History of Aboite (Abort) Township
Karl R. LaPan Quest Club November 5, 2004 While researching the history of Aboite Township from its pioneer roots to the modern day, I was struck by a grisly realization: there's a great deal of scalping going on at both ends of the timeline! In the settlement days, these involuntary tonsures were administered by local Indians; in modern Aboite days, the tonsorial tomahawks have been wielded by the volunteers for Aboite, politicians, courts and developers. The results are much the same in both cases. The scalpees—the residents of Aboite
Township—are left with painful, and potentially permanent, headaches!
In the interest of full disclosure, I admit to a personal interest in Aboite Township.
My family and I live here and love it. For over ten years, we've enjoyed the excellent school system, the family-oriented atmosphere, the convenience of shopping, the proximity of interstate and air travel, and the easy access to all the amenities of "big city" life at affordable Hoosier prices: convenient access to museums, libraries, theaters, recreation, and restaurants both fine and fast. Aside from the widely publicized "rust- colored, foul-smelling Aboite orange Faygo pop" water as so affably named by former
Mayor Paul Helmke, Aboite is a good place to live and work.
A history, according to Webster's dictionary, is "a chronological record of events, as of the life or development of a people, place or institution, often including an explanation of or commentary on those events." That is my intent here: to discuss key events in the life and development of Aboite Township, and to make commentary on those events—both in the context of history, and in relation to the challenges and imperatives of the modern era. Speaking of the Aboite area, Thomas Castaldi, Allen
County historian, put it this way:
It seems to me that here's this place where...you get your mental arms around it and see where we have been so we can see where we are going, but also see and appreciate what people did before we came along to make our lives what they are today.1
Consider this paper a short historical didactic of some of the pivotal events shaping Aboite. It's impossible to capture the rich and varied culture of the community and the unique character of Aboite Township in such a brief paper. Instead, I will try to provoke some thinking, some understanding, and some historical context by focusing on the early area settlers of the nineteenth century.
Throughout this paper, we will rewind to the past for anchoring and grounding, and then fast forward to the present to find relevance and context. Given the recent election, it seems appropriate to overlay and juxtapose some of the development of the township in the context of state and national politics. Let me preface these comments with the following: I have no current political ambitions to run for political office; therefore my comments should not be construed as endorsing any candidate or any particular political governmental unit structure, and I am neither a right-wing Republican nor a liberal Democrat. I am an ordinary citizen trying to make sense of the political process, the means of governing, the ramifications of being governed, and our own personal accountability in the governance process. The second half of this paper will focus on the intention of Aboite to "create economic development" and on the Township's strategy for land use, its physical assets and planning infrastructure in the twenty-first century. With that being said, let's proceed.
So what is a township anyway? This was really the first question I posed to myself. I wasn't sure I could distinguish the significance between a township and a city.
In fact, township government is the oldest form of American government, and it continues to function in much the same way today as it did when it first began in 1636.2 By the late 1990s, there were 16,656 towns and townships spread across the nation and this form-of-government is "rooted in rural and small town traditions that spawned such ideas as the town meeting and the election of citizens to individual offices and boards."3
But how are townships organized and what functions do they perform?
Townships and counties are statutory units of government, having only those powers expressly provided by state law. Cities are vested with home rule powers, meaning they can do almost anything not prohibited by law.4 Townships perform both mandated functions, which they are required to do, and permissive functions, which they may do as they choose. Mandated functions include: property assessments, elections, and tax collection. These mandated functions are performed by, respectively, township supervisors, clerks, and treasurers. In addition, townships fund fire protection, emergency services, conduct burials for the poor, provide poor relief for the impoverished and perform maintenance of parks and cemeteries. Permissive functions are narrower and include such functions as procedures for the township's financial administration, township meetings, and powers to enact and enforce ordinances. 5 6
They are the province of township trustees. (Pop quiz: Who is the current Aboite
Township trustee? Most probably would not know that her name is Barbara Krisher.)
Indiana became a state and framed its first constitution in 1816. The state constitution was rewritten in 1851, defining the state's current political divisions: 92 counties, 566 cities and towns and 1,008 townships. Allen County has 20 of those townships, 5 of which account for 82% of the county's population.7 This is more than any other Indiana county other than LaPorte. However, it should be recognized that "each Indiana county is divided into a number of civil townships, essentially based upon the geographic townships created under the Northwest Territory Ordinance of 1788- they were defined even before statehood in Indiana.8
Indiana is not alone in its preference for the township form of local government, tn fact, 20 states—6 in New England, 3 in the Mid-Atlantic, and 11 in the Midwest—have townships. These 20 states have, on average, 833 townships each.9 Of the 20 states with townships, only Indiana does not have a provision for the dissolution of fully incorporated townships. If we did, over 10% of the townships in Indiana would be dissolved.
In 1851, Indiana was one of 31 states. The price of milk was 13 cents a gallon and bread was 9 cents a loaf.10 Today, milk and gas are both around $2 a gallon, and fresh-baked bread is a $1 a loaf. Even so, the current cost of dietary staples pales in comparison to the cost of state and focal government.
To put governmental appropriations and expenditures in perspective, based on
2002 data, appropriations in the state of Indiana by level of government were as follows:
$4.2 billion was disbursed: 48.2% by counties, 45.1% by municipalities, and 6.7% by townships.11 The controversial Indiana Chamber's Efficient Local Government Study concluded that local government hasn't changed much in the last 153 years or so. I think it is obvious to most that we've been tinkering and reengineering government for a long time without great success in adapting government to fit contemporary societal needs, to confront economic challenges, and seize opportunities. It feels as if we always put structural issues before strategy considerations. Good organizational design and execution necessitates that strategy always precedes structure. David Rusk, in his book Cities Without Suburbs, characterized this form of government and foreshadowed the challenge we face in Fort Wayne and Allen County today.
Whatever townships' value in civilizing the 19th century frontier, for the 21st century, the overall effect is the atomization of local government. With 2,745 local general governments, for example, Minnesota has one government for every 1,800 residents...Township states contain most of the most radically and economically segregated metro areas in the nation, and local communities' ability to compete economically is constantly constrained by the absence of government structures to pull together regional resources.12
Now that we know a bit about townships and their place in the general scheme of things, let's get specific about Aboite.
Modern-day Aboite Township is bounded on the north by Lake Township, east by
Wayne Township, south by Pleasant Township, and west by Whitley and Huntington
County. It encompasses almost 35 square miles. Aboite Township spans from County
Line Road on the west side to Bass Road on the north side. There are no buildings or
roads to define the east (Greenlawn Cemetery) and south boundaries (across the
Wabash railroad). The community of Aboite is located in western Allen County on the
Aboite and Lafayette townships line. Boundaries were set in 1836 by the Board of
County Commissioners.13
Some say that Aboite gets its name from the Little Aboite River that runs from
north to south through the township. In French treaties of the time, the river is referred to as "a bouette," which, in loosely-translated 18th century French, meant "Minnow
River," or more literally, "bait river." As the story goes, "a bouette" was then corrupted by the Indians and trappers into the name Aboite.14 This may, however, be an early case of "urban legend." A recent article in The Journal Gazette dated September 7, 2004, states,
No one seems to know where the name Aboite came from. County historian Thomas E. Castaldi, said it could've come from the French word "abattoir" meaning "slaughter house"- in recognition of an 18th century French-Indian battle that may or may not have taken place near Aboite [where the French were overwhelmingly slaughtered.] Or the name might have come from the French word "bouette", meaning bait for fishing or the French word, "boite", denoting a box or container conceivably holding fish [in fact, local residents say that Native Americans captured fish by trapping them in the low level wetlands spaces.] 15 16
Suffice it to say, I'll leave it to the Historians and history books to haggle over the details.
In a paper written by Thomas J. Bloomfield entitled, "Early Settler's of Aboit
[sic]Township" he recounts the massacre of Colonel Augustin De La Balme in
November 3, 1780. Colonel De La Balme and his men were in pursuit of a notorious gun runner named Beaubien and his band of Miami Indian confederates. Beaubien was getting guns from the British in Detroit and supplying the Miami who were going to
Kentucky and southern Ohio to attack and kill homesteaders. When the colonel and his men finally came upon the Miami village where they expected to find Beaubien hiding out, they instead discovered that the Indians were apparently "off on a winter hunt" and
Beaubien was nowhere to be found. After destroying the village and plundering
Beaubien's store of contraband, De La Balme's contingent made camp for the night in an open space on the bank of the Aboite River. This turned out to be an ill-conceived plan ...
Beaubien and a large group of Miami Indians under the leadership of a "crafty and visionary" Miami war chief named Little Turtle (a.k.a. Meshekinnoquah) crept up on the encampment. Little Turtle, who in later years would convince the Miami tribes to abandon the rites and practice of human sacrifice18, was not so magnanimous on this
occasion. He and his warriors stealthily surrounded the sleeping soldiers, and in the ensuing attack killed De La Balme and the majority of his men. Very few escaped with their hair or life that night. From this massacre, our township supposedly received the
name Aboite from the French word "abattoir," meaning "slaughterhouse."19 A letter from
Colonel William P. Legras, in December 1780, states:
It is with regret that I inform you of the melancholy defeat the Frenchmen met with at the Miamis. Col. De La Balme having started with about eighty men in order to take the man Beaubien and not having found this infamous scoundrel, the Frenchmen plundered the goods belonging to him. In returning they were attacked by the Miami nations who killed the bravest of them, and retook the goods which belonged to the King.20
However the name derived, the region that would later become Aboite Township overcame its bloody beginnings, and some 50 years later the first permanent settlers began to arrive. By 1824, the 672 square miles of Allen County had been officially organized.21 On Allen County's western edge, 35 of those miles wrapped themselves in tall grass along the banks of the Little Aboite. They, and the people that settled there, were destined to become the stars of our story.
In the early years, there seemed to me to be a sense of deliberateness and strategic and economic foresight evident in the planning and infrastructure development of what was to become Aboite Township. Fort Wayne, as a whole, was beginning to
prosper with the opening of the U.S. Land Office in 1822 where entrepreneurs came in droves to search for land deals. Some 500,000 acres were actually purchased. Despite early prosperity in the 1820s for fur traders or buyers of cheap land, Fort Wayne's economic potential without a major route of transportation was suspect.22 Growth could only be achieved with the ability to move goods. The National Road reached Indiana in the early 1830s, but it was still too expensive to ship bulk commodities by wagon.23 In
1827, Congress provided a land grant to encourage Indiana to build the Wabash and
Erie Canal because canals were believed to be the best way of linking regions into a united country and were considered the cheapest way to open the frontier. Five years later, in late February of 1832, construction began on the Wabash and Erie Canal that stretched from Toledo, Ohio on Lake Erie to Evansville, Indiana on the Ohio River. It was 468 miles long-the longest canal built in the United States. Construction of a canal is analogous to creating a manmade river. At the time of construction, the projected cost was $1.1 million. Acreage sold during this time to help pay for the canal approximated
$1.75 an acre.24 It was suspected that population rose to somewhere between 1,000 to
2,000 people.25 Fort Wayne was chosen for the site because it is the highest point along the canal route. This is how Fort Wayne got its nickname, the "Summit City." The initial seed investment for the first phase of the canal was secured from the federal government since the state of Indiana was insolvent after 1841. The canal was championed and foreshadowed by George Washington himself; he had suggested the potential of water passage back in the 1780s. By 1842, the state faced bankruptcy due to the level of indebtedness. This led to changes in the state constitution in 1851 that prohibited borrowing, but Indiana did not clear itself of debt until 1903.26 (Permit a little digression, I think, unfortunately, we didn't learn much from history and this is not dissimilar to the state of affairs in Indiana today where we went from an almost $2 billion dollar surplus to a $1 billion so-called "structural" deficit.)
With an American "melting pot" of poor but skilled Irish and German immigrants and artisans to work on the canal, the canal and its 18 aqueducts finally opened in 1843
8 at a cost of $8.3 million dollars. A massive cost overrun for the time! "Shortly after the canal opened, Fort Wayne grew from an Indiana^tradtng-post to a thriving community."27
At its pinnacle in the 1850s, downtown Fort Wayne was a bustling center with mills, hotels, and dry goods warehouses. The population increased threefold.28 By 1874, an economical steam-powered machine delivered on a canal boat cannibalized the last vestiges of the traditional transportation system. Accounting for receipts and revenues through 1874, the canal cumulatively lost $2.8 million dollars. This was still not a bad deal! There are interesting parallels today with our local industry's being usurped and being replaced by better technology, lower wage rates off-shoring, and new product innovation. I found it noteworthy that the father of Fort Wayne—Samuel Hanna, argued both for the inception and the demise of the canal. This is a powerful lesson for all of us today because, in effect, he cannibalized an existing industry for a better one. While the canal did not last as long as one would have imagined in Indiana (roughly 41 years), the foundations of a splendid future were laid. Critical to the development and evolution of the state, the new state constitution, the school law, and the building of a system of railroads all came through that critical period.29 Sadly, The Journal-Gazette article entitled, "Its all Aboite Township" carried the subtitle, 'At one time thriving, southwest burg now mostly afterthought'30 Today, the remnants of the canal when the canal outlived its usefulness, was filled in and paved, and is now knows as U.S. Route 24.31
The advent of the locomotive was anticipated with a land donation by Samuel Hanna.
Railroad activity caused the city's population to double from 1850-1860, and Fort
Wayne became one of the largest manufacturing centers in the state.32 Poignantly,
Castaldi captures the Canal's demise when he eloquently stated:
9 No one thought that the railroads would dramatically increase their operating speeds anehsweep-away passenger traffic from canal packets. No one thought that the railroads would undercut freight boat rates in the warm summer months and make up their losses during the cold winter months when the canal water was frozen solid. No one considered that the courts would order the canal closed in 1876.33
In mid-June of 1833, Hugh McCulloch, the first controller of the currency and secretary of the treasury under three presidents, came to Fort Wayne at the prompting of Dr. Lewis G. Thompson. McCulloch had this to say:
Fort Wayne was about as uninviting in every respect except its site [emphasis added] as any of the towns through which I passed, but it proved to be the end of my journey, which had been long and solitary, though by no means lonesome and tedious. As uninviting as Fort Wayne was in many respects, it was fortunate in the character of its first settlers—intelligent, far-seeing, wide-awake men [emphasis addedl.34
Fort Wayne's population by 1830 was approximately 900 people. Aboite
Township was established in 1833 and boosted Fort Wayne's population with a colony of thirty additional persons.35 Through their incredible "toil and sacrifices,"36 these 30 early Aboite settlers were aptly described as "industrious and enterprising pioneers."37
They were natives of Maryland and represented seven "founding" families:
Enoch Turner—a successful farmer and community contributor.
Richard Andrew—chosen as one of the first justices when in 1836 the people of the settlement petitioned to have the township set apart.
William E. Gouty—one of the youngest settlers in the Maryland group at the age of 26 with his 21-year-old wife who.
Richard Clark—33 years old when he came to Indiana and lived only to the age of 49.
10 Jesse Vermilyea—farmer, Indian trader, canal contractor, postmaster, pioneer, plank road builder, and one of the original directors of-the-Fort-Wayne Branch Bank, who later built the impressive Vermilyea house, which still stands on Redding Road at the Aboite River.
Lot S. Bayless and Benjamin Rogers—settled here with their families in the spring of 1834.
George Bullard—arrived with his family in November of 1835, the last of the original Aboite settlers.
These seven families formed a neighborhood, often referred to as the Maryland
Settlement.38 39 The scattered population and poor roads of the Maryland Settlement were officially organized as Aboite Township in May 1836.40
Much of what we know about the early years of Aboite Township comes from the writings of historians like B. J. Griswold. In 1917, he published his Pictorial History of
Fort Wayne, believing that codifying the oral traditions and stories of Fort Wayne would leave an indelible mark and richness of history for the youth and ages to come. Here's what he said in the introduction of his book:
If "the love of country is the highest and purest affection of the soul", let us implant that love in the lives of our youth through the retelling of the story of the deeds which have made possible the blessings of today.
Griswold (and others) chronicled the early history of Aboite Township as a series of "firsts:"
1834—the first cemetery (death came early and often on the frontier; establishment of a communal cemetery was often the first civic activity in many pioneer settlements)
11 1834—the first religious meeting was held
1836—the first religious denominational organization was formed
1836—the first election (rumor has it that the early residents of Aboite went solidly for the Whig, William Henry Harrison, who went down in defeat to the Democrat,
Martin Van Buren, but this may only be propaganda by the modern-day Whig and Allen
County Republican Chairman, Steven R. Shine)
1836—the first hewed-log house, described as large and pretentious, built by
George Bullard
1837—the first subscription school, taught in a cabin on Bullard's farm
1837—the first orchard
1839—the first brick house, erected by Jesse Vermilyea
1839—the first post office; Jesse Vermilyea, the first postmaster
1842—the first dual purpose log house, used as both a school and church; donated by Enoch Turner
1848—the first sawmill.42
Griswold also noted that "Aboite had a school, a drain tile manufacturer, a farmer's exchange company, a railroad station, a grocery, and a church." Unequivocally,
Griswold stated that there were "bold possibilities in Aboite."43
To examine some of those "bold possibilities," let us review the lives and times of one of Aboite's original settler families. Jesse Vermilyea and his wife Maria arrived on the scene in 1833 and lived in one of the seven original log homes. Maria bore Jesse five children; four daughters, and a son who died prematurely at 3 months of age. An influential citizen, land speculator, and early entrepreneur, Vermilyea sold supplies and
12 staples to settlers and traded with the Indians. Vermilyea built a warehouse for the
neighborhood's benefit and was active in the construction of the firsHmportant road
accessing Fort Wayne. Today, this is Lima Road.
In 1839, he began making brick and built a new two-story brick home, painted white, that became widely known as a center of social life in the settlement—the
Vermilyea House. There were three fine barns and other outbuildings44 45 As one of the
original Wabash land speculators, Jesse had plenty of property upon which to build his
2,690-acre estate. It consisted of seven different parcels that Jesse devoted to various
interests over the years. Today, Todd and Cathy Freeland have restored the "veritable
palace of the time" to near-original condition. This estate overlooked the "defunct
Wabash and Erie Canal, the wetlands, and in the distance, the village."46
Jesse is remembered as "farmer, Indiana trader, canal contractor, postmaster,
pioneer, plank road builder, and one of the original directors of the Fort Wayne Branch
Bank."47 Jesse Vermilyea died during the cholera epidemic of 1846, but what a
productive 13 years he brought to the early community of Aboite Township!
The Vermilyea House lived on, however, and there is speculation that it was a
"stopping place for refugees escaping to the north from the bonds of slavery." Although
documentation of Underground Railroad activity is scant, many postulate that "because
the (Wabash and Erie Canal) towpath was a landmark route from the Ohio River north,
it could have served as a direct line for fugitives from slavery heading north."48 In fact,
many believe that the third floor attic space was a "daytime resting place for fugitive
slaves."49 It should be noted that "The Vermilyea House has had an oral tradition of
13 Underground Railroad involvement since at least 1911, although no individual is named as an agent, conductor, or participant."50
Peggy Seigel's recent work, and supplemented by Angie Quinn, suggests that the Devil's Hollow area in southwest Allen County likely served as an Underground
Railroad stop. Fort Wayne was a "crossroads for runaway slaves who fled freedom on what became known as the Underground Railroad".51 The information is sketchy because the overall community attitude at the time was a deep rooted prejudice. There has been much speculation and folklore surrounding witches and ghouls in the two
Devil's Hollow, the one in Aboite Township and the one in Perry Township. It should be recognized that the "underground railroad was not an actual railroad of tracks and trains. It was a pathway through forests, across rivers and fields, down dirt roads, to home of sympathetic men and women."52 Many speculate that the folklore of Devil's
Hollow was invented to keep people out of the Underground Railroad in the woods.53
Newspaper articles confirmed steady Underground Railroad activity. Widely reported over 100,000 slaves were helped to freedom and possibly a steady pace of 25 people a week were helped through Aboite Township.54
I think the real focus of these efforts is on the vision and determination of the people who housed runaway slaves and transported them by wagons in the nighttime in ten-mile increments through an organized network.55 The prominent figures trace back to Levi Coffin, born in October 1798, and his wife Catharine [sic]. They were North
Carolina Quakers, who arrived in Indiana in the 1820s and whose home served as the
"Grand Central Station of the Underground Railroad."56 Harboring and aiding an estimated 3,000 slaves carried stiff penalties, including fines of up to $1,000 (to put this
14 in perspective, wage rates at the time were, at best, $1.00 a day and usually paid in script rather than cash).57 58 In Reminiscences of Levi Coffin written in 1876, Levi—often- considered the "President of the Underground Railroad"—vividly portrays his passion for his work, his hatred of oppression, his fierce opposition to slavery, and his determination to risk his property and future for the Underground Railroad. In his own words:
"I was willing to receive and aid as many fugitives as were disposed to come to my house. I soon became extensively known to the friends of the slaves, at different points on the Ohio River, where fugitives generally crossed, and to those northward of us on the various routes leading to Canada...Three principal lines from the South converged at my house. One from Cincinnati, one from Madison, and one from Jeffersonville, Indiana. The roads were always in running order, the connections were good, the conductors active and zealous, and there were no lack of passengers. Seldom had a week passed without our receiving passengers by the mysterious road..."59
Interestingly enough, one of the many slaves who hid in the Coffin home was "Eliza," whose story was immortalized in Harriett Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's
Cabin.60
Anna Howell wrote a letter to her friend, Beulah Puckett Ninde, niece of Levi
Coffin, in March of 1851 that says:
I was very much surprised indeed when I heard that you, (Beulah Puckett) had departed this life in commiting [sic] matrimony; although I felt quite sure, (from the Nine correspondents you used to have it assist you so in reading by applying the champhor [sic] bottle) that you would not live the life of single blessedness much longer.61
No longer a "wild and crazy single woman", Beulah Puckett and her prominent,
25-year-old lawyer husband, Lindley Ninde, moved to Fort Wayne in 1850. They lived on Fairfield Avenue (site of the first Lutheran Hospital), and defended black citizens who were being unfairly treated. The Nindes served as "conductors" along with a woman
15 named Dr. Mary Frame Myers Thomas, bom in Maryland. She was a Quaker, who later became known as a national mover and shaker in nineteenth century women's rights.62
Questor Angie Quinn notes and connects the two families in The Underground Railroad and the Antislavery Movement in Fort Wayne and Allen County, Indiana. She observes,
"During the time that the Thomases were in Fort Wayne, Dr. Mary Frame Myers
Thomas and Beulah Puckett Ninde participated in the organization of the Indiana
Women's Rights Association, with both holding state office at various times during the
1850s. This would indicate that the Nindes and Thomases shared at least one special cause, and due to their backgrounds and other connections, most likely corroborated on
Underground Railroad activities."63 Dr. Mary Frame Myers Thomas was "assigned to the local committee for Aboite, Allen County."64 The other towns in Indiana that organized local committees were: Richmond, Greensboro, New Castle, Economy, Winchester,
Pennville, Dublin, Cambridge, and Milton. Most were Quaker communities. Quakers believed that God speaks to the heart and mind of every person, and equality was central to that belief.65 On the 30th of October 1851, the Indiana True Democrat reported as follows:
The Indiana Woman's Rights Convention assembled in Dublin, according to agreement on Tuesday, the 14th day of October 1851 ....Res. That the standing committee in conjunction with the local committees be requested to make arrangements to hold local Woman's Rights Conventions in the state during the year, at such times and places as they may agree upon...Local Committees: Aboit (sic), Allen Co.-Owen Thomas, Mary F. Thomas and Rhoda Swain."66
As Questor Angie Quinn recalls, it is also germane to note that Rhoda Swain is actually Rhoda Ninde Swayne, Lindley Ninde's sister. She moved permanently to Fort
Wayne in 1866, and her house is still standing in the West Central neighborhood. A
16 brother-Henry Ninde-also lived briefly in Aboit [sic]. He was one of those who first called for the state-wide woman's rights convention, and his name was included in all of the state-wide advertising for the event.
Another prominent abolitionist was Alexander Rankin, a Presbyterian preacher, who tirelessly worked to organize abolition groups in Ohio and Indiana. In his house on
Lafayette Street, it appears the four-foot crawl spaces, found between the interior and exterior cellar walls of his basement were used as hiding spaces for runaway slaves.67
As George R. Mather vividly writes about and describes Alexander Rankin in Frontier
Faith, he states,
Uncommonly fearless in expressing his [Rankin] sentiments, with a mind deeply imbued with great principles of natural equality and civil liberty, he will be, I think at all times, the prompt, decided and fearless champion of the oppressed, and the advocate of the slaves.68
The house was later donated for preservation to ARCH, an organization dedicated to advocating for the restoration and preservation of buildings and sites of historical significance or architectural interest.
Let me conclude this historical tour of early Aboite Township by examining the political processes that guided the township down a prosperous road from the 1800s through the twentieth century. They were, in a word, local.
Aboite is a township, and as previously described, townships have traditionally been blessed with both the opportunity and the responsibility to govern themselves. To put the political and governmental process in historical context, one needs to consider that between 1840 and 1960, local political clubhouses dominated politics. When the
17 National Democratic Club was formed in 1834, local political clubs controlled the election process. Those clubs traded local favors for support for their chosen candidates. Club members elected judges by finding jobs for the unemployed, giving food to the poor; solving housing problems, and making sure the streets were safe.
They were led by local neighborhood leaders with followings in the streets. They had precinct captains who could bring out the vote. District leaders, who controlled about 30 precinct captains each, used their power to elect members of the state legislature and city councils to get jobs for their workers and contracts for their supporters. In that process they helped immigrants assimilate and become citizens. They helped the poor, uneducated and unconnected. They gave the natural leaders of the community a chance to advance, and do some good for the community as they advanced.69
As an aside, 1836—the same year Aboite Township was officially organized— also saw three other developments that have interesting parallels in the modern era. In
San Antonio, Texas, the famous Alamo—remember the Alamo?—fell in ferocious battle.
A half a continent away, an east-coast career politician, Martin Van Buren, took the oath of office as our eighth president. And at Yale University, The Skull and Bones began to tap 15 students a year for their venerable secret society. In 2004, 168 years later,
George Bush of Texas locked in ferocious battle with an east-coast career politician,
John Kerry, for the Presidency. Both were Yale Bonesmen. Some weird channeling of karma from 1836, perhaps? Make of it what you will ... but consider this:
In those 168 years of local governance through the township system, Aboite has grown and prospered. The people who settled Aboite Township survived war with the
Indians; made trade on the Wabash and Erie Canal; boomed along with the coming of
18 the railroads; shepherded slaves to freedom in the tumult of the Civil War; championed early women's rights; built magnificent homes, schools, firehouses and businesses; survived the Great Depression,; and entered the twentieth century political process with their civic pride and community independence intact. And it was done, as Hugh
McCulloch observed, because it was fortunate in the character of its first settlers— intelligent, far-seeing, wide-awake men"
We are challenged today to find such "intelligent, far-seeing, wide-awake" politics in this country today. Today, elections are more of a choice between better "operational effectiveness programs," (e.g. incremental improvements in health care, tinkering with social security, arguing about tax brackets), than they are about far-seeing, wide-awake visioning for our country's future. The origins of Aboite Township sprang from this innate ability to foresee, with a wide-angled lens, the potential for the community before the community existed. There wasn't a church, a canal, a bank, or a store when the first 30 settlers arrived, but they had the vision of such things, and they simply set about making them so. The early settlers of Aboite Township were quite accurately described as
"industrious, economic, and hard working people."70 At the same time, there was great pride and allegiance to defining and "enterprising" a better place to live that included songfests and a community summer picnic in the township in the summer listening to the sounds of the Aboite Township Band, which included members of the Van Hoozen and Rousseau families.
Tip O'Neil, the Democratic Majority Leader of the House of Representatives in the 1970s, said it best: "All politics is local." For O'Neil and followers of his idea, the best way to predict or understand how and why politicians behave the way they do is to
19 look at what affects them on the local level, where their voters live. This was the most important reason why grassroots government through townships prospered in the first place. In my estimation, it is this bottom-up, locally-driven leadership and self- determination that is lost with the political process today. When a governor's race in
Indiana could exceed $2871 million to convince an ill-informed populace to let their local lives be governed by some faraway, unfeeling bureaucracy in the name of some mysterious "efficiency," who would have believed this possible or practical? It seems obscene. It feels like getting scalped.
I am now going to focus more directly on three interrelated contemporary economic development issues within Aboite Township, and on the permissive power of the County to regulate land use. In my view, a lot of the deliberateness and strategy of the nineteenth century was yielded to a developer-led and developer-centric model of growth and expansion. This sentiment is characterized by several conflicting views including long-time resident, June Reichenbach who said, "We don't count. The more the developers put up, the worse it's gonna get."72 What was abundantly transparent in the nineteenth century, was the generosity of key figures donating land and buildings, the sense of accomplishing great things for the general good, and a strong desire to build up the town by advancing its material interests, and, improving and developing its resources cooperatively.73 These are the things that drove the "planning" of the time.
Frustrations were likewise echoed from the developer side when the new county plans set boundaries for local services. In March of 1999 Dave Arnold said, "As a community we talk a lot about economic development about growth, about smart growth, and this
20 comprehensive plan negates those efforts."74 In modern time, the tug-of-war and dynamic tension between planning and development collided.
The major areas I will evaluate in the twentieth century development of Aboite
Township include: the Land Use Study conducted in 1989, the annexation of Aboite
Township, and a brief touch on "future history making" in the consolidation and efficiency of government initiative.
In 1957, the Allen County Plan Commission began to plan for the projected
350,000 residents in the county by 1975. Population in Aboite Township in 1956 was
2,253 and had been increasing at almost 9% a year from 1950 to 1956.75 With an eye towards industrial and economical, residential subdivision growth, the Design for Living
Plan attempted to address rapid urban growth and urban sprawl as the population increased 37% to slightly over 50,000 people, while the population of Allen County outside Fort Wayne grew 44%.76 Looking ahead, this plan chronicles the early 1900s and the "heyday of the lumber industry and the development of agriculture as the economic base of the county. The smaller outlying towns in the county were experiencing great activity as trading centers and railheads for the surrounding farmlands."77 As Former Aboite Township Trustee from 1955 to 1962, Ron Van Hoozen reflected on the farming industry in Aboite Township; he stated, "The joke in Aboite
Township was that the only thing you can raise in Aboite is a bunch of hell with a jug of whiskey."
Following on this seminal work in 1957 to make Allen County a "better place to live, work, and play", the Land Use Study of 1989 is an outgrowth of the Allen County
21 Comprehensive Plan adopted in 1976. The comprehensive plan involved input from over 7,000 residents of the County. The plan was developed to govern growth and to establish an urban services boundary, due to the strong lure to employment opportunities, the desire to move into a more "rural" atmosphere, and utility extension for much of the growth that transpired from 1975 to 1989, including attraction to the area's natural features and amenities.78 While never adopted, because of conflicts with local Developers, Aboite Township was considered an "area of rapid development."79
During the post-war years, the census population of Aboite Township in 1960 was 3,131 people. It doubled to 6,132 by 1970. This is significant because in 1967 a change in school districting occurred. Prior to this time, the function was operated by the township trustees. Four superintendents have served the district since its formation.
According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census and Stats Indiana, population nearly doubled again from 6,132 to 11,663 in 1989. The following population grew to 18,490 in
1990; 21,824 in 1996; 28,338 in 2000; and nearly 29,000 in July 2003.80 "Essentially, a significant proportion of the population increase in suburban townships in Allen County occurred in Aboite Township."81 The Aboite Township Fire Department was created in
1982.82 The population change in the decade of 1990 to 2000 in Aboite Township was a positive 53.3%. Allen County, as a whole, is more than 83% Caucasian making it more multi-racial than its counterparts, but still even higher Caucasian than the national average. Aboite Township is 93.5% Caucasian; about 49% male and 51% female.
Almost half of the township is in two major industry sectors: 21% in manufacturing and
21% in educational, health, and social services. Income ranges are: 23% earn between
$50,000 to $74,999; 18% earn between $75,000 to $99,000, and 18% earn between
22 $100,000 to $149,999.83 Likewise, in the 1990 census, 1.1% of the township (a mere
195) of the population was at or below poverty. This grew slightly by 2000 where 511 or
1.8% of the population was at or below the poverty level.84 No matter how you assess the winners and losers in achieving its economic development goals in the townships of
Allen County, An Economic Analysis of Allen County, Indiana for the period 1981 and
1995 concludes, "Aboite Township ranks second in percent change in gross assessed value, ranks second in percent change assessed value of real property, and second in percentage change in property tax levies. In the case of Aboite Township, strong residential growth drove strong assessed values."85
The Allen County Plan Commission's Aboite Township Land Use Study (January
1989) identified the major trends and events that shaped the township development.
These trends are chronicled here. In the 1940s and 1950s, most of the growth in Aboite
Township occurred along the major roads as a result of the widening of U.S. Route 24.
From 1953 to 1959, nearly 900 lots for single family homes were platted. Assuring the promotion of public health, safety, order, general welfare, efficiency and economy of development necessitated the need for a County Plan Commission that was formally established in 1957.86 In the 1960s, 76% of all land was zoned agricultural and flood hazard area; while 20% was zoned estates. A mere 2% was zoned suburban residential, industrial, and commercial purposes. At the same time, Aboite Township population growth grew 175% and was ranked sixth among all townships. School districting changed in the mid-1960s resulting in the formation of the Southwest Allen
County School District in 1967. Commercial development started in the early 1980s with the "pacesetting" development of the Village of Coventry by Joe Zehr. At this time,
23 there were no other retail developments in the township. Most office development was east of the Interstate 69 and U.S. Route 24 interchange.87 Residents were concerned about "over commercializing", potential declining property values, traffic congestion as I-
69 continued to be developed and modernized, sewer capacities, water supply and pressure in the area with many citizens requesting a moratorium on growth.88 As a result of these concerns, the land use study entitled Allen County 2000 sought to focus and protect "wetlands, underground water recharge areas, and protect a significant amount of farmland."89
As was widely reported in late 2001, for the period beginning January of 2000,
Perry Township had issued more permits to build new homes than Aboite Township.
This was due to a two-year moratorium on sewer hookups and new home construction in trendy Aboite Township due to fears that the privately-owned sewer and water utility could not accommodate the soaring demand.90 91 These issues apparently trace back to
1986. It seemed Aboite Township was at the crossroads of growth with two ways to grow: it could focus on the traditional neighborhood that was the fundamental form of settlement through the World War II in the United States, or embrace suburban sprawl, patterned after a system for living that is "more rational, consistent, and comprehensive »92
In 1989, the challenges to the Township revolved around community services
(e.g. school systems, parks, fire and police protection, and emergency medical services.) In the book, The Rise of Sprawl Suburban and the Decline of Nation, the authors discuss the importance of "civic building" and the importance of the neighborhood elementary school "which should never be more than a fifteen-minute
24 walk from any home." 93 We should replace the educational mega-facilities, which are sized for economies of scale, with neighborhood-based schools that create a more effective environment for learning.94 In fact, during the expansive growth of Perry
Township in Northwest Allen County Schools, the school corporation opened a new building every three years to keep up with the growth.95 Consistent with the neighborhood school theme in theory but not in practice, one school superintendent acknowledged, "We work hard at creating and keeping a family atmosphere. We aren't small schools, but we want the small-school atmosphere."96 This is the difficulty of progress. Dynamic tension exists between the arguments for a strong central city and the fierce independence of a wealthy township. Is the township a success story, efficiently delivering services or is it an outdated, antiquated form of government that if all townships were eliminated in Indiana, it could save $122 million/year?
Fundamentally, is it the civic duty of the suburbs to support the city? Many think so.
The key issues and findings in Aboite Township as recorded in 1989 were as follows:
Schools: Since 1970, four schools were built to address population growth that
resulted in increases in enrollment. Today, one high school, two middle schools,
and six elementary schools make up the southwest Allen County school district,
and the "1893 one-room Center School schoolhouse is a constant reminder to
residents in Aboite and Lafayette Townships that quality of education is a
tradition in the County."97 In 1959, Indiana passed legislation requiring school
corporations to have a minimum of 1,000 students. Up until the late 1940s,
Aboite Township transferred its students to Jefferson Center, Areola, and other
25 schools until the first consolidated elementary school was formed in the fall of
1954. The consolidation of small schools resulted in the closing of the township
schoolhouse in 1946. A dream of Ron Van Hoozen's was realized when a 155-
acre auction was held in 1962 for the land that Homestead High School now
occupies. Using monies collected through the accumulated building fund, it would
be a tremendous strategic benefit to the township to have, at its center, a
sprawling high school campus that would be a major magnet and attraction for
population growth, affluency and infrastructure development.
Parks: Five parks and over 600 acres of public park land were acquired.
Fire Protection: The Township fire department was established in 1982 with
over 60 volunteers; township taxes pay for station upkeep, equipment, and gear.
Police Protection: There were five cars patrolling the county at any given time.
Increased vandalism and theft has driven up the need for increased police
protection.
Environment: The existing zoning and ordinances did not have provisions for
environmental preservation outside the floodplain areas.
Probably one of the most controversial, transformational turning points in Aboite
Township's history is Fort Wayne's annexation of Aboite Township. Mark GiaGuinta exclaimed in and published in The Journal-Gazette article that he thinks, "in 50 years well look back and see it (the ruling) as one of the most important decisions affecting the city of Fort Wayne ever handed down."98 Perhaps, the same sense of importance will be said in the history of Aboite Township. Some Aboite Township residents
26 complained they had no reason, nor any desire, to be part of the city or its
government.99 With a long and historical track record of annexation as a "way that
reflected growth, demographic, and economic realities." Mayor Helmke began a
"counterclockwise, phased annexation approach to capture St. Joe, Pine Valley, and
Aboite."100 According to the State of Indiana's Advisory Commission on
Intergovernmental Relations, in its white paper, Annexation in Indiana: Issues and
Options, the commission noted that the volunteers for Aboite were "working on two
fronts to overturn Indiana's unfair annexation law, both remonstrating against the Fort
Wayne ordinance and initiating a campaign for reform in the state legislature."101 During
the widely contested battle, the city of Fort Wayne received several major setbacks in its
bid to annex 13 square miles of Aboite Township when the state court of appeals ruled
the city failed to submit an appropriate fiscal plan. Specifically, the court found the city's
fiscal plan was deficient in calculating the cost estimates of planned services to be
provided in the annexation territory. It was the second victory for those fighting to halt the planned annexation of 22,500 southwest Allen County residents.102 But in the end,
annexation won. On January 1, 2006, 115 miles of road, 8,228 acres, and 23,000
residents comprising nearly 7,173 households will be welcomed into the city of Fort
Wayne.103
For the citizens of Aboite Township, the Supreme Court of Indiana, on the fateful
day of March 12, 2002, issued a unanimous ruling reversing the trial court ruling in favor
of the township. The judges, in effect, concluded that the previous court decisions
amounted to a judicial audit of a legislative decision by concluding:104
...courts reviewing annexation challenges should focus on whether the municipality made credible and enforceable commitments to provide equivalent
27 services to similar areas. Courts are not authorized to dissect the minutiae of what are essentially legislative decisions. Based on the court's factual findings, the Fiscal Plan suffices...We reverse and direct judgment for the City.105
As a result of the pending January 1, 2006 annexation of most of Aboite
Township into the city of Fort Wayne, corporate community leaders under the auspices and leadership of the Northeast Indiana Corporate Council want to engage in regionalization discussions to evaluate the effectiveness of local government.
Concurrent with the efforts to annex Aboite Township, it should be noted that a number of people have been studying government restructuring in Allen County for a long time.
Noted in the minutes of a meeting of "Invent Tomorrow" in November 2003, Jim Owen, stated succinctly that "there were three choices: Unigov, do nothing, or incremental change." He further challenged, "The city must be prepared for a significant growth spurt in 2006 with the Aboite Township Annexation." 106This could put Fort Wayne into the first class city category. Fellow Questor, Paul Helmke, echoed this sentiment and put it in context of the national movement by stating,
Government consolidation discussions in Fort Wayne closely parallel three elements of the national metropolitan reform movement: definition of the problem (government structure with duplicating functions and overlapping jurisdictions); the process of reform (through the state legislature, referendum vote, public support), and the structure sought.107
At the same time, Senate Bill 225 would have allowed government restructuring in the 15 counties that included cities of 35,000 to 600,000 residents, after that a government commission would be tasked to develop a restructuring plan and a county- wide referendum. Concurrently, at this time, House Speaker, Pat Bauer was trying to
28 "dismantle township government".108 Widely reported, the anti-township bill authored
and sponsored by Representative Robert Kuzman, irked and rankled township officials.
Many pointed out that they felt that "getting rid of township government would deny
residents some of their freedom of choice, as township governments are much more
accessible and accountable to citizens."109 Senator Long did acknowledge the
challenges by saying that, "I'm the first person to say township government in rural
areas may be the best form of government. It can be very functional and cost-
effective."110 Alternatively, Senate Bill 223 would simply allow for a government
efficiency study commission, a less politically risky option for moving forward. This bill
was passed, and a commission is meeting and functioning today.
In an article published in The News-Sentinel entitled "A House Divided," the
fundamental challenge was postulated "Allen County contains too much rural area and
too many independent cities and towns for a fully consolidated government to work.
About 100,000 Allen County residents live outside an incorporated city or town."111
Absence a burning platform for change (widespread corruption, adequate services
could not be provided for the advancing urban area, or economic crisis) like the one's
present in Lexington, Kentucky and Fayette County,112 it is unlikely meaningful reform
can take place. Some city and county services have been successfully merged
including the health and building departments, despite talk of a merger between Fort
Wayne and Allen County that has been contemplated since the early 1970s.113 At the
end of the day, arguments seem to circle back on the issue of taxation. The volunteers
for Aboite Township, succinctly stated, "the bottom line: annexation is not a good idea for Aboite taxpayers. They will be forced to pay much higher taxes with little
29 improvement in services. They will be more isolated from their elected officials and service providers."114 There hasn't been much success in city/county consolidations with only four of seventeen in the 1990s succeeding. Most studies confirm that in consolidations, taxpayers will not save money, government probably will not spend less, and taxes will inevitably go up.115
Helping annexation opponents, on May 13, 1998, Governor O'Bannon signed into law, two acts that improve the fairness of Indiana's annexation statutes. Annexation can be nullified if four conditions are met:116
1. 65% of landowners and 75% of the assessed value of the land
being annexed object through a remonstrance petition
2. Police, fire, street, and road maintenance are adequately furnished
by another provider
3. The annexation will have a significant financial impact on
landowners
4. The annexation is not in the best interest of the property owners.
Unfortunately for many of the Volunteers for Aboite Township, there is nothing in the law to make its provisions retroactive. Looking back, some conclude that we will say that annexation made our community stronger. Time will tell whether the benefits outweigh the costs. A future Quest paper may well focus on annexation as an economic and community building tool; and the role of organization's like the Corporate
Council who are engaged in a mission to improve government efficiency and who wish
30 to reduce redundancies and sharpen focus through consolidation as a means of being
more responsive and competitive in today's global economy.
In conclusion, what will our legacy be to retelling the stories of today tomorrow?
Will we be recalled as the "intelligent, far-seeing, wide-awake people" that initially
settled the township? Or, will we be the new "civic revolutionaries" who are willing to
experiment with new approaches to complex community problems to address critical
social and economic issues—how to succeed in a volatile economy, how to prepare
people for a new world of work, how to safeguard environmental assets, how to create a
sense of community in a pluralistic society?117 The future is in our hands. Will we be
open to receive it? "Just as those first settlers worked to make a better life for themselves, they were building functional and productive communities that provide us a
comfortable place to live and work."118 Will our deeds lead to the "future blessings of our
youth" and "community building" as Griswold described in 1917? I hope so. Imagine the
possibilities if we do. Imagine the history we can create for the future generations to
come.
All we need to do is remember and reflect on two simple caveats:
Tip O'Neal had it right; all politics is local. And, bigger is not always better;
sometimes it is just... bigger, more expensive, and less effective.
31 Notes
1 Farrant, Rick. "It's all Aboite History." The Journal-Gazette. September 7, 2004, pp.6 2 http://www.winfieldtownship.com/winfield/ 3 Township Government in the United States. http://www.michigantownships.org/township history.htm 4 http://www.michigantownships.org/township history.htm 5 http://www.michigantownships.org/township history.htm 6 Conversation with John Stafford, IPFW, Community Research Institute, October 28, 2004; and "Here is Your Indiana Government", Indiana Chamber of Commerce 2003- 2004 edition. 7 Guthrie, Thomas. "A Demographic Profile of Allen County." Community Research Institute, November 20, 2001, pp.3 8 Conversation with John Stafford, IPFW, Community Research Institute, October 28, 2004; and "Here is Your Indiana Government", Indiana Chamber of Commerce 2003- 2004 edition. 9 The Indiana Project for Efficient Local Government, pp.2. 10 The Indiana Project for Efficient Local Government. Indiana Chamber of Commerce, February 2002 Executive Summary, pp. 2. 11 The Indiana Project for Efficient Local Government, pp.3. 12 Rusk, David. Cities without Suburbs. The John Hopkins University Press, © 2003, pp.102 13 Newton, L.H. "Aboit [sic] Township". Pp.145 14 Griswold, pp. 687. 15 Farrant, Rick. "It's all Aboite history". The Journal-Gazette, September 7, 2004. 16 Newton, LH. Aboit [sic] Township, pp.145. 17 Castaldi, Thomas E. Wabash and Erie Canal Notebook. Graphik Mechanix, © 2005, pp.68. 18 Bloomfield, pp.9. 19 Bloomfield, pp2. 20 Http://iordan.fortwavne.com/cgi-in/yabb/YaBB.cgi?board=ig news;action=print;num=1 21 Allen County, http://www.countvhistory.com/allen/more.htm 22 Geocities:The Wabash and Erie Canal: The Great Waterway. Pp1-13. http://www.geocities.com/heartland/vallev/7029/canal.html 23 GeocitiesThe Wabash and Erie Canal: The Great Waterway. Pp1-13. http://www.geocities.com/heartland/valley/7029/canal.html 24 Pepper, Terry. The Wabash and Erie Canal, The W&E through Huntington, Why a Canal? http://www.terrypepper.com/w&e/background.htm 25 Frazier, Lynne McKenna. "Irish Canal Diggers Built Prosperity". The News-Sentinel, March 17, 1997, pp. 1B. 26 Castaldi, pp.37. 27 Castaldi, pp.1 28 Geocities, pp.3 29 Thomson, State of Indiana, pp.217
32 30 Farrant, pp.1 ^-TEP Funding Application, http://www.heidelberg.edu/FallenTimbers/FTMaumeeFunds 3.html 32 Geocities: The Arrival of the Locomotive: The Canal's Demise, http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Vallev/7029/railroad.html 33 Castaldi, T. Vermilyea: A Return to Splendor. Pp.16 34 Griswold, pp. 311. 35 Griswold, BJ. The Pictorial History of Fort Wayne Indiana. Chicago: Robert O. Law Company, 1917, pp. 687. 36 Griswold, pp. 587. 37 Valley of the Upper Maumee River, Volume 1; Brant & Fuller, ©1889 38 Newton, L.H. Aboit [sic] Township 39 Bloomfield, pp.3-6. 40 Allen County InGenWeb Project. http://www.rootsweb.com/inaHen/churches.html 41 Griswold, pp Introduction 42 Newton, L.H. Aboit [sic] Township. Pp.145 43 Farrant, Rick. "It's All Aboite history." The Journal-Gazette, September 7, 2004. pp.5 44 Vermilyea- The Maryland Settlement. http:www.terrypepper.com/w&e/vermilyea.htm 45 Castaldi. Vermilyea: Return to Splendor, pp.6. 46 Farrant, pp.4. 47 Vermilyea- The Maryland Settlement. http://www.terrypepper.com/w&e/vermilvea.htm 48 Castaldi. Vermilyea: Return to Splendor. Pp.11 & 12. 49 Quinn, Angela M., pp.101 50 Quinn, Angela M., pp.99. 51 Trotter, pp.1 52 Trotter, pp.2 53 Jokay, Alex. "I've been workin' on the Railroad: Tracking Down Huntertown's Abolitionists Past", April 21, 2004, pp 1-4. 54 Kilbane, Kevin. "Tracking Down the Past Via the Underground Railroad". The News- Sentinel: October 21, 2002 55 Jokay, Alex. "I've been workin' on the Railroad: Tracking Down Huntertown's Abolitionists Past", April 21, 2004, pp 1-4. 56 Jokay, pp. 1-4 57 Trotter, Eunice. Blacks Sought Equality in Fort Wayne. The News-Sentinel. 58 http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAScoffin.htm. Levi Coffin. 59 Katz. Levi Coffin's Underground Railroad Station. Reminiscences of Levi Coffin. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h2946t.html. 60 http://www.indianahistory.org/pop hist/people/coffin .html Indiana's Storyteller: Connecting People to the Past 61 Letter from Anna Howell to Beulah Puckett the 18th of March 1854. 62 Jokay, A. "I've been workin on the Railroad: Tracking Down Huntertown's Abolitionist Post". ' 63 Quinn, Angela M. The Underground Railroad and the Antislavery movement in Fort Wayne and Allen County, Indiana. ARCH, Inc., © 2001, pp.76 & 77.
33 64 Indiana Women's History Association, lnc."lndiana Women: 150 Years of Raised Voices: Sesquicentennial of Indiana's First Women's Rights Convention." Indianapolis, IN: Indiana Historical Society, 2001. Indiana Medical History Quarterly. March 1979. 65 http://www.earlham.edU/Q/brochure1/ Quakers of Richmond and Wayne County, Indiana 66 Indiana Women's History Association, Inc. 67 Preserving African American heritage in Indiana. http://www.historiclandmarks.org/feature/feature1202.html 68 Mather, George R. Frontier Faith. ©1992, Allen County-Fort Wayne Historical Society of Fort Wayne, Indiana, pp.34. 69 http://www.midtownmedia.com/ndc/mission.html 70 Castaldi, Thomas E. Vermilyea House: A Return to Splendor. Parrot Press. ©2004, DD.4 Kelly, Niki. "Gubernatorial race is costliest ever". The Journal Gazette, October.14,2004 72 Farrant, pp.4. 73Slocum. History of the Maumee River Basin, Vol. 3 Bowen & Slocum, pp.80-81 74 Dawson, Michael. New County Plan sets Boundary for Local Services. News- Sentinel, March 29,1999 75 Allen County Plan Commission: Design for Living. © 1957. pp.32 76 Allen County Plan Commission: Design for Living. © 1957. pp.3 77 Allen County Plan Commission: Design for Living. © 1957. pp.3 78 Allen County Plan Commission: Aboite Township Land Use Study, January 1989, pp.1 &7. Dawson, pp. 2 80 http:www.iupui.edu/it/ibrc/Population/TWPEST/allen.html Census Population of Indiana Townships 81 Guthrie, pp.3 82 Allen County Plan Commission: Aboite Township Land Use Study, pp.5 83 US Census Bureau, Census 2000. Profile of General Demographic Characteristics, 2000, pp. 1-3. 84 Hoffman, Steve. CANI 2003 Community Assessment, © 2004, pp.10,15 85 Guthrie, T An Economic Analysis of Allen County, Indiana, pp. 10-15. 86 Allen County Plan Commission. Design for Living: Comprehensive Land Use Plan. Pp.1. 87 Allen County Plan Commission: Aboite Township Land Use Study, pp.15 88 Allen County Plan Commission: Aboite Township Land Use Study, pp. 15-17,23 89 Dawson, M. New County Plan Sets Boundary for Local Services. 90 Haas-Zuber, Connie. Northern Explosion: Dupont Road Grows Up. August 22, 2001, the Fort Wayne News-Sentinel. 91 Leininger, K. Editorial, Aboite's Water Woes Go back Many Years. The News- Sentinel, June 4, 1998. 92 Duany, A. Plater-Zyberk, E. & Speck, J. The Rise of Sprawl Suburban and the Decline of Nation. North Point Press, ©2000, pp.5.
34 93Duany, A. etal, pp.191. ^Duany.A. etal. pp.191. 95 Haas-Zuber, C. Northern Explosion: Dupont Road Grows Up. 96 Haas-Zuber, C. Northern Explosion: Dupont Road Grows Up. 97 http://www.sacs.k12.in.us/se3bin/clientschool.cgi?schoolname=school147 98 Kelly, Niki & Gruss, Mike. "City Wins Annexation Battle". The Journal Gazette, March 13,2002. 99 WANE TV. City Readies to Welcome More Annexed Residents, http://www.wane.com/global/storv.asp?s=2396335&ClientType=Printable 100 Helmke, Paul. Son of a Son of a Politician: Welcome to the Summit City, You've been Annexed. The News-Sentinel. December 21, 2000. 101 Center for Urban Policy and the Environment- School of Public and Environmental Affairs. Annexation in Indiana: Issues and Options. Pp.1. 102 Kelly, Niki. City Loses Aboite. Annex Appeal. The Journal Gazette. 103 Dooley, M. City Population, tax base, set to skyrocket in 2006. The News-Sentinel, March 13,2002. 104 Kelly, Niki & Gruss, Mike. City Wins Annexation Battle. The Journal Gazette. March 13,2002. 105 Shepard, R. Chief Justice. In the Supreme Court of Indiana City of Fort Wayne versus Certain Southwest Annexation Area Landowners, March 12, 2002, pp. 1 & 17. 106 Minutes of the November 10, 2003 Invent Tomorrow Board Meeting Minutes. 107 Minutes of the November 10, 2003 Invent Tomorrow Board Meeting Minutes. 108 Francisco, Karen. Are the stars Aligning?. January 11, 2004. The Journal Gazette. 109 Stockman, Dan. Indianapolis plan rankles townships. The Journal Gazette , August 9, 2004. 110 Stockman, pp.1 111 Kilbane, Kevin. A House Divided. The News-Sentinel, August 22, 2003. 112 Kilbane, Kevin, A House Divided. The News-Sentinel, August 22, 2003. 113 Shafer, Sheldon S. Louisville gladly becomes model for merger. The Courier- Journal. January 2, 2004. 114 Why Aboite Annexation is not a good idea, http://www.aboite.org/pr02.asp 115 Morris, L. A House Divided. Day 3: The Cyclical city-county consolidation trend may be turning up again. The News-Sentinel. August 21, 2003, pp9A. 116 Governor Signs Breakthrough laws, helping Annexation Opponents. http://www.aboite.org/pr04 117 Henton, D., Meliville, J. & Walesh, K. Civic Revolutionaries: Igniting the Passion for Change in America's Communities, Jossey-Bass, © 2004, pp.3. 118Castaldi,T. Vermilyea: A Return to Splendor. Pp.10.
35