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Divided Frontier: the George Rogers Clark Expedition and Multi- Cultural Interaction

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Divided Frontier: the George Rogers Clark Expedition and Multi- Cultural Interaction DIVIDED FRONTIER: THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION AND MULTI- CULTURAL INTERACTION by KENNETH B. TITUS B.S., Kansas State University, 2006 A THESIS submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF ARTS Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2009 Approved by: Major Professor Louise Breen Abstract The land west of the Alleghany Mountains and along the Ohio River and Great Lakes was an area of hotly contested land and sovereignty claims during the colonial period, complete with shifting loyalties and highly factionalized alliances. Warfare and diplomacy in the western territories often hinged on the actions of just one man or a small group of people, with consequences that could cause the collapse of entire empires. The long-standing battle for land and power throughout the Ohio Valley has been called the Long War because once conflict began between the French, British, and Indians in 1754, no one power was truly able to claim the land and its people until the British were forced out of their Great Lakes forts in 1815. George Rogers Clark uniquely united these groups for a short moment in history, a feat made all the more impressive when we consider how long the region remained contested ground between empires. These factions united only once prior the era of American control. During the expedition of George Rogers Clark in 1778, backcountry settlers, French habitants, Indian chiefs, and Spanish officials all united during a small window of time to overthrow British control of the Illinois Country. Clark moved freely from the top political circles of Virginia to the remote frontier outposts of the Illinois Country. This thesis argues that George Rogers Clark was especially successful at gaining the cooperation of diverse groups of populations and coordinating those groups to work together toward his own goals. Clark certainly owesdpart of his success to being the right man in the right place at the right time, but it must be remembered that he was the only man to ever bring all of these factionalized groups together. Table of Contents List of Figures................................................................................................................................ iv Preface............................................................................................................................................. v CHAPTER 1 - Ambition and Opportunity: Surveyor to General................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2 - Life on the Frontier: The French, Indians, and Spanish in the Illinois Country .. 42 CHAPTER 3 - Surprised Twice: Clark’s Expedition to the Illinois Country............................... 77 CHAPTER 4 - It Would Have Been Mine: Clark’s Goals Never Realized................................ 114 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 141 iii List of Figures Figure 1.1 Early Settlement of North America............................................................................. 11 Figure 2.1 Enter Your Description After the Figure Number...................................................... 50 iv Preface The land west of the Alleghany Mountains and along the Ohio River and Great Lakes was an area of hotly contested land and sovereignty claims, shifting loyalties, and highly factionalized alliances. In 1778, George Rogers Clark led an army of volunteers down the Ohio River to the remote Illinois Country and took control of several British outposts that were undefended by the British. Clark entered an area that had long been factionalized, but for a short time Clark created harmony among Indians, French, Spanish, and backcountry settlers. He also briefly stopped Indian raids into Kentucky, while making the only claim the United States would have on the territories of the Old Northwest, as that region was decidedly not a natural American territory. It was in fact culturally diverse and claimed by numerous peoples, but Clark’s transient presence proved to the first in the long American wave of attempts to control the area. The Ohio Valley though had also been a hot spot as conflicting claims over the valley ignited the French and Indian War and the frontier struggle that continued through the War of 1812. Warfare and diplomacy in the western territories often hinged on the actions of just one man or a small group of people, with consequences that could cause the collapse of entire empires. The long-standing battle for land and power throughout the Ohio Valley has been called the “Long War” because once conflict began between the French, British, and Indians in 1754, no one power was truly able to claim the land and its people until the British were forced out of their Great Lakes forts in 1815.1 1 Francois Furstenberg, “The Significance of the Trans-Appalachian Frontier in Atlantic History,” American Historical Review, 113 (June 2008): 650. v The early battles for European control of the Ohio Valley were small, but complicated. Settlers, soldiers, merchants, and officials from France, Great Britain, Spain, and the various American colonies were all active along the frontier. Numerous groups of Native Americans became intertwined with European conflicts, or as was often the case, became the cause of European conflict as they shifted alliances and sought out their own rewards.2 Large shifts in power and influence hinged on the actions taken by small groups of settlers or ambitious Indian chiefs as great empires rose and fell far away from the Atlantic centers of power in Boston, Philadelphia, and Quebec. The shifting nature of alliances and interests made it difficult for any single group to control the Ohio Valley. For example, the French prior to and during the French and Indian War, 1754-1763, went to great lengths to stop British influence and trade goods from reaching their Indian Allies.3 Once the British gained victory over the French, they struggled to secure control of the West, battling undefeated Indian warriors under Pontiac’s leadership, a remaining French presence throughout the Ohio Valley, and the emergence of Spanish power as they occupied Louisiana and the new French town of St. Louis.4 The West continued to be a factionalized frontier that was difficult to control, especially along the Ohio River. The American Revolution did little to create unity as backcountry settlers from the American colonies continued to offer little loyalty to anyone outside of their local communities. This trend continued through the War of 1812 as international intrigue and sectional conflict remained common.5 In the end, the United States did take complete control of the West and the Ohio Valley, but it was only because of events around the globe that allowed a single power to dominate this 2 Ibid., 650, 663-664. 3 Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754- 1766, (New York: Vintage Books, 2000), 25-30. 4 Ibid., 518-527, 535-546. 5 Furstenberg, “Trans- Appalachian Frontier,” 663-664. vi factionalized region. As Napoleon and France were defeated in Europe, the British withdrew from the Great Lakes, and the Spanish came under internal pressure from independence movements in their own colonies, little support was left for Native Americans to resist the United States.6 Before 1815, all of these powers were active, and any could have tipped the balance of power in a potential conflict. George Rogers Clark launched an expedition into the Illinois Country during the American Revolution that briefly united these extraordinarily contentious factions in order to achieve the conquest of and occupation of land coveted by many different groups,, a feat made even more impressive when one considers how long the region remained contested ground between empires. The various groups living or trading in the Illinois Country were united only once prior the era of American control. During the expedition of George Rogers Clark in 1778, backcountry settlers, French habitants, Indian chiefs, and Spanish officials all united for a small window of time to overthrow British control of the Illinois Country. In light of Clark’s accomplishments, it is important to take a closer look at Clark as a leader and a negotiator. He moved freely from the top political circles of Virginia to the remote frontier outposts of the Illinois Country. This George Rogers Clark was especially successful at gaining the cooperation of diverse groups of populations and coordinating those groups to work together towards his own goals. Clark certainly owed part of his short-lived success to being the right man in the right place at the right time, but one must be remember that he was the only man to bring all of these factionalized groups together. He was also an opportunist and his ambition drove many of his decisions, including his move to the frontier, acceptance of military command, and his land claims. All of these factors played a part in Clark’s life from the peak of his military career to his 6 Ibid., 675. vii desperate attempts at redemption in his debt-ridden middle age. Clark was wildly successful for a short period and it is important to remember that the American Revolution was just a short phase in the long conflict over the Ohio Valley and Old Northwest that began as the British and French battled for the fur trade and allies and lasted well into the nineteenth century. The Revolution
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