea water of Chaudhry et al. (1988) isolated two bacterial varying degrees of salinity are available. A species of Pseudomonas and high salt content in seawater may be Flavobacterium from agricultural soil by unfavorable (Walker, 1976) or inhibitory enrichment method. Pseudomonas sp was pesticidal degradation (Weber, 1976; capable of utilizing MP and parathion as a Kodama and Kuwatsuka, 1980). sole source of carbon and Flavobacterium 642

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(5): 632-649 sp. was able to degrade the p-nitrophenol to microbes utilised MP as a source of carbon nitrite. For the degradation of MP by and energy. These two isolates were Pseudomonas species, glucose and another obtained from pre-treated MP agricultural carbon source as supplements were added in field. Both bacterial strains degraded 2 ppm MSM. Degradation of MP in an aqueous MP in basal mineral medium. medium by soil bacteria has been studied by Biodegradation of MP by microalgae and Keprasertsup et al. (2001). He isolated cyanobacteria was also reported by mixed and pure bacterial cultures from (Megharaj et al., 1994). He reported that agricultural soil treated with MP. They microalgae or cyanobacteria utilized 1 ml of obtained the Burkholderia cepacia, which 1000 ppm commercial MP as a carbon and showed the best degrading ability of MP in nitrogen source. the BMM in the absence of glucose. Balamurugan et al. (2010) isolated two Shunpeng et al. (2001) isolated the bacterial species Psedomonas aeruginosa Plesiomonas sp strain M6 from MP and Trichoderma viridae, from contaminated soil and they also determined monochrotophos and MP pre-treated soil. the mpd gene, which was responsible for These isolates potentially degraded such expressed in Esherichia coli. Sharmila monochrotophos and MP. Psedomonas et al. (1989) reported the effect of addition aeruginosa was comparatively more of yeast extract on the degradation of MP by efficient in degrading the monochrotophos bacterial sp. They isolated Bacillus species and MP. from laterite soil which degraded MP in the presence of yeast extract. Qiu et al. (2006) studied the MP degradation by soil bacteria. They isolated a bacterial was also degraded by this strain from soil capable of mineralizing MP. species but was not degraded and This bacterial strain was identified as showed the highest degradation at 35°C. Ochrobactrum anthropi. This strain totally Biodegradation of MP was reported by Ali degraded MP and its four metabolites et al. (2011). They isolated the Bacillus products, were also analyzed as p- pumilus Ti, having ability to degrade the MP nitrophenol, 4-nitrocatechol, 1, 2, 4- concentration of 500 ppm, in the presence of benzenetriol and hydroquinone by HPLC glucose. This strain was also degraded 70% and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry p-nitrophenol, a metabolite product of MP, (GC-MS) analyses. Pakala et al. (2007) with in 24 hrs. isolated bacterial strain from soil by enrichment method in minimal medium Degradation of MP in soil by strain DLL-1 containing MP. This strain was identified as was studied by Zhang et al. (2004). The best Serratia sp. strain DS001 and was capable period of degradation by microbes, was of utilizing MP, p-nitrophenol, 4- recorded 3 days after the application of the nitrocatechol, 1, 2, 4-benzenetriol as a pesticide. Bacillus and Pseudomonas species source of carbon and energy sources but isolated from pre-treated OP pesticides could not grow using hydroquinone as a ground nut fields (Madhuri and source of carbon. Rangaswamy, 2009).

Ghosh et al. (2010) studied the These species degraded several insecticides biodegradation of MP by the Pseudomonas such as chlorpyrifos, phorate, Dichlorvos, and Fransicella and concluded that these MP and . Karunya and Reetha

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