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A Comparative Study of the Social Function of African Algaita and Chinese Suona

A Comparative Study of the Social Function of African Algaita and Chinese Suona

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF AFRICAN ALGAITA AND CHINESE

A thesis submitted to the College of the Arts of Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

By Shasha May, 2018

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Thesis written by

Shasha Zhu

B. A., Conservatory of , 2007

M. A., Tianjin Conservatory of Music, 2010

M. A., Kent State University, 2018

Approved by

Kazadi wa Mukuna, Ph.D., Advisor, Master Thesis Committee

Theodore Albrecht, Ph.D., Member, Master Thesis Committee

Richard Devore, Ph.D., Member, Master Thesis Committee

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... iv

LIST OF TABLES ...... v

ACKONWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

II. THE GENESIS OF DOUBLE- MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 19

III. THE ETYMOLOGY OF “ALGAITA” AND “SUONA” ...... 40

IV. THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES OF THE AFRICAN ALGAITA AND THE CHINESE SUONA ...... 45

V. RELIGIOUS IMPACTS ON AFRICAN ALGAITA MUSIC AND CHINESE SUONA MUSIC ...... 57

VI. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE AFRICAN ALGAITA AND THE CHINESE SUONA ...... 78

VII. NEW DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF THE AFRICAN ALGAITA AND CHINESE SUONA ...... 155

VIII. REFLECTIONS ON THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF ALGAITA AND SUONA MUSIC ...... 233

IX. CONCLUSIONS ...... 241

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 243 iv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The Royal Elamite orchestra...... 20

Figure 2. , , and double-reed pipe ...... 22

Figure 3. and 4. Greek red-figure drinking cup ...... 23

Figure 5. Portrait of Ziryab ...... 25

Figure 6. Silk routes ...... 33

Figure 7. Traditional Algaita ...... 46

Figure 8. Chinese Red Sandalwood Suona ...... 49

Figure 9. Telescopic view of mouthpipe ...... 50

Figure 10. Telescopic view of brass mouthpipe ...... 51

Figure 11. and 12. Added-keys Suona and traditional Suona ...... 52

Figure 13. Multi-functional Suona ...... 53

Figure 14. Hausa traditional Algaita music ...... 85

Figure 15. Gange Brass ...... 158

Figure 16. Gange Brass Band ...... 159

Figure 17. Hausa traditional “Malleeri” performed on Algaita...... 164

Figure 18. “West African Music in the Music of , , and Randy Weston” ...... 164

Figure 19. The African-American Epic Suite of Yusef Lateef...... 166

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Suona Pitches and Instrument Keys (Holes) Corresponding to , Scales, and Western Scales...... 149

Table 2. Beats, Downbeat, and Upbeat of Chinese Notation ...... 150

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ACKONWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have been completed without the help given to me by all of my teachers and family. I am lucky to have all of your kindness in my life.

I want to thank to my advisor, Dr. Kazadi wa Mukuna, for his fatherly strictness in our academic discussions as well as his support for my research. Without his continual guidance, advice, instruction, and encouragement, my thesis would not have been completed like this.

I would like to thank to my committees, Dr. Albrecht and Dr. Devore, for their patience and always being available to answer my questions.

I would like to thank members of the Division at Kent State University:

Dr. Andrew Shahriari, Dr. Priwan Nanongkham, Dr. Eve McPherson, Dr. Anthony Donofrio, Dr.

Summin Yoon, Dr. Jennifer Johnstone, and Dr. Janine Tiffe, for sharing their expertise and knowledge with me.

I would like to thank to my friends, Jennifer Griffith and Jeanne Adair Hansen, for their help in editing countless papers and giving their suggestions.

I would like to thank the head of the Performing Arts Library Joe Clark and his staff for their help during my research.

Thanks my family for their love and support. 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem and Scope

This thesis will compare two double-reed instruments, the Algaita from West and the Suona from , to determine the genesis of double-reed instruments and consider the physical resemblance between the Algaita and the Suona. The analysis of social and religious functions fulfilled by each instrument in its cultural area will assist in understanding how they were adapted and assimilated into the cultural fabric of their ethnic backgrounds. This comparative study examines a variety of aspects that include morphological structures, arguing that the Algaita and the

Suona share the same , but that their structural divergence occurred according to the historical, geographic, and cultural context of the areas in which they exist.

Background

The African Algaita and the Chinese Suona are double-reed with a similar , composed of three sections. The mouthpiece of each is made from tied together reed and inserted through the center hole of a pirouette1 and attached to the body of the instrument.

During performance, the player inserts the mouthpiece in his mouth, presses his lips against the pirouette and blows air through it. The cylindrical-shaped body of both the Algaita and the Suona is made of soft wood, ending with a -like bell that constitutes the third portion of the

1 Pirouette: The origin of this word from the French mid-17th century, literally a ‘spinning top.’ The word used here describes the component of Algaita that links the double-reed to the body of Algaita, because the model of this component of Algaita resembles a ballerina wearing a tutu, spinning on one foot like spinning top. This component can also be described as disk. 2

instrument.

There are, however, subtle differences between the two instruments. The body of the

Algaita is slightly longer and has four holes in the front and one thumbhole in the back, whereas the

Suona has only seven holes, six located in the front and one in the back.

According to the existing literature, the name of Algaita is derived from the words al-gaita, gaita, gáitha, saika, or raita, which denote a type of . The Suona received its name from the Persian word sūrnāy, which means “ or pipe,” one played during a banquet or feast.

Debate about the genesis of Algaita has often been clouded with speculations and arguments. Conclusions by scholars on this topic can be grouped into several categories. The first of these conclusions is found during the first half of the tenth century. For example, the tenth-century philosopher and writer, Al Farabi, asserted that the in played oboe with seven fingerholes in front and one thumbhole in back, which they called a saika or azahika. This instrument is identical to the gaitas of modern Spain and Africa, where the name saika is still used.

The Simonnet’s Mozarabic dictionary defines gáitha as a “ marroqui, espèce de hautbois

( clarinet type of oboe).”2

Although the above-mentioned pronunciation does not establish a substantial connection between the terms saika, azahika, gaita, raita, and gáitha, based on their approximate pronunciation, it implies that these names are used to designate the same instrument, and one type of used in Arabia, Spain, and . However, these documents only indicate that the double-reed instrument was used in Spain in the first half of the tenth century; they fail to determine

2 A. H. Frere and Francis William Galpin. “ and Waits,” Music & Letters 4, no. 2 (April, 1923), p. 171. 3

when exactly the Algaita was used in .

According to A. H. Frere and Francis William Galpin3, the double reed was known in some parts of Western , which came under the influence of Africa by their close proximity in the eighth or ninth century, and thus introduced into Western Europe, especially the Moors’ introduction of the instrument to Spain. Considering these documents, gaita should have existed in

Africa before the tenth century, thus appearing earlier in Africa than in Spain.

Other scholars disagree with the above argument and postulate only one kind of double-reed instrument named, the , which emerged in the Balkans and Aegean areas in the fourth century B.C.E. This theory, however, cannot account for the double-reed instrument from

Africa or Arabia found in Spain, , Britain and other European countries.4 There were two double-reed instruments popular in the Arabic world: the and the Egyptian zumarah. It is difficult, however, to explain the relationship between mizmar, zumarah, and the gaita, or to determine why only the gaita, rather than the mizmar or zumarah was found in West Africa.

A historical Islamic event can be considered as a document to illustrate the modification of the sūrnāy as well as the ghaita. In the eighth century (the second century of ), the mizmar was associated with military music; music used for entertainment, and was forbidden because the Islamic discouraged from playing secular or accompanying dances. During this period, musicians who played mizmar were despised in society. In the ninth century, however, the master Ziryab5 changed the structure of mizmar by inserting into the

3 A. H. Frere and Francis William Galpin, op. cit., pp. 170-177. 4 James Peter Burkholder, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude Victor Palisca. “The Ancient and Medieval Worlds” in A History of Western Music (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008), pp. 10-12. was a Persian or Kurdish (نافع ابن علي الحسن أبو :Ziyab (789 C.E.—857 C.E.; Persian:Zaryab, Arabic 5 musician, singer, , poet, and teacher, who lived and worked in , Northern Africa and during more than so years, in Andalus during the medieval Islamic period. 4

existing main pipe an additional one to construct a single-, named after himself, the ziryab. This new single-pipe wind instrument had a loud sound and became popular for parties and entertainment. Around the ninth century, a double-reed instrument with two pipes, introduced in Persia, was also rebuilt with a single pipe and called the sūrnāy. Thus, the Algaita came to West Africa after this reformation process in Persia and Arabia.

Similar credible historical data supports the research of the Suona; furthermore, several debates surround its genesis. The cause of disagreement is the popularity of this instrument in China, where it is used in a wide territory of the country, including the , , , ,

Shanxi, , , , , , , , , and provinces. To indicate these provinces on the map would cover almost the whole of China. Some linguists and musicologists propose that, based on historical Chinese phonology,6 the Chinese word

Suona should not be used to designate an instrument. This argument has inspired many scholars who explore the genesis of Suona.7

In the study of Chinese traditional music, several historical documents were preserved about Suona in the (1368 C.E. —1644 C.E.). The most valuable of these documents is the poem “Chaotianzi· Yong Suona” (“Tunes: Chant of Suona”) written by Wang , from the

Ming Dynasty era.

朝天子·咏唢呐 王磐［明］ 喇叭，唢呐，曲儿小腔儿大。 来往官船乱如麻，全仗你抬身价。 军听了军愁，民听了民怕。哪里去辨什么真共假？ 眼见的吹翻了这家，吹伤了那家，只吹的水尽鹅飞罢！

6 Historical Chinese phonology deals with reconstructing the sounds of Chinese from the past. 7 These scolars are Jiaqi and Zhou Jingbao. 5

“Tunes: Chant of Suona” [My translation] The Trumpet, or Suona, has a small body but loud sound. Boats of officers come and go ceaselessly and rely on the Suona to show their social status. Soldiers listen to this sound and will feel anxious, ordinary people listen to this sound and feel afraid. How to distinguish what is true or false? Everyone can “see” the scene, this family is destroyed and that family is sad, and all the geese are flying away from the sound of the Suona, played on officiers’ boats.8

Wang Pan’s poem shows that the Suona was widely used in China in the Ming Dynasty, especially during the -te period (1506 C.E.—1521 C.E.) of the Ming Dynasty.

Two other corroborating historical documents are as follows. One is from a military log,

Jixiao Xinshu· (Military Documents·Armament), by the renowned soldier Jiguang

(1528—1588) who noted the Suona’s use in military music. He wrote that “… some soldiers hold the (号笛)9 to play the signal… ,” using the word Suona to refer to the horn in the log. The other document is taken from Tuhui (Sancai Diagram), written by the scholar Wang Qi

(1529—1612) in the Jiajing period (1529—1566) of the Ming Dynasty. In this book the author states,

Suona, like a trumpet, has seven holes; the head and end of the instrument is made of brass, and the body is made of wood. There are no available documents about the origin of the Suona, besides the known fact that Suona is used in military music and also prominent in the lives of common people.”10

These documents show the history of Suona in China as, at best, blurry prior to the Ming Dynasty.

8 My translation.《朝天子·咏唢呐》 明代王磐： 喇叭，唢呐，曲儿小腔儿大。来往官船乱如麻，全仗你 抬身价。军听了军愁， 民听了民怕。哪里去辨什么真共假？眼见的吹翻了这家，吹伤了那家，只吹的水尽鹅飞罢！ This poem describes the Suona and Wang Pan writes about the sound of the Suona to expose the ugly performance and evil behaviors of an officer in the Ming Dynasty. At the same time, the poem expresses the hatred for common people in this period. 9 In the history of Suona in China, several different words are referenced as Suona, such as horn 号笛 (Haodi), 喇叭 (Laba), 锁奈 (Suonai), 金口角 (Jinkoujiao), 海笛 (Haidi), 聂兜姜 (Niedoujiang), and 得梨 (Deli). 10 Yinliu. Zhongguo Gudai Yinyue Shigao [The Documents of Chinese Traditional Music], Vol. II, (, China: People’s Music Publishing House, 1981), p. 987. 6

There are two recognized arguments in the academic circle about the Suona. The first of these is the assumption that the birthplace of this instrument was in Persia and Arabia. Curt Sachs supports this view: “We conclude that were created in the Semitic world, somewhere between

Asia Minor and Arabia. This is confirmed by their Mesopotamian names.”11 In another of his publications Sachs writes, “Instruments of the family date back to the ancient civilization of the and Europe.”12 Japanese scholars, Kenzo Hayashi and Kishibo Shigeo, also share this view. Kenzo Hayashi writes, “This instrument, Suona, appeared in West and was introduced to China, , and surrounding areas with the spread process of Islam.”13 His argument is based on the linguistic evidence: the name “Suona” came from the pronunciation of the Persian word Zourna. Based on this, Hayashi asserts that the instrument could not have come from elsewhere.

Kishibo Shigeo, also concerned with the linguistic analysis, writes, “Chinese Suona should be considered from the pronunciation of the Persian word sūrnāy.”14

The second argument, of Zhou Jingbao, finds corroborating evidence that the origin of the

Suona is in region, where both Chinese and Turkish are spoken. His primary evidence is based on a finding15 that proposes the painting of Suona as in the mural in the Kizil

Grottoes. A depiction of the Suona in the No. 38 grotto of Baicheng in the Xinjiang Autonomous

Region, demonstrates that this instrument has been used in the Xinjiang region from at least the third century. Although the spoken by the Uighur minority group of China has Turkish linguistic

11 Curt Sachs. “Sumer and ,” in The History of Musical Instruments (New York: Norton, 1940), p. 72. 12 Curt Sachs. “Aerophones,” in Musical Instruments of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia (New York: Sterling Publishing, 1977), p. 44. 13 Kenzo Hayashi. East Asian Test, Chinese ed. (Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1962), p. 508. 14 Idem. 15 Zhou Jingbao. “The Test of Suona,” Chinese Music, no. 3 (1984), p. 66. 7

origins, the Suona can be considered as from the Chinese Xinjiang province. Zhou Jingbao’s physical evidence sheds further light on the name of Suona.

Social Function

In Africa, the Algaita fulfills specific social functions, and is usually played in an ensemble composed of a Ganga , and a long trumpet called the .16 The Algaita ensemble performs at burial ceremonies, initiation rites, and large annual religious festivals. This instrument is associated with the authority of traditional rulers, and also used to sing praises at the courts of rulers. The Algaita may also be played solo and, during the performance, a virtuoso player might sing and play the praise words associated with his patron.

The social functions of Suona have changed on the basis of the historical and political transitions. In the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368—1911), Suona music and its ensemble were reserved for entertainment of the noble classes. With the change of period, Suona music gradually became a folk-, played in the countryside. Its were members of the lower class.

Within a folk-music ensemble, the Suona plays the melody during wedding and funeral activities.

Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Suona and its music developed further, gradually moving from a kind of into professional performance practices taught in the music conservatory. Various folk artists became the professors in the conservatory.

From this period, Suona music began being performed on the stage, thus marking the process of change from folk to professional music.

16 The Kakaki is roughly six feet long and is made in three sections, all of which can be removed for ease in . It is made of metal, usually brass, the central section of from a kerosene tin, and the mouthpiece section of brass. The kakaki is reserved for special public occasions, but was heard, for example, on Thursday evenings in the residence of the ruler.

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In conclusion, the genesis of the Algaita and Suona is still debated by scholars and in various fields. In West Africa as well as in China, they were at first used to entertain nobility and royalty. Gradually, they became popular for music for common people who also played them. These musical instruments are found in two distinct music cultural systems and use different music scales.

Review of Literature

The studies of the Algaita can be classified into three categories based on: 1) its shape, 2) the origin and meaning of its name, and 3) its roles in West African societies of . In addition to describing the shape of Algaita, P. G. Harris17 includes information about how the Algaita is played, together with the Ganga,18 a , and the aerophone Kakaki. Anthony King discusses the morphology of the Algaita, its diffusion, and the scenes of its performance.19 Besides these two articles, the website of the National Music Museum20 provides another source, which describes this instrument using an image. Although these articles describe the Algaita as an aerophone with a double reed, and as a vertical blowing instrument, they contain no other information about the impact of history, culture, and social functions on this instrument.

Two other articles deal with the Algaita music and its roles in Nigeria. One of these,

17 P. G. Harris. “Notes and Musical Instruments Seen in Province, Nigeria,” in The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and , Vol. 62 (Jan. – Jun., 1932), pp. 105-125. 18 The Ganga drum is most generally used in Hausaland. It is carried over the left shoulder and beaten by a curved stich, held in the right hand while the left hand plays a rumbling accompaniment on the parchment, or depresses the parchment to form different notes for the right-hand beat. The latter beat, made with a stick, gives a hard clear note. The Ganga drum is used almost entirely as an accompaniment to either the Algaita or horns played by musicians during the processions of chiefs. 19 Anthony King, and K. A. Gourlay. “Algaita,” in New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments (New York: Grove’s Dictionaries of Music, 1984), p. 44. 20 The National Music Museum (NMM) is a musical instruments museum in Vermillion, South Dakota, USA, founded in 1973 on the campus of the University of South Dakota. The NMM’s renowned collections, which include more than 13,500 American, European, and non-Western instruments from all cultures and historical periods, are among the world’s most inclusive. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Music_Museum. 9

“Professionals and Amateurs: The Musicians of and Obimo,”21 by David Ames, refers to instrumental practice in Zaria22 and Obimo,23 of Nigeria, as examples of musical life and the different instrumental ensembles found in diverse folk activities. In addition to this information,

David Ames interviews various musicians to compare their change in status from past to present.

Ames’s study focuses on the record of musical life of Nigeria, and provides no analysis of the connection between music and its cultural characteristics.

Samuel Akpabot’s “Random Music of the Birom,”24 also describes the roles and functions of the Algaita in the musical life of ethnic groups in Nigerian. Akpabot describes the

Algaita as a melodic instrument, accompanied by other instruments and points to different musical features of instrumental ensembles, playing for both happy or sad occasions. Although his provides more information about instrumental music and its functions, the content focuses on the descriptive aspects, and does not include the relationship between the instrument and its folk activities, thus giving no information on how cultural context influences this instrumental music.

In the article “Shawms and Waits,”25 Frere and Galpin discuss the morphology and the history of the shawm. They refer to different name origins of various double-reed instruments and their usage, concluding that the shawm appears as either a single-reed or double-reed instrument. In spite of their conclusions, the authors use the data of the Algaita as a reference, seeking evidence to prove that, in the eighth or ninth century, Moors brought the double-reed instrument into Western

Europe from Africa. They make two points in support of this argument: 1) Dozy’s Arabic dictionary

21 David Ames. “Professionals and Amateurs: The Musicians of Zaria and Obimo,” in African Arts, Vol. 1, no. 2 (Winter, 1968), pp. 40-45, 80, 82-84. 22 Zaria is a major city in State, in Northern Nigeria. It was one of the original seven Hausa city-states. 23 Obimo is a town in the Local Government Area of , in Nigeria. 24 Samuel Akpabot. “Random Music of the Birom,” in African Arts, Vol. 8, no. 2 (Winter, 1975), pp. 46-47, 80. 25 A. H. Frere, and Francis William Galpin, op. cit., pp. 170-177. 10

and Simonnet’s Mozarabic dictionary defining “gaita” or “gáitha” as an “espèce de hautbois au

Maghrib”26,27 (a double-reed instruments used in Northern Africa); and 2) the evidence of Al Farabi, in the first half of the tenth century, which indicates that in Spain the Arabs played a double-reed instrument called, variously, the “gaita,” “saika,” or “azahika.” Frere and Galpin imply that the double-reed instrument and its name both crossed the Pyrenees with the Moors, and that “gaita,” or

“ghaita,” was modified to “guaite,” “wayte,” and “wait,” through Anglicisation. Thus, they conclude that double-reed instruments must have entered Europe from Africa. In spite of this conclusion, they fail to demonstrate definitively that “gaita” originated in Africa.

In “Classification of Igbo28 Musical Instruments, Nigeria,”29 Joy Nwosu Lo-Bamijoko discusses the classification system of Igbo musical instruments derived from the and concepts. lists Nigerian musical instruments within an overview of Igbo musical instruments, and introduces the Igbo classification system. According to this system, the Algaita is defined as a melodic musical instrument and belongs to the Ifu category30 (wind or “blown” instruments). The stringed instruments function as purely melodic instruments, while in addition to their musical functions the wind instruments perform social and cultural functions. As such, the wind instruments are given higher status than the stringed instruments. Although the author uses musical and cultural functions to illustrate the position occupied by wind instruments among the Igbo, she fails to explain

26 Maghrib (also spelled Maghreb), is a region of North Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea. The Africa Minor of the ancients, at one time included Moorish Spain and now comprises essentially the Mountains and the coastal plain of Morocco, , , and . 27 A. H. Frere, and Francis William Galpin, op. cit., p.171. 28 formerly known as the Ibo are an of southeastern Nigeria. They speak Igbo, are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_people. 29 Joy Nwosu Lo-Bamijoko. “Classification of Igbo Musical Instruments, Nigeria,” in African Music, Vol. 6, no. 4 (1987), pp. 19-41. 30 Igbo-speaking people use the instruments sounds to classify them into five categories: Iyo: to shake, rattle, or clap together; Iku: to strike a hard surface with a beater; Iti: to strike a membrane with the hand or beater; Ikpo: to pluck or bow; and Ifu: to blow. 11

why the stringed instruments are purely melodic instruments while wind instruments have dual functions. She also leaves the question as to why wind instruments have more valuable cultural functions in the Nigerian social hierarchy.

“Notes on Musical Instruments among the Fulani of Diamare (North ),”31 by

Veit Erlmann, explores the background, history, musical culture, classification system of musical instruments, origins of musical instruments, as well as ensemble combinations and their social usage among the Fulani of North Cameroon. As some musical instruments spread to regions of Fulani,32 the people there changed some spellings in names, according to their language. In the Arabic language, for example, Algaita is al-gaita; in Hausa, this instrument remains spelled as Algaita, but in Fulani is algayta(aru). The description in this article, however, is limited to Algaitas among the

Fulani. Until now, no comparative study of the Agaita, in different cultural areas has appeared.

On the other hand, studies of the Suona can be divided into two categories, based on its history and roles in the folk activities. Most articles are found in the China National Knowledge

Infrastructure database.33 Five of them explore the history of Suona: 1) “Suona de Lishi Yuanliu I.

II. & III” [Historical Roots of the Suona I, II, and III],34 by Chen Jiaqi; 2) “Kezier ‘Suona’ de

Zhenxiang: Jiantan Yanjiu Qiuciyue Ziliaoshang Yingzhuyi de Jige Wenti” [The truth of the ‘Suona’

31 Veit Erlmann. “Notes on Musical Instruments Among the Fulani of Diamare (North Cameroon),” in African Music, Vol. 6, no. 3 (1983), pp. 16-41. 32 The Fulani, Fula, or Fulbe people are one of the largest ethnolinguistic groups in Africa. They are a of both sub-Saharans and North Africans living in the area and nomadic, making them the largest pastoral nomadic group in the world. Spread over many countries, the Fulani are found mainly in West African and northern parts of , but also in and . In Erlmann’s article, Fulani indicate the people living in Northern Cameroon. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://www.modernghana.com/news/349849/1/who-are-the-fulani-people-their-origins.html. 33 The China National Knowledge (CNKI) is an electronic publishing project approved by the Press and Publications Administration of People’s Republic of China and backed by Tsinghua University. It was established in 1996 and publishes databases containing e-journals, newspapers, dissertations, proceedings, yearbooks, reference works, and so forth. Users can also access an English-language version of the CNKI portal, which lists all available CNKI databases. 34 Chen Jiaqi. “Suona de Lishi Yuanliu I,” [Historical Roots of Suona I] Musical Instrument, no. 1 (January 2000), p. 50；Chen Jiaqi. “Suona de Lishi Yuanliu II,” [Historical Roots of Suona II] Musical Instrument, no. 2 (February 2000), p. 48；Chen Jiaqi. “Suona de Lishi Yuanliu III,” [Historical Roots of Suona III] Musical Instrument, no. 3 (March 2000), p. 36. 12

in Kizil: Research Several Issues of Music],35 by Xuchu; 3) “Sichouzhilu Shangde

Shuanghuang Yueqi Yanjiu I – V” [Studies of the Double Reed Instruments of the , I –

V],36 by Zhou Jingbao; 4) “Discussion on the Origin of the Suona,”37 by Guohuang; and 5)

“Investigation on the History of the Chinese Suona,”38 by Yong. Their viewpoints can be divided into two positions. The position that the Suona first appeared in the Chinese Xinjiang

Region (during the , from 206 B.C.E. to 220 C.E. and the Dynasty from 226 C.E. to

420 C. E.)39 is supported by Zhou Jingbao (as mentioned above) using the third-century painting of the Suona of the Kizil Grottoes No. 38, of Baicheng in Xinjiang, Huo Xuchu’s article observes that the Suona did not appear first in the Chinese Xinjiang Region, as evidenced by photos from a

Germany expedition in 1906; however, Jingbao provides no evidence of the genesis of the Suona.

The second position that the Suona originated from Persia, among whose proponents are

Chen Jiaqi and Han Guohuang, argues that based on the linguistic evidence, the name “Suona” came from the pronunciation of the Persian word Sūrnāy. Although these two positions have their respective evidence, scholars have thus far failed to definitively conclude where the Suona originated, either in Persia or in the Chinese Xinjiang Region, and when the instrument was

35 Huo Xuchu. “Kezier ‘Suona’ de Zhenxiang: Jiantan Yanjiu Qiuciyue Ziliaoshang Yingzhuyi de Jige Wenti,” [The truth of the ‘Suona’ in Kizil: Research Several Issues of Kucha Music] Chinese Music, no. 1 (Spring 2010), pp. 3-6. 36 Zhou Jingbao. “Sichouzhilu Shangde Shuanghuang Yueqi Yanjiu I,” [Studies of the Double Reed Instruments of the Silk Road I] Musical Instrument, no. 2 (February 2013), pp. 60-63；Zhou Jingbao. “Sichouzhilu Shangde Shuanghuang Yueqi Yanjiu II,” [Studies of the Double Reed Instruments of the Silk Road II] Musical Instrument, no. 3 (March 2013), pp. 60-63；Zhou Jingbao. “Sichouzhilu Shangde Shuanghuang Yueqi Yanjiu III,” [Studies of the Double Reed Instruments of the Silk Road III] Musical Instrument, no. 4 (April 2013), pp. 66-69；Zhou Jingbao. “Sichouzhilu Shangde Shuanghuang Yueqi Yanjiu IV,” [Studies of the Double Reed Instruments of the Silk Road IV] Musical Instrument, no. 5 (May 2013), pp. 78-81. 37 Han Guohuang. “Discussion on the Origin of the Suona,” Music Research 97, no. 2 (Summer 2000), pp. 61-65. 38 Liu Yong. “Investigation on the History of the Chinese Suona,” in China, no. 2 (April 2000), pp. 36-48. 39 The Xinjiang Region, ruled by the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. through 220 C.E.), was subservient to the , a powerful nomadic people based in modern . During the usurpation of Wang Mang in China, the dependent states of the rebelled and became independent from China in 13 C.E. The Kushan between 114 C.E. and 168 C.E. ruled this region. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the protectorate continued to be maintained by Cao (until 265 C.E.) and the Western (from 265 C.E.). The Western Jin Dynasty succumbed to successive waves of invasions by nomads. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Han_dynasty. 13

introduced into China.

Many scholars have devoted their studies to discuss the role of the Suona in folk activities.

These studies can be divided into three categories, according to geographic location. The first category surveys the use of the Suona in the Hebei province. Two articles support this category:

“Hebeisheng Suona Yinyue Fengge” [The Analysis of Suona Music Style of the Hebei Province],40 by Qi Peipei; and “Hebei Suona Liupai Yanjiu I” [The Study of Suona Schools in the Hebei

Province I & II],41,42 by Fan Guozhong. The second category surveys the role of the Suona in

Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Shanbei provinces. Works in this category include: “Suona Music and Culture

Study of Wedding and Funeral ,”43 by Gang, and “The Present Situation and

Thoughts of the Suona in the Shaanxi Province,”44 by An Yawen.

The third category surveys the functions of Suona in the and Anhui provinces:

“Subei Zhaozhuang Suonaban Yinyue Wenhua Yanjiu” [The Musical and Cultural Study of the

Suona Ensemble in the Northern Jiangsu Province],45 “Subei Zhaozhuang Suonaban Hunsang

Yishi Yanjiu” [The Musical and Cultural Study of Suona Music in Weddings and Funerals in the

Northern Jiangsu Province],46 by Zhao Yanhui; and “Wanbei Xiangcun Suonabanshe de

Chuancheng yu Yanbian” [The Inheritance and Evolution of the Suona Ensemble in the Rural of the

40 Qi Peipei. “Hebeisheng Suona Yinyue Fengge Qianxi,” [The Analysis of the Suona Music Style of the Hebei Province], Master’s thesis, Tianjin Conservatory of Music, 2007, CNKI 2008033788. 41 Fan Guozhong. “Hebei Suona Liupai Yanjiu I,” [The Study of Suona Schools in the Hebei Province I] Journal of Tianjin Conservatory of Music, no. Z1 (Spring 1993), pp. 31-34. 42 Fan Guozhong. “Hebei Suona Liupai Yanjiu II,” [The Study of Suona Schools in the Hebei Province II] Journal of Tianjin Conservatory of Music, no. 1 (Spring 1994), pp. 41-43. 43 Li Gang. “Suona Music and Culture Study of Qingyang Wedding and Funeral Rituals,”Master’s thesis, Northwest Normal University, 2009, CNKI 2009293546. 44 An Yawen. “The Present Situation and Thoughts of the Suona in the Shaanxi Province,” Master’s thesis, , 2007, CNKI 2009026619. 45 Zhao Yanhui. “Subei Zhaozhuang Suonaban Yinyue Wenhua Yanjiu,” [The Musical and Cultural Study of Suona Ensemble in Northern Jiangsu Province], Master’s thesis, Normal University, 2004, CNKI 2004122851. 46 Zhao Yanhui. “Subei Zhaozhuang Suonaban yu Hunsang Yishi Yanjiu,” [The Musical and Cultural Study of Suona Music in Weddings and Funerals in the Northern Jiangsu Province], Journal of the Central Conservatory of Music 113, no. 4 (Fall 2009), pp. 72-77. 14

Northern Anhui Provice],47 by Wang Chao. These surveys explore the roles and functions of Suona music, the Suona in ensembles, and Guchui ensembles48 in the folk customs, ceremony performances, and wedding and funeral activities. They demonstrate the history of Suona music functions that correspond with folk activities, the procedure of performance, and the role of the

Suona in the ensemble. In addition, these authors analyze techniques of performing on the Suona, and explain the different musical characteristics between Suona music in weddings and funeral activities, and discussing the changes of status of Suona musicians from “humble professionals”49 to professionals, for example, university teachers, from past to present. A comparison of these surveys from various provinces reveals similar roles of Suona music and the sometimes differing

Suona performing. Although scholars have made significant efforts in studying the roles and functions of Suona music in folk activities, these studies remain confined to specific geographic locations in China. Thus, this comparative study of the instrument and similar musical instruments in different cultural areas fills a gap in Suona studies.

Methodology

Data for this thesis was gathered through research of secondary sources devoted to the

Algaita and Suona, including studies published in journals, theses, and dissertations. Data was also

47 Wang Chao. “Wanbei Xiangcun Suonabanshe de Chuancheng yu Yanbian,” [The Inheritance and Evolution of the Suona Ensemble in the Rural of the Northern Anhui Province], Master’s thesis, South-central University for Nationalities, 2012, CNKI 1012046892. 48 The Guchui ensemble is one of the most common folk instrumental genres seen throughout China. Although there are a variety of musical styles associated with this instrumental genre, percussion, and wind instruments comprise the core components in the performance of Guchuiyue. 49 Humble professionals in ancient China are classified into three levels. By identity, the humble professionals are the lowest class level, and include witches, prostitutes, shamans, watchmen, barbers, trumpeters, actors, beggars, among others. The Suona musicians belong to the trumpeters who are considered on the lowest level of society. 15

gathered for studies of folk customs in West Africa,50 in representative ,51 and books on the history and culture of West Africa, North Africa, China, and Arabia.

In this thesis, I analyze the history, migration, and development of musical instruments among areas of the world from a trans-cultural-diffusion theoretical perspective, conceptualized by

Leo Frobenius52 in his 1897 and 1898 publication, Der westafrikanische Kulturkreis53 [The West

African Culture], in which he proposed that ideas, styles, , technologies, and languages can be carried via trans-cultural visitors, such as merchants, explorers, soldiers, diplomats, slaves, and hired artisans, from one culture to another. Alan Barnard also defines diffusionism as a process in which material or non-material items are transmitted from one culture to another through contact.54

He explains that material culture includes objects peculiar to a society, and that humans have learned to make them using available knowledge and resources within a society. Such objects are used to satisfy certain needs in the society. By contrast, non-material culture forms abstract concepts.

As non-concrete entities, for example, language, dance, religion, music, literature, morals, and values such as freedom, justice, honesty, love, beauty, we cannot see or touch these, but have learned such knowledge as part of a way of life.

I apply the ideas of trans-cultural diffusionism in this study to describe the diffusional maps of the Algaita and Suona from within their origins. I also take into account the migration and

50 In this thesis, West Africa refers primarily to regions of Nigeria, Cameroon, southern and , and southern . 51 Representative provinces are chosen representative provinces because the Traditional covers large geographical territories, where each region is usually divided into distinct subcultures. According to the old Chinese , “the wind varies within ten li (one li=500 meters), customs vary within one hundred li.” Thus, I will not cover all customs of China, just describe those of the following representative provinces: the three Northeastern Provinces of China, the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, Hebei, Hennan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Shandong, Jiangsu, , Anhui, and . 52 Leo Frobenius (June 29, 1873—August 9, 1938): was an ethnologist and archaeologist, and a major figure in German ethnography. 53 Leo Frobenius. Der westafrikanische Kulturkreis [The West African Culture] (Gotha, 1897). 54 Alan Barnard. History and Theory in Anthropology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 16

development of these musical instruments between Arabia, North Africa, West Africa, Persia, and

China. In particular, I analyze linguistic families of the particular words used for musical instruments. I use etymological references in discussing the history of musical instrumental names of Algaita and Suona, and phonology to explain the relationship between the Algaita and the Arabic language. Historical Chinese phonology deals with reconstructing the sounds of Chinese from the past. I use it to analyze the pronunciation of Suona related to the Persian and .

The ideas of cultural relativism are relevant in discussing ethnic groups and their cultures.

This theory contrasts with the concept of ethnocentrism, or judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture. Cultural relativism was established as axiomatic in anthropological research by Franz Boas55 in early twentieth century and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887, to indicate that each culture must be understood in its own terms. He sought to understand culture as a complex of traits, which were the products of environmental and psychological conditions, and historical connections.56 I use this theoretical perspective in studying ethnic groups and their cultures. In addition, I focus primarily on instruments and instrumental used by these ethnic groups in these cultural contexts in my analysis in order to understand how the culture influence on their music functions on their respective cultural characteristics.

I also apply the theory of acculturation as relevant to the process of change in the Algaita, or Suona, and their musics. Acculturation57 can be classified into two major types: incorporation

55 Franz Uri Boas a German-American anthropologist and pioneer of modern anthropology, called the “father of American anthropology.” 56 David Kaplan and Robert Alan Manners. Culture Theory (Englewoods Cliffs, : Prentice Hall, 1972), p. 71. 57 Acculturation explains the process of cultural change and psychological change that results following meeting between cultures. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acculturation. 17

and directed change. Incorporation refers to the free borrowing and modification of cultural elements. By contrast, directed change occurs when one group establishes dominance over another through military conquest or political control. Acculturation assists in our understanding of who brought the Algaita and Suona into West Africa and China, and how these peoples adapted and assimilated into the cultural fabric as they diffused from their origins.

I also discuss social functions and musics of the Algaita and Suona following the comparative concept proposed by Alan Merriam in The Anthropology of Music:

The comparative method as presently used, however, eschews the application of fact to support deductive theory, and instead aims at controlled comparison which, through inductive application, will to generalization on an ever-wider basis. It is assumed here that one of the aims of ethnomusicology is to produce data which can be compared and that therefore the broader aim is generalization about music which can be applied ultimately on a worldwide basis.58

I apply Merriam’s method to account for the similarities and differences between the social functions and musics of the Algaita and Suona and to elucidate how changes of the same original instruments occurred according to the historical, geographic, and cultural context of the areas in which they exist.

My perspective is etic (outsider) rather than emic (a participant), as defined by L.

Langness in The Study of Culture.59 Langness notes that the etic perspective is “descriptive of the meaning of something in a culture as it is perceived and understood by an observer (outsider) rather than by the participants themselves.”60

58 Alan Parkhurst Merriam. The Anthropology of Music (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964), p. 53. 59 Lewis L. Langness, The Study of Culture, 3rd ed., (Novato, : Chandler and Sharp, 2005). 60 Ibid., p. 293. 18

Projected Result

This thesis will further illuminate the origins of the Algaita from West Africa and the

Suona from China through a thorough examination of the history and diffusional process of double-reed instruments. The etymology and the relationship between the Algaita and Suona might also be illustrated through linguistic perspectives to demonstrate the history of these two instruments.

The study also highlights the comparative study of social functions and roles of these musical instruments in their respective cultural contexts, by examining their adapted and assimilated processes in their differing and adopted cultural surroundings.

19

CHAPTER II

THE GENESIS OF DOUBLE-REED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

The Algaita and Suona are found in Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa. According to

Musical Instruments of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia, the Algaita and Suona as used by different countries, belong to the shawm family, and can be traced back to the ancient civilizations of the Middle East and Europe.1 This definition is too broad, because a closer examination of the history of these instruments reveals that the Algaita and Suona belong to the double-reed instrument family that originated in the Middle East, around the region of modern-day Iraq, , , and , which also corresponds to the geographical position of .2 Sachs supports this assertion in “We conclude that oboes (classified as double-reed musical instruments family) were created in the Semitic world,3 somewhere between Asia Minor and Arabia. This is confirmed by their Mesopotamian names.”4

Since the double-reed family with a similar morphology shares the same genesis of the

Middle East, two questions arise: 1) how was the double-reed instrument disseminated to West

Africa and China? 2) What is the relation between these and the Mesopotamian double-reed

1 Diagram Group. Musical Instruments of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia by the Diagram Group (New York: Sterling Publishing Company, 1997), p. 44. 2 Here the “Middle East” is a humanistic concept (not the current geographic term), including ideas and culture from Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, , Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, , , Palestine, and the Maghreb. This term generated from the view of Europeans, referred to and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean as the “Near East”; Palestine, Israel, and the Arab region as the “Middle East”; and China, , and the Pacific coastal areas as the “Far East.” Here Western Asia is a geographical concept, including the Iranian plateau, the , the Mesopotamian plain, and the Asia Minor Peninsula. Turkey and Egypt are included in the concept of Middle East, but do not belong to the Western Asia. is included in the concept of Western Asia, but does not belong to the Middle East. 3 The Semitic world denotes those peoples found in the Fertile Crescent () circa the thirtieth century B.C.E., an area encompassing the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian civilizations along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, today the modern states and regions of Iraq, Syria, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Yemen, and others. Accessed October 31, 2017, http://www.gutenberg.us/articles/Semites. 4 Curt Sachs. “Sumer and Babylonia,” in The History of Musical Instruments (New York: Norton, 1940), p. 72. 20

instruments mentioned by Sachs?

The history of double-reed instruments indicates that this kind of musical instrument appeared for the first time specifically in Mesopotamia.5 The excavation of the double-reed instrument from the royal tombs of Ur,6 revealed that this also had double-pipes, and probably the earliest dated evidence of the double reed called the ti-gi, which appeared in this geographic area; the suffix syllable gi means “cane” or “reed.” Due to its moist soil, the Mesopotamian region is not suitable for the long-term preservation of musical instruments made of wood, , or animal skins, so it can be deduced that the instrument depicted on the wall of the royal tomb is a unique specimen here (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The Royal Elamite orchestra, showing upper and lower-chested , double-reed pipes, and drum (668 B.C.E.—626 B.C.E.).7

5 Mesopotamia is a Greek word meaning “between the rivers,” here the Tigris and Euphrates, corresponding to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, the northeastern section of Syria, and to a much lesser extent southeastern Turkey and smaller parts of southwestern Iran. This area is widely considered as the cradle of civilization by the ; the Mesopotamia included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian , all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/place/Tigris-Euphrates-river-system. 6 Ur was an important Sumerian city-state in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar in southern Iraq’s Dhi Qar Governorate. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur. 7 Egon Wellesz. Ed. “Ancient and Oriental Music,” in New Oxford Vol.1. (New York: , 1954-1990), Plate VIII. 21

However, in , neighboring on Mesopotamia, hundreds of instruments in a state of decomposition have been preserved,8 including more double-reed musical instruments than in Mesopotamia. We might ask, then, did the double-reed musical instrument emerge in Egypt and in Mesopotamia? And did Egyptians create this kind of instrument earlier than the Mesopotamians?

A closer view of their histories reveals that Semitic nomads brought vertical angular harps, , , pipes (double-reed pipes), and the trumpet from Mesopotamia into Egypt, and that this diffusion of musical instruments continued until 1500 B.C.E. (or the Middle Kingdom9 of Egypt).

Egyptians named the double-reed woodwind as ma’, or met.

Compared to the unfavorable soil conditions of Mesopotamia, the arid desert soil of Egypt was better for the preservation of musical instruments. Double-reed instruments had existed in this underground condition since the , when double-reed instruments with two pipes—four finger holes on the right and three on the left tube (Figure 2)—maintained the same morphology as the Mesopotamian specimen.

8 Curt Sachs, op. cit., p. 87. 9 The is the period in the history of ancient Egypt from 2055 B.C.E.—1650 B.C.E. 22

Figure 2. Harp, lute, and double-reed pipe (1475 B.C.E.)10

Moving to a later era we might ask why the double-reed instrument appeared in

Mesopotamia for the first time but did not in Europe. The early history of Europe reveals that the double-reed disseminated with the migration of Dorian,11 by the Minoan trade network among

Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the regions of and . In this period Greek artistic style was closely related to that of Egypt and Mesopotamia. In fact, Greek music and its musical instruments were almost entirely imported from Egypt and Mesopotamia. The double-reed woodwind in Greece and Italy maintained its morphology of Mesopotamia and Egypt, where call it the aulós, or the term for the (Figures 3 and 4).

10 Egon Wellesz. op. cit., Plate IX. 11 Dorians were one of the four major Greek ethnē into which the Greeks, or Hellenes, of the ancient period considered themselves divided (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans, and Ionians). They earliest literary mention of them is in Homer’s , where they already can be found inhabiting the island of Crete. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorians. 23

Figures 3 and 4. Greek red-figure drinking cup is showing a scene at a , where a woman plays the double-reed aulós.12

However, the double-reed woodwind maintained the double-reed-double-pipe morphology during this period. Therefore, the Algaita and Suona, with a single-pipe and double-reed, may not be related to the Mesopotamian double-reed, double-pipe woodwind; this morphology could have occurred later or it may have originated from elsewhere. If indeed they were really derived from the

Mesopotamia, this must have occurred after the Mesopotamian specimen was improved, changing a double-pipe to a single-pipe instrument.

Indeed, the double-reed woodwind with a double pipe, on the one hand, spread to Africa and Europe from the area of the Tigris-Euphrates river system; but this kind of instrument evolved in this region when it was dominated by the Arab nations.

The Arabs originated from a Semitic group in the Arabian Peninsula. Their land gradually expanded beyond Arabia and the Syrian Desert during the Muslim conquests. conquered

Mesopotamia in 633 C.E. and conquered Egypt in 639 C.E. The lands Arabs conquered were called

12 Donald Jay Grout, J. Peter Burkholder, and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music. 8th edition (New York, : Norton, 2010), p. 11. 24

the Arabic World,13 an area stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the and the Indian Ocean in the southeast, covering regions of West Asia and North Africa. The Arabic region occupied these geographic areas, and their rulers directly inherited from their predecessors, inventing the essence of early civilizations. Furthermore, these regions had unified culture, customs, and religion in Islam.

Thus, the attitude of Muslims toward the music and musical instruments began to affect these areas.

For example, Arabs inherited the double-reed instrument, which had been known in these geographic areas as the Mizmār. As Muslims encouraged the development of vocal music (halal), and the development of musical instruments was discouraged (haram), the double-pipe, double-reed woodwind was virtually forbidden in its use to accompany secular songs and “profligate” dances.

For that reason, Muslims even scorned double- performers. In order to continue performing in this environment, musicians either stopped developing musical instruments or adapted them and their venues to the requirements of Islam.

In the eighth century, the gifted musician Abul-Hasan Alí Ibn Nafi, also known as

Ziryab14 (789 C.E.—857 C.E.; Figure 5) used his musical talent to improve the design of the double-reed instrument. Ziryab’s newly fashioned double-reed aerophone had a double-reed, but he changed its double-pipe to a single pipe. His development of the instrument spread in Iraq and Saudi

Arabia and this single-pipe, double-reed aerophone continued to be called a mizmar, a name that had

13 The here comprises 22 countries and territories. 14 Ziryab was a nickname derived from his melodious voice and his dark complexion, features that people compared to a ziryab (blackbird), a singing bird of black plumage. He was a gifted pupil of Ishaq al-Mawsili, a renowned musician in Baghdad, where was a world center for culture, art, and science from around 775—785. Although he was a Persian-born musician, singer, composer, and poet, he improved the mizmar in order to fulfill Islamic requirements of the concept of the musical instrument. His influences from the Arab World and Spain spread to France and throughout Europe, and from there to the . The achievements of Ziryab became part of western culture. However, he never became the remarkable artist in the western world perhaps because he spoke Arabic, and was part of the royal court of the Arab empire in Spain. Accessed October 31, 2017, http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/ziryab. 25

become widely used throughout the Middle East.

Figure 5. Portrait of Ziryab15

In Persia, instrument makers and musicians were also informing the double-reed with

Ziryab’s influence from Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Although the Assyrian Empire initially dominated the Persians and the , these countries absorbed cultural achievements from the Mesopotamia region and established their own culture; thus the double-reed woodwind also has a long history in

Persia.

Persia, as a country of Western Asia, located on the Iranian plateau, connected the Persian

Gulf and the Caspian Sea, and was also connected to . Persia was founded by diverse nationalities, mainly the ,16 Medes,17 and Achaemenids. The Medes and Persians absorbed cultural achievements developed in the Mesopotamian region to establish their culture; they also played a significant role in the downfall of in the Iranian plateau, from which they built their

15 http://www.toofoundation.com (Resources-Iranian Musicians). 16 Aryan: was used as an ethnic self-designation by the Indo-Iranian tribes in the ancient times. In present-day it has been replaced by the terms “Indo-Iranian” or “Indo-European.” Aryan is borrowed from the world ārya, meaning “noble.” Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan. 17 Medes: were an ancient Iranian people who lived in an area known as Media. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of migrating Iranic Aryan tribes into Ancient Iran from the late 2nd millennium Before the Christian Era through the beginning of the 1st millennium Before the Christian Era. 26

kingdom. From the seventh century, the Achaemenid clan declared themselves and expanded their rule. In 550 B.C.E., Cyrus II became the king and established the first Persian

Empire, the (550 B.C.E.—330 B.C.E.). The Persian Empire gradually shaped itself through demands for goods and contributions flowing east and west. The , moreover, was the of Eurasian trade and . The Sassanid Empire ruled the old Achaemenid and Alexandrian Imperial territory in Persia, North India, and north of the Amu

Darya, in , and marked the of Persia controlling the nexus of both overland and maritime trade .18

The Persian dynasty was interrupted by the Islamic conquest in 651 C.E., which helped

Islam to replace the main religion Zoroastrianism19 of ancient Persia. Therefore, the double-reed woodwind was adapted for the requirements of Islamic worship. Persians had made improvements on the instrument, a double pipe into a single pipe, and changed the original heavily flared bell into a lightweight and smaller bell. According to the records of the Persian epic poem ,20

Jamshīd21 was responsible for the invention of the new double-reed aerophone, which was called sūrnāy. As the scripts note,22 the prefix sūr means strong (or banquet), and the suffix nāy means flute. No record shows when the sūrnāy was invented; however, according to the Shahnameh

18 James A. Millward, “Eras of Silk Road Fluorescence,” in The Silk Road: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 28. 19 : is one of the world’s oldest religions. It was founded by the Iranian Prophet Zoroaster in the second millennium B.C.E. 20 Shahnameh also transliterated as The Book of Kings, is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet , between 977 C.E. and 1010 C.E. It is known as the national epic of . It tells mainly the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian empire, from the creation of the world until the Islamic conquest of Persia in the seventh century. Today, Iran, Afghanistan, and the greater region influenced by Persian culture (such as , , Turkey, and Dagestan) celebrate this national epic. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh. 21 Jamshīd: is a mythological figure of Greater Iranian culture and . In tradition and , Jamshīd is described as the fourth and greatest king of the epigraphically unattested Pishdadian Dynasty. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamshid. 22 or Pahlevi, denote a particular and exclusively written form of various Middle . Pahlevi was primarily used from the end of Achaemenian dynasty (559 B.C.E.—330 B.C.E.) to the advent of Islam in the seventh century. Accessed October 31, 2017, http://www.ancientscripts.com/pahlavi.html. 27

and Pahlavi , the sūrnāy was developed in the seventh or eighth century, no later than the ninth century.

The new single-pipe double-reed aerophone was introduced to Africa along with the expansion of Islam, thus the second expansion of the double-reed aerophone from the

Tigris-Euphrates river system, (corresponding approximately with modern-day Iraq, Saudi Arabia,

Syria, and Iran).

From the seventh century, Muslims began to dominate more regions and expanded their religious influence to these ruled areas. During the Umayyad Dynasty,23 Muslims conquered

Caucasus,24 Transoxiana,25 Sindh,26 the Maghreb, and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus), incorporating those areas into the Muslim world. As the Islamic armies conquered more and more territories, their musical culture spread throughout Egypt, as far as Northwest Africa in what was called the Great Maghreb,27 and the southwestern corner of Europe, the Iberian Peninsula,28 which they renamed Al-Andalus.29

Arab musicians followed the conquered route, in one direction departing from the Arabian

23 The Umayyad Dynasty, also called the Umayyad , was the second of the four major Islamic and centered on the Umayyad dynasty. 24 is a region at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between Black Sea and Caspian sea. 25 Transoxiana, known in Arabic sources as Maa waraa’ an-nahr and in Persian as Fararud, is the ancient name used for the portion of , corresponding approximately with modern-day , Tajikistan, southern , and southwest . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transoxiana. 26 Sindh is one of the four provinces of , in the southeastern part of the country. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindh. 27 The Greater Maghreb is usually defined as much or most of the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt, which includes the Atlas Mountains and the coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. 28 The Iberian Peninsula, also known as Iberia, is a peninsula located in the southeast corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided among four states: Spain, , , and France, as well as Gibraltar, an overseas territory of the . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula. 29 Al-Andalus also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim cultural domain and territory occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal. The name more generally describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims (given the generic name of Moors) at various times between 711 C.E. and 1492 C.E. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus. 28

Peninsula to Egypt and crossing North Africa to Syria, and then to Tunisia. Ziyadat Allah I,30 of the royal court of the Aghlabid Dynasty,31 invited them to perform with their court musicians and to introduce their musical instruments. These musicians also moved into the regions of Spain. Under the Umayyads, they arrived in Córdoba32 and influenced the musical life there, becoming a cultural jewel.33 The ruler Abdullah ibn (844 C.E.—912 C.E.),34 of Al-Andalus recognized the artistic skills of these Islamic players, and invited them to play in his court, thus they had the opportunity to introduce their music and their musical instruments also in Al-Andalus.

The single-pipe, double-reed aerophone was brought to Egypt during this migration through North Africa in the late tenth century and its sounds and influence soon spread to Greater

Maghreb, where it was first introduced to the royal court by the Islamic musicians. When the

Islamic conquest route arrived at the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus), this aerophone became prominent in Spanish and Portuguese courts. This gave the Islamic musicians opportunity to exchange and integrate their musical ideas with Christian and Jewish musicians who had long been in service to the courts. In the process of such cultural contact and integration, this single-pipe double-reed aerophone was called gaita, ghaita, , ghaida, ghaite, ghayta, rhaita, or kaita, thus owing to a medieval Gothic-Iberian influence; its original name came from the goatskin35 bag for the Gothic bagpipe.36

30 Ziyadat Allah I (817 C.E.—838 C.E.) was the third Aghlabid Emir in Ifriqiya. 31 Aghlabid Dynasty (800 C.E.—909 C.E.) was an Arab dynasty, which ruled Ifriqiya nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph for about a century, until overthrown by the new power of the Fatimids. 32 Córdoba is a city in Andalusia and the of the province of Córdoba. It was conquered by invading Islamic armies in the eighth century. 33 Robert W. Lebling. “Flight of the Blackbird,” in Saudi Aramco World July/August, 2003, accessed September 6, 2015, http://www.islamicspain.tv. 34 Abdullah ibn Muhammad (844 C.E—912 C.E.) was the seventh Emir of Córdoba, reigning from 888 C.E. to 912 C.E in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). 35 The term gaita, variously spelt gaida, gajde, gajdy, ghaida, ghaite, ghayta, kaita, aghiyad, algaita, is derived from the Gothic gait or ghaid (‘goat’), and originally denoted a bagpipe with a goatskin bag. 36 Christian Poché and John Mendell Schechter. “Gaita,” in Grove Music Online. New York: Oxford University 29

In one direction, the Muslims’ conquest route used military force to conquer North Africa,

Northwest Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula; the Muslims expansion to West Africa primarily followed the paved commercial routes from North Africa to West Africa. For nearly a thousand years before the coming of Islam to North Africa, Berber peoples37 had traded across the Saharan desert with West Africans in the Sahel region38 of West Africa.39 Through these commercial routes,

Africans who had converted to Islam, such as Berbers, introduced the spirit of Islam and the influence of to West Africa. With the Islamic expansion, from the ninth to the fifteenth century, the spirit of Islam gradually spread to Gao, , Hausa, , and Mali, of

West Africa; thus musical culture and instruments were also gradually brought into regions of West

Africa.

The single-pipe, double-reed aerophone was introduced around the tenth and eleventh centuries and used in the savanna zone of West Africa, particularly southern Mali and Niger, Nigeria, southern Chad, and adjoining areas of Cameroon. Here the instrument was called the algaitaru, aligata, alita, or agida, which indicates its widening use in Northwest Africa and the Iberian

Peninsula and gradual dissemination in West Africa. Hence, the name of this aerophone was

Press, accessed September 8, 2015, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/47346. 37 Berbers are an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa. They lived in an area stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Siwa Oasis in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the . They spoke , which together come from the Berber branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. Since the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the seventh century, a large number of Berbers inhabiting the Maghreb have spoken varieties of Maghreb Arabic. Foreign languages, mainly French and to some degree Spanish, inherited from former European colonial powers. These are used by most educated Berbers in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in some formal contexts, such as higher education or business. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers. 38 Sahel region is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara Desert to the north and the Sudanian Savannah to the south. The Sahel covers parts of northern , southern , central Mali, northern , extreme south of Algeria, Niger, extreme north of Nigeria, central Chad, central and southern Sudan, and northern . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel. 39 Margari Hill, “The in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from the Eighth to the Twentieth Century,” Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education, last modified January 2009, accessed September 11, 2015, http://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth _to_the_twentieth_century. 30

influenced by both the Gothic-Iberian and the Arabic languages.

The Single-pipe, Double-reed Instrument in China

The double-reed single-pipe aerophone was introduced into China after its development in the Middle East, first in (the Central Plain),40 and thus can be traced back to the Tang

Dynasty (618 C.E.—907 C.E.).41 Before this, the Central Plain had contact with other countries, in war or for commercial purposes, which paved the way for trade and communication between the

Central Plain and other regions. During the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.—220 C.E.),42 China began to open up the Silk Road to the .43 The king of Western Han,44 of

Han,45 opened this road with two primary objectives: 1) to obtain an alliance with ,46 in order to defeat the Xiongnu47 by dispatching the ambassador Qian there,48 and 2) to establish the Silk Road as a primary route of to develop the commercial

40 Zhongyuan (the Central Plain), also known as Zhongtu or Zhongzhou, is the area on the lower reaches of the , which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongyuan. 41 (618 C.E.—907 C.E.) was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. The Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire and founded it. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty. 42 The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, founded by Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. The Dynasty of the former regent, Wang Mang, briefly interrupted it. This interregnum separates the Han Dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han, and the Eastern Han or Latter Han. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty. 43 The Western Regions is also called Xiyu, a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the third century B.C.E. to the eighth century C.E. This area referred to the regions west of Yumen Pass, most often Central Asia, or sometimes more specifically the easternmost portion of it. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Regions. 44 Western Han (206 B.C.E.—24 C.E.) was regarded as first unified and powerful empire in Chinese history. It was established by Liu Bang, who became Emperor Gaozu following four years of civil war started by peasant uprisings against the despotic Dynasty (221 B.C.E.—207 B.C.E.). 45 (July 14, 156 B.C.E.—March 29, 87 C.E.) was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 B.C.E. to the 87 C.E. 46 “Yuezhi were an ancient Indo-European people originally settled in an arid grassland area spanning the modern Chinese provinces of Xinjiang and .” in Adesh Katariya’s The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History (Adesh Katariya, 2012), p. 2. 47 Xiongnu was a large confederation of Eurasian nomads who dominated the Asian Steppe from the late third century B.C.E. to the late first century C.E. This empire (209 B.C.E.—93 C.E.) stretched beyond the borders of modern-day Mongolia. 48 Zhangqian was a Chinese official and diplomat who served as an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the second century B.C.E. during the time of the Han Dynasty. He was the first official diplomat to bring back reliable information about Central Asia to the Chinese imperial court. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qian. 31

relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of the Western Regions. The Silk Road, 长

安 ’an (today known as Xi’an of Shaanxi) began as a trade route with 乌孙 Wusuan (today known as of Gansu), 大宛 Dawan (today known as the Ferghana ), and 楼兰

Loulan (today known as Lop Nor of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), deriving its name from the main trading commodity, as the Chinese had begun planting mulberry, sericulture, to produce large quantities of silk.

In the Eastern Han,49 Ban Chao,50 the ambassador, was dispatched to Western Regions to strengthen connections between the Western Regions and the Central Plain. The Silk Road thus expanded to the Kucha 龟兹,51 Gumo 姑墨, Wensu County 温宿 (today is known as a county within the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region), Shule County 疏勒,52 安息,53 and finally to the Daqin () 大秦.54 In 166 C.E., the of the Daqin had sent his envoy to the Emperor Huan of Eastern Han,55 which had marked the beginning of exchanges between the Chinese and Western Regions.

At the end of the Han Dynasty, rulers began to develop routes by sea, called the Maritime

49 Emperor Ming of Han established the control of the Chinese Empire on the and eradicated the Xiongnu influence there, through the conquests of his general Ban Chao. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Han. 50 Ban Chao was a Chinese general, explorer, and diplomat of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He was in charge of administrating the “Western Regions” while he was in service. He also led Han forces for over thirty years in the war against the Xiongnu, and secured Han control over the Tarim Basin region. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban_Chao. 51 Kucha or Kuche, also Romanized as Qiuci, Chiu-tzu, was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that along the northern edge of the in the Tarim Basin and south of the Muzat River. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kucha. 52 Shule County also called Yengisheher County, which is a county situated in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and is under the administrative jurisdiction of the Kashgar Prefecture. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shule_County. 53 The Parthian Empire (247 B.C.E.—224 C.E.), also known as Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empire. 54 The Daqin is the ancient for the Roman Empire. 55 The Emperor Huan of Han was the 27th emperor of the Han Dynasty. 32

Silk Road, and during the Wei and Jin dynasties56 this route expanded. was a starting point through Island 海南岛,57 straight through the Paracel Islands 西沙群岛,58 and to the countries of the Sea 南海.59 From here the route traveled through the Malacca Strait,60 the Indian Ocean,61 and finally reached the Persian Gulf.62 Thus, on the Maritime Silk Road, foreign commerce involved fifteen countries and regions, silk remaining the primary export. Besides this, other goods and knowledge were also exchanged among regions along the Silk Road and the

Maritime Silk Road.

The Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern dynasties (220 C.E.—581 C.E.), as former nomad regimes, actively promoted the status of foreign civilizations in the Central region of China to balance the historic Han culture that provided a free environment for exchange. Corresponding to the Central Plain’s diplomatic and commercial transactions with the Wei, Jin, and, Northern and

Southern dynasties, Persia was experiencing a golden age under the Sassanid rule (224 C.E.—651

C.E.) to expand trade with regions on the Silk Road. The Persian envoy, however, came to the

Central Plain during one Southern dynastic period, and for the first time the Central Plain established connections with Persia and other central Asian countries (Figure 6).

56 The Wei and Jin Dynasties ruled after the collapse of the Eastern Han Dynasty, usually called Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties (220 C.E.—581 C.E.). Wei Dynasty can refer to two different dynasties in Chinese history: the (220 C.E.—265 C.E.), a dynasty that existed during the Period; or the (386 C.E.—534 C.E.), a dynasty that existed during the Southern and Northern Dynastic period. 57 Hainan Island is the smallest and southernmost province of the People’s Republic of China. The name “Hainan” also refers to Hainan Island, the main island of the province, located in the . 58 The Paracel Islands also known as Xisha in Chinese and Hoàng Sa in Vietnamese, is a group of islands, reefs, , and other maritime features in the South China Sea. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracel_Islands. 59 The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the and Malacca Straits to the Strait of of around 3,500,000 square kilometers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea. 60 The Malacca Strait is a stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. 61 The Indian Ocean is bounded by Asian on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by , and on the south by the Southern Ocean. 62 The Persian Gulf is a Mediterranean sea in Western Asia, which lies between Iran to the northeast and the Arabian Peninsula to the southwest. 33

Figure 6. Silk Road trade routes63

The way paved by previous dynasties provided further developments on the Silk Road in the Sui and Tang dynasties,64 whose emperors continued the military expansion to enlarge their territory. The Empress Consort Wu,65 Protectorate General to Pacify the West66 and the

Protectorate General to Pacify Beiting67 established control of the Tarim Basin and Beiting area.

The Protectorate General West managed Kucha 龟兹, Suyab 碎叶,68 the 于阗, and Shule County 疏勒; the Protectorate General Beiting controlled Jinman 金满, Luntai 轮台, and

63 See http://www.chinadiscovery.com (Home-China Tours-China Silk Road Tours-Sick Road Maps). 64 The Sui Dynasty was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China, followed by the Tang Dynasty, which was founded by the Li family. 65 The Empress Consort Wu (624 C.E.—705 C.E.) was a who ruled unofficially as Empress and later, officially as during the brief (690 C.E.—705 C.E.), which interrupted the Tang Dynasty. Wu was the only female emperor of China in more than four millennia. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Zetian. 66 The Protectorate General to Pacify the West (640 C.E.—790 C.E.) was a Chinese outpost established by the Tang Dynasty in 640 to control the Tarim Basin. The Four Garrisons of Anxi, Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, and Karashahr were later installed between 648 C.E. and 658 C.E. under the western protectorate’s command. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West. 67 The Protectorate General to Pacify Beiting was a Chinese military outpost established by the Tang Dynasty to control the Beiting area (today known as ürümqi), to Chaochang’s north in 702 C.E. 68 Suyab also known as Ordukent, was an ancient Silk Road city located east from , and west-southwest from Tokmok, in the Chui River valley, present day Kyrgyzstan. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suyab. 34

Pulei 蒲类. Finally, the territory of the Tang Dynasty was contiguous to the Saracen Empire69 (Arab

Empire) and Dashi 大食.70 By this time those presiding over the Silk Road and Maritime Silk Road promoted the exchange of commodities besides silk, and Dashi and the Eastern Roman Empire sent envoys to Chang’an 长安 (capital of Tang Dynasty) for diplomatic openings. People of these countries not only exchanged commodities, but also frequently contacted each other to promote the integration of ideology, knowledge, and culture. With this combination they had more opportunities to exchange their cultural products, including music and musical instruments. The double-reed, single-pipe aerophone was introduced to China by such cultural exchange between the Central Plain and Persia through the Silk Road.

Thus, the Suona, with its Persian pronunciation surnay, came to China during the Tang

Dynasty, and in Dashi and the Arab Empire also, in efforts to popularize Islam in China. According to Syed, Akhtar, and Usmani’s historical account:

Arab people are first noted in Chinese written records in the annals of the Tang Dynasty under the name Dashi. Records dating from 713 C.E., the Dashi ambassador arrived Central Plain. The first group of Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants. During the Tang Dynasty, a steady stream of Arab (Dashi) and Persian (Posi) traders arrived in China through the Silk Road and overseas route through the of Quanzhou. Not all of the immigrants were Muslims, but many of those who stayed formed the basis of the Chinese Muslim population and the Hui ethnic group. The Persian immigrants introduced polo, their cuisine, their musical instruments, and their knowledge of medicine to China.71

69 Saracen was a generic term for Muslims, widely used among Christian writers in Europe during the later medieval era. In the early centuries C.E., Greek and Latin writings used this term to refer to the people who lived in desert areas in and near the Roman province of Arabia. They were distinguished as a people from others known as Arabs. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saracen. 70 Dashi 大食 was a name used for a tribe of Iran. Later, the Tang and Song dynasties used that to indicate Arabs, the Arab Empire, or Muslims of Iran linguist. 71 Muzaffar Husain Syed, Syed Saud Akhtar, and B. D. Usmani, “Islam in China,” in A Concise (New : Vij Books India, 2011), pp. 289-290. 35

Introduction and Role of the Single-pipe, Double-reed in China

The military expansion and Silk Road extension of China to Western Regions, and the

Dashi and Arab Empire, spread Islam from the Middle East to China, paving a -directional route for the musical instruments introduced to China. During the Tang Dynasty, the first route for the

Suona in China: a pottery figurine depicting a Suona player riding a horse. Later, the Suona would garner more extensive use, but it had arrived.

The Suona was accepted and widely used upon its introduction to the Central Plain during the Dynasty.72 Kublai ’s facilitated Eurasian connections to an unprecedented extent. The created a hybrid of nomadic and sedentary regimes going beyond the extractive approach of earlier nomadic empires.73 In the course of its military expansion, the Mongol Empire troops pillaged , , jewelry, medicines, to enlarge solders’ pay and provisions. Among other items, they pillaged musical instruments—including the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone—that were used for Mongolian music. As this aerophone had been used as a military music instrument in Persia and Arabia, so the Mongolian army followed using the instrument in their military bands to convey military orders and inspire soldier morale.

72 established the in the Central Plain, where he completed building his realm, which consisted of four parts, including Yuan Dynasty in China and Mongolia, and three Western , including the , the Chagatai , and the . Kublai Khan was the fifth (Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire, reigning from 1260 to 1294, although only nominally due to the division of the empire. He also founded the Yuan Dynasty in China as a in 1271. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kublai_Khan. The Yuan Dynasty (1271 C.E.—1368 C.E.) was established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian clan. Although the Mongols had ruled territories including today’s for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style. His realm was by this point isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of present-day China and its surrounding areas, including modern Mongolia and . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty. The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized Khanate established in the thirteen century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. From 1252 C.E. to 1259 C.E., the realm of Mongol Empire included Iran, Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia, Russia, Central Asia, and North China. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horde. The comprised the lands ruled by and a part of the Mongol Empire. It became a functionally separate khanate with the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire after 1259. IlKhanate was established as a khanate that formed the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire, ruled by the Mongol House of Hulagu. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanate. 73 James A. Millward, op. cit., p. 35. 36

The single-pipe, double reed obtained its position in Chinese court music in part because

Mongol rulers, in order to consolidate their domination over the Hans and therefore privileged foreign peoples such as Muslim Persians and Arabs, Turkic Christians, Jews, Tibetan Buddhist

Lamas, and Buddhist .

The Yuan Dynasty of China continued to maintain excellent relationship with other nomadic tribes of Mongolia. The Mongol rulers of Yuan Dynasty elevated the status of Muslims versus the Han Chinese, and placed many foreign and non-Han Chinese Muslims in high-ranking posts instead of native Confucian scholars, using many Muslims in the administration of China. The territory of the Yuan was administered in 12 districts during the reign of Kublai Khan with a governor and vice-governor each. In these 12 districts, 8 were Muslims; in the remaining districts, Muslims were vice-governors.74

The Yuan Dynasty rulers paid much attention to the culture of these foreigners. The

Mongolian courts encouraged the circulation of their favorite trade goods, artworks, craftsmen, and musical instruments across Eurasia. They imported cultural products to express the concept of cultural integration. Their use of the single-pipe, double-reed in court music demonstrated their idea of such integration.

After nearly 400 years of development in the Central Plain, the Suona became increasingly used outside the court as well. Written records and preserved images show the Suona during the Ming Dynasty;75 but after this period it fell out of use in the court music and military music, which had gradually combined with the music of daily life.

74 Muzaffar Husain Syed, Syed Saud Akhtar, and B. D. Usmani, op. cit., pp. 290-291. 75 The Ming Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 C.E. to 1644 C.E., the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese. 37

During the (1644 C.E—1912 C.E.),76 it was again widely used in the ceremonial court music, court feasts, folk weddings and funeral music, festive , drama, and dance. During this period, the instrument also emerged from well-known families of Suona artists, by now having passed over ten generations.

Conclusion

In sum, the African Algaita and Chinese Suona derived from the same origins, Persia and

Arab (today the regions of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Saudi Arabia). After Persians and Arabs had developed the instrument from a double-pipe, double-reed woodwind into single-pipe double-reed aerophone, the instrument began its journey into other areas. Today, the single-pipe, double-reed instruments remain in use across countries of China, North Africa, Western Africa, and the Middle

East countries, coming to those places from Persia and Arab through a variety of routes.

Commercial routes were practical for exchange of culture and cultural products. At first the single-pipe double-reed aerophone moved from one culture to another on these routes, as they opened to establish cultural and commercial connections. The frequent exchanges of commodities led people from diverse cultural backgrounds to communicate across borders and to exchange their cultural products. Musical instruments as a kind of cultural product were also traded on these routes.

The African Algaita moved to West Africa via a route established between Northwest Africa and

West Africa. Similarly, the Chinese Suona was introduced to China through the Silk Road.

However, the process of transmigration and cultural diffusion took hundreds of years, and the impacted areas were at first relatively small. This constituted an incorporation process of one

76 The Qing Dynastywas the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 C.E. to 1912 C.E. preceded by the Ming Dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the territorial base for the modern Chinese state. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty. 38

culture absorbing elements of another, referred to as free borrowing. In the end, the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone took almost 700 years to travel to Northwest Africa and in China, and in its first introduction to China grew familiar only in a small area; it was not fully accepted by the people of Central Plain until the Tang Dynasty.

During the Yuan Dynasty and after, military expansion also introduced one culture to another quickly and directly. Outside rulers perhaps understood that military conquest was temporary, or desired their own cultural products, which they introduced to regions they governed, thus forcing people they governed to accept these products as well. Rulers also attempted to assimilate people they dominated once they were governing, using such culture as a strategy of conquest. Thus, when Muslim armies conquered North Africa, Northwest Africa, and the Great

Maghreb, or the Iberian Peninsula, they introduced their Islamic faith, established schools, and taught their language to disseminate their culture. Once they presented their musical culture in new regions, the single-pipe, double-reed was absorbed into, for example, African court music.

Similarly, Mongolian rulers introduced the single-pipe, double-reed into Chinese court music and military music when they conquered the Central Plain. Especially as the nomad regimes founded during the long-standing historical agrarian region, Yuan rulers positively enhanced and promoted their favorite cultural products to solidify their government.77 Moreover, if rulers accepted the cultural products initially from another culture, it was easier to gain the foothold for such products in regions they now governed.

The single-pipe double-reed aerophone was directly introduced into court music when it

77 Generally, Chinese history is the history of nomadic and agrarian peoples fighting for rulership. 39

spread to Northwest Africa, and thus gained its position in the African court. Gradually this instrument transited into folk life and ultimately was accepted by people of any status. Similarly, once the instrument was re-introduced to the Central Plain during the Yuan Dynasty, it was used for court and military music directly. Because such rulers were fond of this kind of aerophone, its familiarity grew and was finally accepted in the Central Plain by folk people and played for their cultural rituals and activities.

40

CHAPTER III

THE ETYMOLOGY OF “ALGAITA” AND “SUONA”

When the double-reed instrument evolved from double-pipe to single-pipe, it was renamed the mizmār in the Middle East (west to Egypt), where this term denotes all the aerophones. In

the closest equivalent in English being 1, ﻣﺰﻣﺎر and لمزمار :Arabic mizmār comprises two words

“oboe,” indicating the double-reed characteristic of the mizmār.

After its introduction to Egypt, the word mizmār continued to distinguish it from another kind of double-pipe, single-reed instrument there, called the Zummāra.2 When the instrument migrated to Northwest Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, it was called by various similar names: ghayta, ghaita, gaita, gaida, ghaida, gajde, rhaita, or raita.

Before Muslims ruled the Iberian Peninsula, the Goths3 originally used gait or ghaid, meaning “goatskin” for the bagpipe,4 another kind of aerophone with a single-reed or double-reed,

Muslims continued to use another variant of the Gothic language, gaita or ghayta. The Goths used these names for the Arabic single-pipe, double-reed because of its similarity in timbre and social functions to the bagpipe used in the Iberian Peninsula previously. Later, when the Spanish,

1 The Arabic consists of 28 letters, reading from right to left. ا ب ج د ه و ز ح ط ي ك ل م ن س ع ف ص ق ر ش ت ث خ ذ ض ظ غ g d k t s ẓ ḍ t r q ṣ f ‘ s n m l k y ṭ ḥ z w h d j b ā h h h h h

2 The Zummāra refers to any of several aerophone consisting of two parallel pipes made of cane, bird bone, or metal, played simultaneously, with a single reed for each. There are five or six holes in each pipe, or holes in only one pipe while the other acts as a drone; the reeds are either cut from the body of the instrument or created by inserting smaller, slit tubes into the ends of the pipes. 3 The Goths were an East Germanic people, two of whose branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the and the emergence of Medieval Europe. 4 The Bagpipe is a kind of aerophone, using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air blown into a bag. have had the greatest visibility in the English-speaking world, played for centuries throughout large parts of Europe, Turkey, the Caucasus, around the Persian Gulf, Northern Africa, and North America. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://infogalactic.com/info/Bagpipes. 41

Portuguese, and French inhabited Iberia, this aerophone was also called gaita or ghayta, which had the same morphology as the single-pipe and double-reed introduced from the Middle East through the Northwest Africa-Greater Maghreb region.

Even before the Arab single-pipe, double-reed was brought to the Iberian Peninsula, in the

Northwest Africa-Greater Maghreb region it had been referred to variously as the ghayta, ghaita, gaita, gaida, ghaida, gajde, rhaita, or raita, the same or similar to its Iberian name. In Northwest

corresponding the pronunciation ghaytha,5 which ,غيطة ,Africa they also used the Arabic word derives from the pronunciation of the Gothic name ghaita or rhaita. The Arabs’ borrowing of the name from the Gothic language was influenced by several factors: 1) the proximity of Northwest

Africa and the Iberian Peninsula promoted the cultural and linguistic exchange between these two regions; 2) both Northwest Africa and Iberian Peninsula were ruled by Muslims, which further strengthened their connection which gradually formed a linguistically confluent area of Arabic,

Spanish, Portuguese, and French; and 3) when Muslims conquered Northwest Africa, the Berber language was infused with , Spanish, Portuguese, and French.

In the savanna zone of the West Africa the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone was referred to by several variants: algaita, algayta, algheita, algaitaru, aligata, alita, and agida, further demonstrating Gothic-Iberian and Arabic languages influences. The suffix ‘ta’: gai(ta), gay(ta), ghei(ta), and gai(taru) of these names derives from the Gothic-Iberian language. However, the prefix

“al” indicates an Arabic language influence as it was used in Northwest African regions. In Arabic

used as a definite article (English ‘the’) in the Arabic. Therefore, the 6,لا al” derives from the word“

transliterates to ghaytha, the Arabic letters corresponding to Romance language letters غيطة The Arabic word 5 .for gh غ for y, and ي ,for t ط ,for h ة :in the following manner ”.for a, which means “the ا for l, and ل ,“-transliterates to “al , لا Meaning the Arabic words 6 42

English to algaita, algayta, algheita, algaitaru, aligata, alita, and agida approximate closely “the double-reed pipe.” These names demonstrate the reciprocal influence of Arabic and

Gothic after Muslims conquered Northwest Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.

Thus, once in West Africa, the various names for this aerophone diffused into languages of local ethnic groups; for example, the Fulani peoples used the word “algaytaaru,”7 the Hausa8

“algaita,” group, the Kanuri9 “alita,” and the Tiv10 used “agida.”

In Persia, after developments were made to fashion the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone,

contains ,سورنای The surnāy or 11.سورنای it was called the surnāy derived from the Persian word

connotes “banquet,” “feast,” or “party,” and the meaning of سور-two syllables, the sense of sur

,refers to “reed,” or “pipe.” The surnāy’s meaning also denotes the banquet pipe, feast reed نای-nāy or party pipe, indicating its function in Persia. The variants sornā, sūrnā, surnāī, zurnā, zūrnā, were also used to signify the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone, the similar pronunciation used among several regions of Europe and Asia.

When the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone was introduced in the Central Plain, its name variant was “Suona” (from the Chinese 唢呐, with the accented spelling of Suǒnà12),13

7 The Fulani are one of the most widely dispersed and culturally diverse peoples of Africa. They are bound together by the common language Fulfulde. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Fulani. 8 The Hausa are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, a diverse but culturally homogeneous people based primarily in the Sahelian and Sudanian Daura area of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger, with significant numbers also living in parts of Cameroon, Chad, , Ghana, Sudan, and . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_people. 9 The Kanuri are an Afircan ethnic group living largely in the lands of the former Kanem and Bornu Empires in Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanuri_people. 10 The Tiv are an ethno-linguistic group or nation in West Africa. There are over two million individuals in Nigeria, and Cameroon. سور) ,is s س ,is u و ,is r ر ;(transliterates to nāy نای) ,is n ن ,is a ا ,is y ی ,reads from right to left سورنای 11 .or sur nāy سورنای transliterates to sur), altogether 12 “Suǒnà” in accented Hanyu , the official phonetic system for transcribing the Mandarian pronunciations of Chinese characters into the in China, Taiwan, and Singapore. Hanyu Pinyin is often used to teach and a pinyin without markers is often used in foreign publications to spell Chinese names familiar to non-Chinese, and may be used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into . 13 After acculturation to the Chinese culture, Suona was also called Dadi 大笛, Laba 喇叭, Haidi 海笛, Guizi 龟 子, Wuwa 呜哇, Jina 叽呐, Aizai 嗳仔, Lihua 梨花, Dagan 大杆, Ergan 二杆, and so forth, by the Han nation. In addition, 43

deriving from surnāy or zurnā, the transliteration14 of surnāy from: 1) the Chinese character transliterated as “suo” (唢), not connected to any other word thus only used to fashion the word

“Suona”; 2) the meaning of the word “na” (呐), or “shout,” used for this instrument to correspond to its loud characteristic; and 3) because the “radical”15 of the Chinese word (唢呐) is “口(Kou)”, meaning “mouth,” as the instrument is played through the mouth.

A similar genesis of the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone demonstrates “Algaita” and

“Suona” and their variants in West Africa and China respectively, showing both Arabic cultural influence and the impact of the Persian language. The developmental process of the name Algaita demonstrates the phenomenon of from one language that transliterate or resemble letters of another. However, even as the words of one language correspond to those of another, and their pronunciation is similar, the meanings of these words do not reflected exactly the adopted language.

Thus, the Chinese Suona (唢呐) is a created word to imitating the pronunciation of the Persian surnāy. Although their pronunciation is similar, the meaning of surnāy does not translate to an established word in Chinese, thus showing a more powerful influence of the instrument, not having had any equivalent instrument where it landed, and as they belong to different linguistic systems.

The developmental process of the Algaita and Suona was in its acculturational, formed in the migration of the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone to different regions and its adapted names in the according to different of different minority nationalities, Suona was also called Mohong 抹轰, Bailai 拜来, Zainai 宰乃, and Shala 沙喇 by people, 彝族, Bishikuer 毕什库尔, Narenbilige 那仁筚篥格 by Mongols, 蒙古族, Bai 拜, Lilaluo 利拉罗, Lilie 哩咧 by Li people, 黎族, Narenbilig 那仁筚篥格, Laba 喇叭 by , 满族, Hamubiao 哈姆标 by Gelao people, 仡佬族, Jialing 嘉令, Suna 素呐 by Tibetans, 藏族, Taipingxiao 太平箫 by , Suole 索勒 by , 回族, Bolie 波列 by people, 壮族, Shanjie 删节, Muhao 木号 by , 哈尼 族, Dongba 洞巴 by , 景颇族, Didai 滴呆, Nina 尼呐 by , 白族. 14 is the conversion of a text from one script to another. Transliteration is not concerned with representing the sound of the original, only the characters, ideally accurately and unambiguously. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteration. 15 The word for “radical” in Chinese is Piānpáng 偏旁. A radical, or component of a character, usually indicates its meaning. Traditionally, the left part of composite characters was referred to as the Piān 偏, and the right referred to as Páng 旁. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chinese_(Mandarin)/Radicals. 44

indigenous language.

45

CHAPTER IV

THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES OF THE AFRICAN ALGAITA AND THE

CHINESE SUONA

The Algaita Structure

The Algaita, a single-pipe double-reed aerophone,1 is composed of three sections: 1) a double-reed attached to a brass mouthpipe; 2) a cylindrical shaped body; and 3) a trumpet-like bell.

Part I, the upper part, is composed of a double-reed, usually made from the wild reeds in various sizes. Instrument makers trim grass into regular lengths and widths suited to blow into, and then use wire or string to bundle up the bottom of the reeds. The diverse sizes of double reeds are decided by the size of the entire musical instrument. The lower part of the double-reed is threaded through the center of the metal or wood pirouette to insert into a brass or mouthpipe.

The double-reed and pirouette are placed on the top of the mouthpipe, and the end of the mouthpipe connects to the cylindrically shaped body. The instrument is then covered and seamed in leather.

Part II, also called the tube, is made from a single piece of wood, sometimes fruit-wood, which is hollowed into a cone tube. The role of the tube is to amplify the volume and change the pitch. The smaller section lies at the top of the tube, and the bell-shaped part at the other end amplifies the volume. There are four fingerholes drilled into the tube. To play, the first fingerhole is covered by the index finger of the right hand, and the three other fingerholes can be covered, one or up to three at a time depending the desired pitch, by the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger

1 The aerophone is one of the four main classes of instruments in the original Hornbostel-Sachs system of music instrument classification, further dividing includes whether the vibrating air is contained in the instrument itself or not. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerophone. 46

of the left hand. The length of the tube is another important factor in deciding the frequency of pitch.

The tube and the trumpet-like bell of Algaita are made from a single piece of wood. The bell is also covered in seamed leather, its role to amplify the volume.

The modern-day Algaita was developed as players grew more particular, and because defective pitches of this instrument could sometimes spoil music performance. Consequently,

Algaita players have improved its accuracy; with four major tones, as in the past, no subdivided into around twelve notes, depending the particular instrument and player. With the influences of the western technology, the timbre of the Algaita was sampling for electronic keyboard, or making it became an electronic musical instrument, whereby only keys are be pressed to produce the desired sounds to avoid straining the and lungs of the player.

Furthermore, engineers of instrumental sound have invented the electronic Algaita as an alternative to the traditional instrument, which they considered defective in producing pitches based on the western music norm.2

Figure 7. Traditional Algaita3

2 Richard Aôndowase Tsevende, Tim Cuttins Agber, Don Saa-Aôndo Iorngurum, and Nancy Ngunan Ugbagir. Tiv Swange Music and Dance (Nigeria: Midan Press, 2013), pp. 14-15. 3 http://www.exoticinstrument.com/algaita-instrument/. 47

The Suona Structure

The Suona, a single-pipe, double-reed aerophone with a similar morphology to the Algaita, is also composed of three sections: 1) a double-reed, brass mouthpipe, 2) a cylindrically shaped body, and 3) a trumpet-like bell. However, the Suona and Algaita differ in details according to the musical systems of China and Western Africa.

The double-reed of the Suona is the component that produces the sound typical of wind instruments, and is usually made from reeds, or in some regions of China using straws or insect . Some instrumental makers cut out parts of straws that substitute for reeds in order to facilitate carrying that and keeping that in good repair. Currently, there are two basic types of reed.

One is called a “copper wire reed,” where copper wire wraps and bundles up the two reeds. Because a section of the reeds is tied to form the bottom, the remaining vibrating portion is smaller. The other type is called a “silk thread reed,” thus using silk thread to bundle up the two reeds. However, this type of the reed only bundles up one or two ferrules and does not form the bottom of the instrument.

Once the double-reed is formed and bound, the double-reed is threaded through the center of the two overlapping pirouettes (the two pirouettes overlapped like to small plates overlapped together) to connect to the brass mouthpipe. The player’s lips are pressed against the upper pirouette.

The upper pirouette helps players to control the breath more easily, using their cheeks as an air reservoir, and protecting the mouth from from the reed and mouthpipe, also allowing the embouchure relax. The lower pirouette makes the mouthpiece symmetrical in order to beautify the appearance of the instrument. 48

The cylindrically shaped body, or tube, can be made from mahogany, jujube, apricot, cherry, ebony, walnut, plum, or other hardwood. The wood hollowed out into a conical tube and helps to amplify the volume or change the pitch. In several regions metal is used to produce tubes for playing particular timbres that wooden tubes cannot produce. As with the Algaita, the slender part of the cone lies at the top of the tube, the wide part at the other end, the latter that aids in amplifying the volume. There are eight fingerholes drilled into the Suona tube, seven fingerholes located in the front and one thumbhole in back; some holes are round, and some oval. The sounds are produced as players press the fingerholes while blowing, opening and closing fingerholes to change the length of the air column within the tube to change the pitch.

The length of tubes is the major factor by which to distinguish the categories (different sizes) of Suona, generally divided into five types, the soprano,4 mezzo-soprano,5 alto,6 tenor,7 and bass8 Suonas.

The trumpet-like bell of the Suona is made from a thin copper sheet, connecting the end of the tube, which can be assembled and disassembled. The added copper bell to the wooden tube gives the Suona an additional timbre with the brassier resonance of metal. The sizes of the bell correspond according to the various types of Suona.

4 The soprano tones of the Suona tube are c2 or d2. 5 The mezzo-soprano tones of the Suona tube are a1 or b1. 6 The alto tones of the Suona tube are g1 or f1. 7 The tenor tones of the Suona tube are e1 or d1. 8 The bass tones of the Suona tube are g or lower. 49

Figure 8. Chinese Red Sandalwood Suona9

Newer morphologies of the Suona, created through new technologies, make up for deficiencies of the traditional Suona. For example, the mouthpiece has been redesigned for performances of contemporary works and for playing with the modern orchestra. The Suona performer Guo Yazhi10 invented the telescopic brass mouthpipe in 1993 C.E. to resolve any problems in executing the quick and effortless runs of modern music. This piece has an elastic brass mouthpipe, which stretches and draws back further than the traditional Suona mouthpiece, to play semitones and modulations. In playing either with the modern orchestra or solo, Suona performers encounter problems in executing semitones, the pitches of semitones being difficult to control. Thus, using the modern Suona to play contemporary works, which tend to be more chromatic, they might move from semitone to semitone rapidly and easily.

This telescopic brass mouthpipe “telescopically” moves to change the length of the air

9 http://www.czmile.com/display.asp?id=617 (Red Sandalwood Suona). 10 Guo Yazhi Guo Yazhi (1966-) a renowned pipe music performer, graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. He improved Suona’s expression by adding telescopic brass mouthpipe, for which he earned the Ministry of Culture and Technology Award. 50

column accurately within the tube so that every fingerhole can play a chromatic minor second (about

50 cents). In this way, the instrument converts from seven diatonic steps to twelve semitones, also making it easy to modulate through various tonal centers.

Figure 9. Telescopic view of brass mouthpipe11

11 https://baike.baidu.com/pic/唢呐活芯/6420986 (telescopic brass mouthpipe). 51

Figure 10. Telescopic view of brass mouthpipe12

In the 1950s a new type of Suona with added keys was invented. The added-keys Suona absorbs the production skills of the clarinet and flute, and other European musical instruments, which have pressed keys instead of fingerholes to play. These added keys play semitones between every two fingerholes, allowing Suona players to play temporary sharped or flatted tones, and to modulate rapidly and accurately. Although the added keys to the instrument produce a slight deficiency of timbre, compared to the traditional Suona, the combined keys of the added-keys Suona and the traditional Suona make up for the weak tenor and bass parts of the in the orchestra. Added-keys Suonas are generally divided into alto, tenor, and bass Suonas.

12 https://baike.baidu.com/pic/唢呐活芯/6420986/ (telescopic brass mouthpipe). 52

Added-keys Suona Traditional Suona

Figures 11 and 12. Added-keys Suona and traditional Suona13

In 2006 C.E., professor Jicheng (左继承) of the Central Conservatory of Music, invented a multi-functional Suona,14 using a double-reed, a brass mouthpipe, and a cylindrical-shaped body, but instead of the metal bell, convenient for playing at both ends, he added an inlay for adjusting pitches. Thus the multi-function remains the same as the traditional Suona in the structure of the upper end, but the lowest section is thicker than the top end. The player can execute two octaves at either end of the instrument, and the timbre of these sounds is softer than the traditional Suona without the bell. These characteristics also make the instrument easier to play within an ensemble, as the volume is easier to control.

13 http://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480h (added-keys Suona and the traditional Suona). 14 Zuo Jicheng acquired a national for the invention in 2007. 53

Figure 13. Multi-functional Suona15

Thus, for the most part, the original aerophones have similar morphologies; however, several details are different, producing different timbres. The Chinese Suona should be considered as part of a “Suona series.” Suonas are used throughout an extensive territory of China, so players living in different regions have differing standards, thus the various sizes of the Suona. Additionally, players themselves build their own Suonas, so no uniform standard pitches or lengths of the instrument exist. The longest Suona appears in city,16 its entire length 1,440 mm (4’ 73’’ ft.), and the shortest Suona appears in the Liaoning and Hebei areas, with a total length of 220 mm

(0’ 73’’ ft.) However, with the process of gradually standardization of folk musical instruments, for example, the 笙,17 which plays together with Suona in the folk ensemble, the sizes of Suona have gradually stabilized, ranging from 217 mm (0’ 72’’ ft.) to 567 mm (1’ 86’’ ft.).

The Algaita also has different sizes, but less than the Suona. However, the Algaita is longer than the Suona, ranging from 450 mm (1’ 50’’ ft.) to 530mm (1’ 74’’ ft.). Because of their

15 Zuo Jicheng. “The Multi-functional Suona,” in Musical Instrument Magazine (March, 2013), p. 18. 16 Chongqing city is a major city in and one of the four direct-controlled municipalities in China. 17 Sheng 笙 is a Chinese mouth-blown free reed instrument consisting of vertical pipes. It is one of the oldest Chinese instruments, with images depicting its kind dating back to 1100 B.C.E., and actual instruments from the Han era have been preserved. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheng_(instrument). 54

different lengths, the timbres of the Algaita are lower and deeper than the Suona, even as both of them are considered loud aerophones.

Suona-makers choose from a variety of hardwoods for the tube, ideally making the sound of the Suona sonorous, melodious, and bright. For the Algaita, however, they use wood from fruit trees for the tube and bell, so its sound, even if can play out brightly, is relatively softer and deeper.

Furthermore, the bell of the Suona, made from the thin copper sheet, mixes the metallic timbre of the wooden timbre, which gives this instrument a more penetrating power and sound. The tube and bell of the Algaita are made from one piece of wood, so when the playing, one can easily distinguish the sonorous bright wooden sound from shrill sound made by metal instruments.

Additionally, the dimension of the Algaita’s bell is smaller than that of the Suona; thus, the bell helps less to amplify the volume.

Moreover, the distinctive characteristic of the Algaita is the seamed leather-covered tube and bell, which makes a particular sound from the resonance of the leather. The leather wrapped around the tube and bell causes the sound to gather back into the tube, integrating the echo and the original sound producing the Algaita’s dynamic sound.

The unique characteristic of the Algaita is its four fingerholes on the tube, developed in

West African playing because of local requirements. The West African linguistic tones differ depending their various ethnic groups. The Algaita is used by the Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa ethnic groups. They speak tonal languages,18 so the Algaita not only plays a melody, but

18 The Fulani language has three tones of active voice, middle voice, and passive voice; the has three tones: high tone, low tone, and falling tone; the has three tones: high tone, middle or default tone, and low tone. 55

like many West African talking ,19 also mimics the tone and prosody of human language, which can be understood in a broad sense by audiences.

When the Algaita plays to emulate the tones of language, the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger of the left hand plays medium, high, and extra-high tones named F#, A, B, and the index finger of the right hand plays a low tone B. In particular, the left hand’s 3-tone sequence F#, A,

B, indicates the high tone of the language, labeled／, the sequence F#, B, A, indicates the falling tone of the language＾, and the sequence B, A, F#, indicates the low tone of the language＼. These changes of tones and their long and short syllabic quantities express unverbalized text. Therefore, the Algaita is unlike other similarly morphological instruments with seven fingerholes that play the diatonic scale.

The Algaita often plays together with the long trumpet, or kakaki, and cylindric ganga drum. The kakaki produces only two tones, and the ganga drum mimics linguistic tones in low, medium, high, and extra-high pitches. In this ensemble, then, the Algaita has no need (unlike other similar morphological instruments) for seven fingerholes; the rest of the ensemble makes up for this lack, and together they have access to on the entire diatonic scale. Furthermore, the Algaita plays short melodies that intertwine with the ganga drum’s rhythmic melodies; thus, the Algaita need not play long melodies or melodies including various tones and semitones. It only needs a few tones for, for example, call and response, with the ganga drum or kakaki.

The Suona, with its seven fingerholes on the tube, can play the entire diatonic scale; some

Suona masters have skills to control their breath pressure and contain the depth of the reed to play

19 The Talking drum is an hourglass-shaped drum from West Africa, whose pitch can be regulated to mimic the tone and prosody of human speech. It has two drumheads connected by leather tension cords, which allow the player to modulate the pitch of the drum by squeezing the cords between player’s arm and body. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drum. 56

semitones, where one fingerhole to produce three tones, also called multiphonics. Although the

Suona has fingerholes for semitones, master players can produce the chromatic scale. The Suona is considered as a flexible musical instrument, the tones of every fingerhole may seem fixed as it is made but, in fact, Suona players can play more than seven tones. Additionally, in an ensemble the

Suona sometimes is played with the Sheng. Because the Sheng has a larger range and greater chromatic capability, the Suona must play at least seven tones higher to match the tones of the

Sheng.

To conclude, because of the influence of Western music, African and Chinese musicians have integrated the Western musical system and technologies. Moreover, African and

Chinese players must make a living, and thus compete with Western musicians for performances and recordings. Both Algaita and Suona makers and players have embarked on technological reforms to reduce small problems and deficiencies of pitches, for example, adding semitones to adapt for playing with an orchestra and with bands using amplified instruments. Sampling the timbres of the Algaita for the keyboard, the electronic Algaita, the telescopic brass mouthpipe Suona, the added keys of the Suona, and the multi-functional Suona are products of their times.

57

CHAPTER V

RELIGIOUS IMPACTS ON AFRICAN ALGAITA MUSIC AND CHINESE SUONA MUSIC

Clifford Geertz defines religion as “a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men, by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.”1 People use rituals, constructing an authentic world, to integrate the mundane world with the mental world of the sacred realm. “Religious is prescribed formal behavior for occasions not given over to technical routine, having reference to beliefs in mystical (on non-empirical) beings or powers regarded as the first and final causes of all effects,”2 which are the externalizing behaviors of religious belief. The religious ritual, for example, connects religion and music. Religious rituals are displayed in the acoustic environment3 during the whole process. The “acoustic environment” refers to audible and inaudible sounds of a ceremony, including the general sense of music, and other non-musical sounds. An acoustic environment assists people in conveying their religious belief through the entire religious ceremony, which connects ritual and faith to form an integral whole. There are two kinds of : 1) that used for the religious background folk activities, and 2) that especially created for religious rituals and behaviors, or played in temple by professional monks who are musicians and working folk musicians who belong to the temple. This chapter discusses the latter kind of religious music.

1 Clifford Geertz. “Religion As a Cultural System,” in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 2009), p. 90. 2 Victor Witter Turner. The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), p. 79. 3 The acoustic environment is the combination of all the acoustic resources within a given area-natural sounds and human-caused sounds-as modified by the environment. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundscape. 58

In this chapter, I specifically refer to the relations of Algaita music, religions, and religious rituals, to address the following questions: 1) How is Algaita music used in Islamic rituals? And 2)

How is Algaita music used in traditional West African religions? I address these questions in terms of the history of the instrument’s migration.

The Algaita was spread to North and West Africa during the expansion of Islamic culture.

However, the Algaita was rarely used in North and West Africa for Islamic religious rituals, only for the “Public Qur’anic Recitation” of ritual contexts.4 Next to the meticulously defined space-time of prayer proper, a freer space is made—such as, following Jumu’ah (Friday prayers)5—when royal

Hausa musicians greet their sarki (emir),6 playing kakaki, algaita, and kaho7.8

In Islamic ritual contexts the Algaita was rarely used because of several historical reasons.

First, when the Arabs had conquered the North African countries the inhabitants were forced to convert to Islam. As the claim of Islamic doctrine, Islam, as the newly unique and supreme religion in the North Africa, dedicated the rules of religious rituals, for example, whether the gaita was played at Islamic memorial ceremonies in the Great Maghreb. Therefore, the gaita was used for the royal ensembles rather than religious services.

West Africa was not thoroughly Islamized as the North African countries when Muslims and Berbers established commercial roads between Northwest Africa and the Saharan area. Muslim settlements became enclaves in which West African people contributed to the Islamic penetration

4 Islamic Formal Ritual Contexts include Daily Prayer (Salah), Public Sermon (Khutba), and Public Qur’anic Recitation (Tilawa, Tajwid, and Tartil). Across the Muslim world, there are three categories of recurring performance contexts, each context carrying a uniform meaning. Formal Ritual Contexts are least variable. 5 Jumu’ah (Friday prayers) are congregational prayers (ṣalāt) that Muslims meet for every Friday after noon in the place of Zuhr prayer. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumu%27ah. 6 The Sarki (emir) is an aristocratic or noble title of high office used in a variety of places in the Arab countries and Afghanistan. It means commander, general, or prince. 7 The Kaho is an antelope horn. 8 Michael Frishkopf. “ ‘Islamic Music in Africa’ as a Tool for ,” Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 42, No. 2/3, (Taylor & Francis, 2008), pp. 478-507. 59

and diffusion into their societies. Through the efforts of Muslims, more and more West African people converted to Islam, some gradually emerging as full members of the Islamic clergy. During this Islamic migration, Muslims belonged to the Khawārij sect;9 they were open-minded to West

African traditional religions, and to flexible interpretate the Islamic doctrine of adapting to the ordinary life of Western Africans. This tolerant attitude won the goodwill of West African people.

Additionally, West African merchants and some rulers accepted Islam, so the towns of commercial centers played a significant role for the dissemination of Islamic civilization, several regions maintaining their traditional beliefs or mixing these with Islamic beliefs. Therefore, West African traditional religions and customs to this day possess deep roots of West African local people.

Even as some rulers have accepted the Islamic doctrine, they were still largely dependent on their traditional religions and customs to stabilize the political situation, where many regions of

West Africa were gradually forming a hybrid Islam, also known as “indigenous Islam,” which dictated that Islam completed . Hybrid Islam is different from orthodox Islam, which integrates Islam and local traditional religions to reflect the interpretation of the African people of

Islam. West Africa, in fact, has three traditional religions coexisting: Islam,10 and , and the tribal beliefs already in place.11 African tribal religions still had a large influence in West Africa, while Islam is the universal religion.

9 The Khawārij sect appeared in the first century of Islam and has manifested throughout the centuries since. The Khawārij opposed arbitration as a means to choose a new ruler on the grounds that “judgement belongs to God alone.” 10 Islam spread widely in West Africa because its doctrine was suitable for the practical situation in many parts. Most African residents believe in both Allah and their original gods, but that Allah is the supreme power. Additionally, Islamic doctrine concepts of “immortality of the soul,” familism, ethics, morals, and norms of family life, are similar to African tribal society. 11 Christianity introduced in Africa is early than Islam, which adapted to the African traditional religions. Christian missionaries hold a negative attitude to African traditional religions; deny various gods and supernatural forces and are hostile to traditional practices of African traditional religions. These behaviors caused African people dissatisfaction and opposition of West African people. Therefore, Islam spread widely in African, and Christianity followed by it. 60

The Algaita was rarely used for Islamic religious ceremonies in West African as it was in the Maghreb. Islamic festival settings and life-cycle contexts12 preferred musical instruments, but in ritual contexts rarely used musical instrument as accompaniment. The significant Islamic celebrations are Mawlid, Ta’zieh, Ashurah, Sikiri, Manzuma, and Madih Nabawi,13 all using combinations of vocal recital and chanting, rarely instrumental music. However, African people preferred the instruments of their traditional rituals.

Traditional African tribal religions had no scriptures, temples, monks, or a structural system. The beliefs center around the worship of nature, ancestors, totems, tribal gods, and supreme gods. In their core thinking they venerate and esteem ancestors. These beliefs render their life as full of God, deity, almighty, goddess, divinity, and spirit. African peoples also venerated the nature of sun, moon, stars, clouds, fog, thunder, rain, lighting, snow, wind, mountains, sea, land, water, fire, and animals. Thus, they have a sun god, storm god, lightning deity, water god, the sea deity, lake deity, the water spirits, and so forth, emerging in African people life. Additionally, the python, crocodile, apes, wolves, porcupines, monkeys, parrots, crows, cock, scorpions, are also considered as gods, deities, and spirits related to nature.

Furthermore, African peoples also worship of souls of people; they believe each soul enables the vital body, energetic, so the soul can separate from the body and have a permanent character. This concept of the soul relates to their idea of worshipping the souls of ancestors. Living

12 Islamic festival contexts include Ramadan, MawLid Al-Nabr, to (Hajj), Id Festivals, and Ashura’. Life-cycle Contexts include such as births, circumcisions, weddings, and funerals. 13 Mawild music performed for the of Muhammad. Ta’zieh is a passion play, part musical drama, part religious drama, rarely performed outside Iran. It depicts the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, venerated by Shia Muslims. Ashurah music performed during the Muharram mourning period, commemorating the deaths of Imam Hussein and his followers. Thikiri performed by the Qadiriyya Sufi orders of wa Yao or in East and (, , , , and ). Manzuma is moral songs performed in . Mad’h nabawi is Arabic hymns praising the prophet Muhammad. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_music. 61

people offer to ancestors and soothe the soul of the deceased person or to seek help from their forefathers. Ancestors of the tribal chiefs are the source of strength, so chiefs are considered as delegates of the soul of ancestors in the world and accepted as leaders. The tribal people, therefore, believe chiefs to be the tribal deities.

Different from, the worship of nature, ancestors, and chiefs, which are existential objects and persons, African peoples also believe in a supreme God, considered an omnipotent God who appears in a class society. They offer sacrifices, praying for this god to bless and protect them.

Because of their pantheism, their religious rituals differ from Islam, which has one supreme God. African religious rituals are also distinct from and , which have integrated systems, holding religious rituals and ceremonies in temples using chant and the acoustic environment to communicate with their deities. Distinct from Muslims, Africans believe that sounds of musical instruments can help them to communicate with the deities in their minds.

The West Africans accepted and used the Algaita in their tribal religious rituals. The instrument mimics human vocal tones and timbres, and thus was used as a metaphysical agent to play sound communicating “thought” with gods, believes, ancestors, and kindred entities of the

Spirit world. In West African society, the Algaita is rarely playing solo, but most always played together with the drum to accompany singing.

Traditional African peoples considered instrumental and vocal music as sound evocative and with mystical powers, which can be used to evoke psychic forces of great potency. These sounds are played out in much broader scope to the traditional African people than to the superficial meaning of music as itself. Voice, drum, and Algaita sounds in rituals and ceremonies are 62

considered as vehicles to assist communication with their deities. Vocal music narrates pious beliefs of the heart to all their gods, deities, and spirits; or it begs spirits and deities to bless, protect, or to grant aspirations; or as prayer for blessings to avoid disaster; or it shows indebtedness to gods or blessings.

African drums and the Algaita can mimic the linguistic tones of African languages, playing low, medium, falling, high, and extremely high sounds. They are used to mimic proverbial phrases and utter a word, or sometimes repeat some of the texts of the vocal line to “speak” to gods, believed to have mysterious powers. The Algaita and drums sounds are also used for communicating with the supernatural world or secular world. I discuss their social functions further in Chapter VI.

Music for Buddhist Ritual

In terms of other religious influence on this music, the impact of Buddhism and Taoism on the Suona is distinct from how Islam affected the Algaita. Originating in India (divided into the

Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna branches14), Buddhism played a significant role in religious rituals and ceremonies; nevertheless, Buddhism and Taoism have no relation to the introduction of the Suona in the Central Plains of China. In the first century, Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25

C.E.—220 C.E.), Buddhism spread into China of Buddhism. The introduction of

Mahayana Buddhism divided into two branches, Tibetan and .15 Once Buddhism

14 Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna Buddhism: Mahāyāna Buddhism is one of two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice. Hīnayāna is a Sanskrit term literally meaning the “Smaller Vehicle,” applied to the Śrāvakayāna, the Buddhist path followed by a śrāvaka who wishes to become an . The term appeared around the first or second century. Hīnayāna Buddhism is often contrasted with Mahāyāna, which means the “Great Vehicle.” Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinayana. 15 Tibetan and Chinese Buddhism: is the body of religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Buddhism in , Mongolia, , Ghutan, Kalmykia, Buryatia and certain regions of the , including northern , and India. Chinese Buddhism has played an extremely prominent and dynamic role in Buddhist history, particularly in . Over the course of approximately two thousand years, Buddhist ideas and 63

spread into China, it gradually played a prominent and dynamic role in the Central Plain, shaping

Chinese Buddhism in a wide variety of areas and becoming the first in three of the Chinese religious system.16

In its emergence in India, Buddhist worship entailed music to accompany chanting of the

Buddhist Scriptures. However, when Buddhism spread into the Central Plains, due to differences in language between Indian and Chinese, the Scriptures were introduced and interpreted in the Chinese without their original music, thus Chinese Buddhists used Chinese music. Chinese Buddhist monks participation in services and ceremonies were underway in the temple, and the music was roughly classified into four categories:

1) The Buddhist memorial service, including morning and evening ,17 ten fasting18 days,19 six fasting days,20 announcing Vinaya21 and holding practice in every seven days.22

2) The Buddhist commemorating ceremonies, a Buddhist grand meeting for commemorating the Buddha’s birth, excellent training, and Buddhist days, such as

practices have shaped Chinese culture in the wide variety of areas, including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine, and material culture. Accessed October 31, 2017, http://www.chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Tibetan_Buddhism. 16 The Chinese religious system includes three main religions: , Buddhism, and Taoism. 17 Buddhist chant is a form of musical verse or incantation. In Buddhism, chanting is the traditional means of preparing the mind for meditation, especially as part of formal practice. Some forms of Buddhism also use chanting for ritualistic purposes. 18 Fasting is primarily a movement of willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast (dry fasting or respirationism) is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a defined period, usually a period of 24 hours, or a number of days. 19 The ten fasting days refers to the first, eighth, fourteenth, eighteenth, twenty-third, twenty-fourth, twenty-eighth, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth days of the lunar calendar. 20 The six fasting days refers to the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, twenty-third, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth days of the lunar calendar. Monks monthly meet together at these six days to do the . 21 is the regulatory framework for the or monastic community of Buddhism based on the canonical texts. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinaya. 22 Practice in every seven days refers to monks are called together to speak Buddhist Monastic discipline. If monks offended their discipline, they confess their sins at this time. 64

Buddha’s Birthday,23 Laba Festival,24 Nirvana Day.25

3) The Buddhist blessing and dispelling of adversity services, which are held for eliminating Karma26 and increasing Fu27 retribution, including Mercy Water Repentance

Assembly,28 ,29 Universal Buddhism ,30 and Fasting Puja.31

4) The Buddhist “Puji” Puja,32 which is organized for deceased people, such as the large-scale “Shuilu” Puja,33 and the Ulambana Festival.34

Chinese Buddhists used chants, reciting and singing literature, musical instrumental ensembles, and other kinds of the acoustic environment created by “sound-makers” to the temple,35 the result of the influence of on . In early days, Chinese

23 Buddha’s Birthday: the birthday of the Prince Siddhartha Gautama, a traditionally celebrated in Mahayana Buddhism. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday. 24 The Laba Festival is a traditional Chinese holiday celebrated on the eighth day of the La Month, the twelfth month of the Chinese calendar. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laba_Festival. 25 Nirvana Day is also known as Day, a Mahayana Buddhist holiday celebrated in East Asia. Some celebrates it on February eighth, but by most on the February fifteenth. It celebrates the day when the Buddha is said to have achieved Parinirvana, or complete Nirvana, upon the death of this physical body. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parinirvana_Day. 26 is a concept that explains causality through a system where beneficial effects are derived from past beneficial actions and harmful effects form past harmful actions, creating a system of actions and reactions throughout lives forming a cycle of . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma_in_Hinduism. 27 “Fu” meaning “fortune” or “good luck.” 28 The Mercy Water Repentance Dharma Assembly refers to lay Buddhists invite monks holding the altar to clean up their sins in their lives. 29 The Kumbh Mela is a Buddhist large fasting gathering, which is held for making friends with all people without any kinds of prejudging of noble or low-down, Buddhist or normal, wise or foolish. 30 Universal Buddhism Puja is a Buddhist activity, including two properties Buddhist activities 1) eliminate adversities, and 2) Rebirth. 31 Fasting Puja refers to Buddhist rituals, which is held from the 3:00 a.m. to the 9:00 a.m. These routines include a prepared fragrant flower, colored glaze lamp, , and other fruits for the Buddha. The entire activity is composed of 1) sweet dew to clean altar, 2) burned and hold the candle, 3) the fragrant flower to invite sages, 4) reading out “ ,” and 5) reading aloud Buddhist scripture and bestow food to pray happiness. 32 Puja is a prayer ritual performed by Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs, to host, honor, and worship one or more deities, or to spiritually celebrate an event. Sometimes it may honor or celebrate the presence of special guests, or their memories after they pass away. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism). 33 “Shuilu” Puja is large-scale Buddhist Puja including 1) read out Buddhist scripture and set up the vegetarian diet, 2) Buddhist services and confess sins, and 3) read Scripture to confess sins and souls from purgatory. Its purposes are 1) chasing the Bodhi for dead ancestors, 2) returning the merits and virtues to benefactors and their family dependents, and 3) succoring all living creatures in the six great divisions in the wheel of karma. 34 Festival is a Buddhist custom to honor the spirits of one’s ancestors. This Buddhist-Confucian custom has evolved into a family holiday during which people return to ancestral family places and visit and clean their ancestor’s graves, and when the spirits of ancestors are supposed to revisit the household altars. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon_Festival. 35 Sound-makers belong to the temple. These are composed of court musicians, artists of recited and sung literature, and musical membership belonging to the royal academy, local government, and military, when the precepts of temple were strict. When the temple doctrines are lax, some number of monks began studying music and transformed into musical monks, then became one part of sound makers belong to the temple. However, the concept of sound-makers 65

Buddhists temples had rigorous doctrines for prohibiting monks and nuns playing music. Therefore, records of Buddhist music at Chinese temples were represented by employed musicians and actors rather than by monks and nuns, this since the Northern Wei, Sui, and Tang dynasties (386

C.E.—907 C.E.).

Devoted emperors of several dynasties used their court musicians for Buddhist rituals.

Following the example of rulers, and officials at all levels, the Ministry of Ceremonies,36 the

Official of the Royal Academy,37 officials of all locality authorities and the army, also used sound-makers for Buddhist rituals. These sound-makers, like court musicians and folk music families, were employed to strike and such and to use their musical skills to create music for religious ceremonies. From the Tang Dynasty on, disciplines of Buddhist temples gradually became lax, temple sound-makers produced music for Buddhist rituals, or monks and nuns began to participate in such musical performances. Thus, Chinese Buddhists formed a close relationship with

Chinese secular music. The secular guchui ensemble38 used by folk music families became the source of ritual music of the .

The Buddhist ceremonial pieces of guchui are of two types: 1) sound-makers for music according to the ritual chanting of Buddhist scriptures, and 2) guchui music, familiarly secular music for Buddhist rituals directly. Melodies, or qupai,39 used for Buddhist ceremonies include

belonging to the temple mainly refers to non-monk musicians. 36 The Ministry of Ceremonies was one of the nine ministries, and also known as Grand Master of ceremonies, the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers, and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Ceremonies_(China). 37 The Royal Academy was the official school for music, dance, and theater in China between the Tang Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, lasting more than 1000 years. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_(China). 38 Guchui ensemble is also called the drumming-and-blowing ensemble, which has been used mainly in the northern Chinese wind-and-percussion ensemble, led mainly by the shawm or double-reed pipe. 39 Qupai is the generic term for a fixed melody used in traditional Chinese music. The literal meanings are “Named Tune,” “Labeled Melody,” “Titled Tune,” or “Titled Song.” A qupai is relatively brief, most comprising between 20 and 70 measures in 2/4 meter. Many qupai are centuries old, but only a few of these have been handed down to the 66

“Wannian Huan”《万年欢》, “’er Gao”《月儿高》, “Da Shanpoyang”《大山坡羊》, “

Shanpoyang”《小山坡羊》, “Fenhong ”《粉红莲》, “Baban”《八板》, “Lang Wa”

《狼吃娃》, “Gandong ”《赶动山》, “Ma Yulang”《骂渔郎》, “Da Zouma”《大走马》,

“Zhuma Ting”《驻马听》, “Qingtian ”《青天歌》, “Liuye Qing”《柳叶青》, “Gua Denger”

《挂灯儿》, and “Chao Zi”《朝天子》. Comparing to the folk guchui ensembles, the qupai of guchui ensembles have “Dama Yulang”《大骂玉郎》, “Baban”《八板》, “Wannian Huan”

《万年欢》, “Fenhong Lian”《粉红莲》, “Shanpoyang”《山坡羊》, “Liuye Qing”《柳叶青》,

“Qingtian Ge”《青天歌》, “Chao Tian Zi”《朝天子》, “Zhuma Ting”《驻马听》, “Yueer

Gao”《月儿高》, “Lang Chi Wa”《狼吃娃》. The qupai of Buddhist music and guchui ensembles have an intimate connection. Besides the qupai mentioned above, Buddhist music and guchui ensembles also use the same qupai as “Puanzhou”《普庵咒》, “Liuzizhenyan”《六字真言》,

“Qianshengfo”《千声佛》, “Zhenyan”《箴言》, “Wushengfo”《五圣佛》, “Xifangzan”

《西方赞》, and “Qianshoufo”《千手佛》.40

Chinese Buddhist temples quoted the qupai of secular music and employed folk performers and , but Buddhist ritual music developed other characteristics, for example, through the use of Sheng41 or ,42 replacing the Suona as the primary musical instrument of the guchui ensemble. Several Chinese Buddhist temples of the Chinese provinces used the Sheng as the lead wind instrument in ceremonial services. However, the Gansu, Anhui, and Hunan Provinces kept

present. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qupai. 40 Yang. “Yuhu yu Zongjiao Yinyue de ,” [Relationships between Music Family and Religious Music] Art of Music (Journal of the Conservatory of Music), (Summer 2002), pp.72-82. 41 The Sheng is a of the Han Chinese. It is especially prevalent in north and central-eastern China. The instrument is constructed of a bowl-shaped wind-chest of wood or metal (formerly of gourd), with a blow-pipe extending out from one side. Through the flat upper surface of the wind-chest, seventeen (or more) bamboo pipes are inserted in an incomplete circle. Accessed October 31, 2017, http://www2.ouk.edu.tw/yen/grove/Entries/S25623.htm. 42 The Guan is a double-reed pipe of the Han Chinese. It is used in ceremonial ensembles throughout northern China. 67

the Suona as the lead instrument of the ensembles and music with the Zhong (a bell),43 Large Drum,

Hand Drum, Nao, ,44 Singing Bowls,45 Large Zheng, Small Zheng,46 Zuoqing,47 Yunban, and

Muyu.48 The ceremonial ensemble played special qupai for Buddhist rituals, such as the “Pu’an

Mantra”《普庵咒》, “Rulai Buddha”《如来佛》, “Down to the Mundane”《下凡尘》, “Five

Buddhas”《五圣佛》, “Open Altar Suona”《开坛唢呐》, “ Tune”《观音调》, “Sihe

Kai Jingjuan”《四合开经卷》, “Mingyang Repent”《冥阳忏》. Additionally, the secular qupai were played together with the Buddhist qupai. These secular qupai are “Xiaotaohong”《小桃红》,

“Bangzhuangtai”《傍妆台》, “Yueyuehong”《月月红》, “Nanjingong”《南进宫》, “Shanpoyang”

《山坡羊》, “Wannianhuan”《万年欢》, and “Yizhimei”《一枝梅》.49

According to the character of the Buddhist ceremonial rituals, the Suona, and other musical instruments were endowed the new functions as ritual implements. These musical instruments possess the same function as the Buddhist ritual implements, such as the -peili,50

Dharmachakra,51 Luopan,52 ,53 Khakkhara,54 Buddhist bowl, and Buddhist prayer beads.55

43 Zhong is bronze bell of the Han Chinese, used mainly in ritual music. 44 Nao and Bo are pairs of small cymbals. 45 Singing bowls are a type of bell, specifically classified as a standing bell. Rather than hanging inverted or attached to a handle, singing bowls sit with the bottom surface resting, and the rim vibrates to produce sound characterized by a fundamental frequency and usually two audible harmonic overtones. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singing_bowl. 46 Large Zheng and Small Zheng is bronze bell of the Han Chinese, which have declined in usage over the centuries and are now found in museums only. 47 Zuoqing: a larger type of bell is a resonating bowl of hammered bronze, which rests on a cushion and is struck with a padded beater. 48 Muyu is used primarily to accompany Buddhist chant. 49 Liu Yong. Zhongguo Suona Yishu Yanjiu [Research on the Chinese Suona Art] (Shanghai: Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press, 2006), p. 112. 50 Bagua-peili is an eight corners mirror. According to the Chinese philosophical system of harmonizing everyone with the surrounding environment, Bagua-peili assists find the precise direction to inhabit. 51 is one of the of Indian religions such as , Buddhism, and Hinduism. It has represented the Buddhist dharma, ’s teaching of the path to Nirvana, since the time of early Buddhism. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmachakra. 52 The Luopan is a Chinese magnetic compass, also known as a compass. It is used by a Feng Shui practitioner to determine the precise direction of a structure or other item. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luopan. 53 The Dzi bead is a type of stone bead of uncertain origin worm as part of a and sometimes as a . In several Asian cultures, including that of Tibet, the bead is considered to provide positive spiritual benefit. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzi_bead. 54 The Khakkhara is a Buddhist ringed staff used primarily in prayer or as a that originates from India. 68

Because the Suona was considered to have double functions as musical instrument and Buddhist ritual implement, it was used for playing, contacting Buddha and souls of ancestors, praying for the blessings and protection from deities, and achieving the aspirations.

Tibetan Buddhism worship used music to accompany the chant of Buddhist Scriptures when Buddhism was introduced to Tibet in the seventh century. In the beginning, Tibetans used relatively simple melodies with percussion to strengthen the rhythm of recitation. In the seventh century, the Princess Wencheng56 of the Central Plain and King Songtsän Gampo57 of Tibet came into a heqin58 ( alliance), which boosted the cultural exchange between the Han ethic group and the ,59 and also influenced ideas and concepts of the Tibetan people. The

Princess Wencheng also brought the Suona into the Tibet region to accelerate the development of

Tibetan music. However, Tibetan Emperor Langdarma60 launched a movement to eradicate

Buddhism in 840 C.E., thus Tibetan Buddhist musical works were destroyed during this period.

Until the tenth century, Mahaguru,61 a translator of Sanskrit , disseminated

Buddhism and Buddhist music in Tibet, called the New School period of Tibetan Buddhism.

Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khakkhara. 55 Buddhist prayer beads are a traditional tool used to count the number of times a mantra is recited, breaths while meditating, counting prostrations, or the repetitions of a Buddha’s name. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_prayer_beads. 56 was “granted” by Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty to King Songtsän Gampo of Tibet for marriage, an involuntary actor of the emperor’s heqin (marriage alliance) policy. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Wencheng. 57 Songtsän Gampo was the founder of the , and is traditionally credited with the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet, influenced by his Nepali and Chinese queens, as well as being the unifier of what were previously several Tibetan kingdoms. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo. 58 Heqin or marriage alliance refers to the historical practice of Chinese emperors marrying princesses to rulers of neighboring states. It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state, which was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heqin. 59 The Tibetan people are an ethnic group native to Tibet. Significant Tibetan minorities also live outside what is now called the in China, and in India, Nepal, and . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_people. 60 The was the Tibetan Emperor who most likely reigned from 838 C.E. to 841 C.E. 61 The Mahaguru, also known as Mahaguru, was a principal lotsawa or translator of Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Tibetan during the second diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet (or the New Translation School or New Mantra School period). Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinchen_Zangpo. 69

The Suona was introduced into Tibet during this period and was called the Gyn- by Tibetans.

Tibetan Buddhist ensembles were mainly used for rituals of greeting and the invitation of the eminent monk, the Living Buddha, ,62 and .63 Although Tibetan Buddhist music was influenced by Chinese Buddhist music and absorbed a large number of source materials from Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhist ensembles mainly used Tibetan traditional musical instruments and a few characteristic musical instruments from the Central Plain, such as the

Gyn-Ling (or Suona). In the Tibetan Buddhist rituals, the Gya-Ling, as the primary melodic musical instrument, plays with the Dung-Chen (Tibetan Horn),64 Ling (short Tibetan Horn),65 Sil

Nyan and Bub (Cymbals),66 Choe-Nga (Ritual Drum),67 and Kar-Dung.68 The procedures of

Tibetan Buddhist rituals require: 1) two Gyn-Ling and two Long Copper horns for greeting; 2) two

Long Copper horns, two Gyn-Lings, two Kang Lings, a pair of Sil Nyan and Bubs, six drums for eulogizing, praying, chanting, and the Cham dance; and 3) the Gyn-Ling, Kang Ling, Sil Nyan and

Bub, and Choe-Nga are for inviting eminent monks, the Living Buddha, highly privileged guests,

Chams, and to protect and maintain the Buddha. Thus, the Gyn-Ling is used more creatively for

Tibetan than for Chinese Buddhist rituals.

The Gyn-Ling, as the mainly melodic musical instrument of Tibetan Buddhist ensembles,

62 Padmasambhava also know as , was an eighth century Indian Buddhist master He is known for helping in the of the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet, at . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padmasambhava. 63 Chams often depict incidents from the life of Padmasambhava, the ninth century Nyingmapa teacher, and other saints. 64 The Dung-Chen (Tibetan Horn) is a long trumpet or horn used in Tibetan Buddhist and Mongolian Buddhist ceremonies. It is the most widely used instrument in Tibetan Buddhist culture. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_horn. 65 The Kang Ling (short Tibetan Horn) is the Tibetan name for a trumpet or horn made out of a human femur, used in Tibetan Buddhism for various chöd rituals as well as funerals performed by a chöpa. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangling. 66 Sil Nyan and Bub (Cymbals) are two types of cymbals of the important ritual instruments use for both peaceful and wrathful ritual ceremonies. 67 The Choe-Nga (Ritual Drum) is used for both monastic rites of peaceful and wrathful deities along with other ritual instruments. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://www.namgyalmonastery.org/the-rituals/ritual-instruments/. 68 The Kar-Dung has survived as the original horn trumpet since time immemorial. 70

won warm praise from Tibetan people because of its sonorous tones, appropriate for the outdoor aesthetic of Tibetans, who live in the open environment, with much blue sky and white clouds; thus the musical style of this region fits a masculine, expansive resonance. Tibetan Buddhist music thus sounds perhaps more sonorous, healthy, and active than Chinese Buddhist music. The sonic feature of Gyn-Ling matches the taste of the Tibetan people, and is a complement to Tibetan religious music.69

The Gyn-Ling, also considered as a “Praiseful Buddhist ritual implements”70 is played for expounding Buddhist texts. Believers respond to its sonorities in conveying pious intentions higher and farther.

Music for Taoist Ritual

Taoists rituals accompanied by music also have a long-standing history up to today.

Before Taoism, much music was used for folk witchcraft, sorcerers singing and dancing to contact ghosts and deities. In the Eastern Han period, Taoists changed the preaching of Taoist Scripture to chanting. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Taoist music developed rapidly until the , whose imperial court set up the Yun’ Ministry71 for Taoist music. Following the example of the

Song Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty established the Shenyue Office devoted to music and dance for the

69 Chinese Buddhist music is more leisurely and mild because ideas and concepts of the Han ethnic people were influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism. Therefore, this music emphasizes the “Doctrine of the Mean,” which pursues the gentle and quiet to give the listener “no distractions.” 70 Tibetan Buddhist ritual implements include 1) Acclamatory Buddhist ritual implements (, Prayer beads, and ), used to acclaim Buddha; 2) Praiseful Buddhist ritual implements used for Buddhist ceremonials, religious festivals, Living Buddha Enthronement, Buddhist opening ceremonies, including bells, drums, cymbals, big cymbals, gongs, horns, copper , silver trumpets, and Suona; 3) Consecrative Buddhist ritual implements used for services, including Thurible, Chuangfan, baldachin, Keyūra, Hualong, besides the sacred basin, plate, Buddhist bowl, cup, and bowl; 4) Holdable and Examinable Buddhist ritual implements are used for resorting to magic arts, including Manzha plate, Vajra, and Dharmachakra; 5) Protective Buddhist ritual implements used for exorcising evil spirits, protecting, guardian spirit, and praying more happiness, including Ga’u, Mimi Fuyin; and 6) Prayerful Buddhist ritual implements, also called the Inducing Buddhist ritual implements, which are used for praying, including , , and Prayer . 71 Yun’ao Ministry (969 C.E.—976 C.E.) was established for Taoist music. 71

“imperial solemn ceremonies” of sacrifices to the gods and the ancestors. During the Qing

Dynasty, Taoist music was separated into two musical styles: the Zhengyi ’s musical style, pimarily folk music, ,72 and folk musical instrumental music; and the Quanzhen School inclined toward rigorous music.

In China, days of ceremonial rituals are distinct in diverse regions. The widespread and significant rituals days are 1) Sanyuan Festivals, 2) Samcheong Festivals, 3) Birthdays of Taoist deities, and 4) other festivals. On the occasion, Taoists also hold rituals of greeting Lingguan, Shuilu ceremonial rituals, Chaodou, memorial services, Bodhimaṇḍa, praying for rainfall, and praying for extended lifespan.

Similar to the Buddhist music, Taoist music is also closely related to the music of the

Ministry of Ceremonies and secular music. Moreover, both Taoism and Buddhism use a similar procedure of ceremonies: Taoist temples also employ the guchui ensembles for their ceremonial rituals. Both musics always use the same qupai to create music. These phenomena perhaps occur because China is not a unified society in terms of the state and religion. Therefore, the relationships among various religions are complicated. In some cases Taoism and Buddhism maintain their balance, sharing partial deities, and rely on each other to develop themselves; in others, they fight for positions in society and strive for secular devotees. They have complex, interwoven relationships, thus their religious ceremonies are similar, closely related to the social secular music, and influenced by the mainstream music directly to gain more followers. Besides, their distinguished philosophies of life were employed by rulers to dominate the people, so music used for religious rituals was also

72 Quyi is Chinese folk art forms, including ballad singing, story telling, comic dialogues, clapper talks, cross talks, etc. 72

impacted by court music.

For the Bodhimaṇḍa ceremony, Taoist priests wear a robe called the Drap d’Or, chant traditional melodies, accompanied by various Taoist musical instruments, and dance in the to conduct the Bodhimaṇḍa. The procedure of the Taoist Bodhimaṇḍa includes setting up the altar, preparing offerings, burning incense, burning Taoist priest’s drawing magical figures, chanting, preaching, eulogizing, and accompanying candle lights, Yu steps,73 and music is offered to the deities, praying for blessings and eliminating misfortunes. The Taoist Bodhimaṇḍa is divided into

Yang Bodhimaṇḍa,74 Yin Bodhimaṇḍa,75 and benefits for both Bodhimaṇḍa.76

Since the Qing Dynasty, the musical style of Zhengyi Tao tended toward folk songs, quyi, and folk music ensembles, so several qupai of Zhengyi Tao music come from guchui music, using the Suona as lead instrument for the Bodhimaṇḍa. The Suona is widespread and more commonly implemented in these musical ensembles than in the Quanzhen School, where it is more common as the lead instrument played in the Bohimaṇḍa of Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanzi, Hunan, , ,

Yunnan, and Anhui provinces.

In Taoist rituals conducted at the churches and Taoist temples, six to eight people chant

Scripture, and one person plays the Suona as the accompaniment. One to two Zhangtang Taoists host the Bodhimaṇḍa, eight to ten preach, read, or drum. Eight to ten people engage in rituals, two Suona players provide accompaniment, and two to four people host the services; others preach, read, read, or drum. Sometimes churches and Taoist temples are combined, which requires

73 Yu-step is one kind of step, which is used by Taoists during the Taoist ceremonial rituals. According to the Chinese , the Xiayu creates this step, from which it derives its name. 74 Yang Bodhimaṇḍa us held for the living person, given for eliminating misfortunes, praying for blessings, and extending longevity. 75 Yin Bodhimaṇḍa is held for the dead person, given for helping the soul of a man ascending to the Sukhavati (Western Paradise). 76 Benefits for both Bodhimaṇḍa holds for guarding the state and pacifying the people. 73

at least four people, one to play Suona, the other three to preach and read.77

Taoist ritual music is divided into three categories: qupai, jingyun,78 and pieces using and drum.79 These differ from Buddhist rituals music, although Taoist rituals also use the guchui ensemble as the accompaniment, employing the Sheng as the lead instrument. When the

Suona became accessible in the Central Plain, Taoists also started using it as the lead instrument for their rituals; several provinces still employ only Sheng or Di80 as the lead woodwind for the ensemble. Besides the Suona, Taoist groups were also equipped with drums, gongs, manggong, fa drum, fa bell,81 big cymbals, bo (indefinite-pitched cymbal),82 muyu (wood block),83 , (two stringed bowed instrument),84 (bowed ),85 and (a Chinese lute).86

During the Bohimaṇḍa, the leader of the ensemble holds the fa drum, fa bell, and manggong to manage the whole ritual. Besides the leader, there are two vice-Taoists, one playing the Suona, the other holding a cymbal, bo, or muyu while chanting. The percussion section the ensemble is known as the “upper band,” the part using silk and bamboo instruments is referred to as the “lower band,” every player on one instrument.

The Suona and the percussion are essential musical tools for the ritual groups. The qupai played by Suonas are “Zhenxiang Chuzhu”《真香初炷》, “Zhaoyi Chudu”《朝衣初度》, “Buxu”

77 Liu Yong, op. cit. p. 113. 78 Jingyun is the story-telling in Beijing . 79 Tunes of gong and drum are one kind of qupai, which are played by gong and drum. 80 Di is of the Han Chinese. Historically known by a variety of different names (e.g. hengchui, hengdi), the Chinese transverse flute is now generally known as di or . The di is constructed from various species of bamboo, such as ‘purple bamboo’ and ‘arrow bamboo.’ Accessed October 31, 2017, http://www2.ouk.edu.tw/yen/grove/Entries/S45368.htm. 81 Fa drum and fa bell are musical instruments used in a Buddhist or Taoist rituals. 82 Bo is one kind of cymbal. It is the instrument of percussion, normally of indefinite pitch, in the form of concave plates, each with a raised boss in the center. 83 Muyu also called wooden , one kind of wood block of the Han Chinese, used primarily to accompany religious chant. 84 The erhu is more specifically a spike . 85 The zhonghu is a low-pitched Chinese . Together with the erhu and , it is a member of the family. 86 Sanxian, or three-stringed fretless plucked musical instrument. 74

《步虚》, “Shanpouang” 《山坡羊》, “Gandongshan” 《感动山》, “Baban”《八板》, “Fenhonglian”

《粉红莲》, “Wannianhuan”《万年欢》, “Langchiwa”《狼吃娃》. Besides the qupai created for the

Bohimaṇḍa, the other qupai of secular guchui, Buddhist rituals, and Taoist rituals are commonly used.

Compared to the musical style of the Zhengyi Dao, that of the Quanzhen School tends to a strict manner, rarely using the Suona for its rituals, and only one branch (the Quanzhen

School-Longmen group) using the Suona for ceremonial services. The Longmen group is only employed for rituals of funeral and driving out evil spirits. The funeral arrangements are divided into two categories, one known as the quanshi, which lasts two days, with twelve Taoists participating the other referred to as the “one-day business,” with seven or eight Taoists participating. The quanshi arrange follows this procedure of events:

1) Opening Scripture, greeting deities, with ensemble playing, “Tanshijie”《叹世界》, and chanting the Scripture “Tanxiaojuan”《探孝娟》.

2) Opening services, which plays “Qingyansan”《青烟散》, “Shibao’en” 《十报恩》, the folk of “Langchiwa”《狼吃娃》, “Handongshan” 《撼动山》, and the traditional local opera performances.

3) Service for lifting the soul of the dead, including the ensemble playing “Daobinji”《刀

宾祭》, “Wuyinzan”《五音赞》, and chanting the Scripture for calling back the spirit of the dead.

4) Service for leading the dead souls cross the “golden bridge” and the “silver bridge,” and chanting the Scripture of driving the across the bridge.

5) Fireworks and feeding of the “starving ghosts.” 75

These five steps are completed on the first day, before the funeral day.

6) Greeting the Taoists, the ensemble plays “Daobinji”《刀宾祭》, “Hesiyi”《合四一》, and

“Shanpoyang”《山坡羊》.

7) Dancing, including the guchui group, which plays “Shigongyang”《十供养》, “Linlang

Zhenxiang”《琳琅真响》, “Huanglv Changyan”《黄绿尝筵》, and the music of “Shi’er Shengbo”

《十二声钹》, “Jiangjunling”《将军令》， played by percussion.

8) The kungfu Taoists perform a type of vaudeville, and the ensemble plays the folk music.

9) Beginning ceremonial service.

10) The memorial ceremony is held at the ancestral temple.

11) Seeing the Taoists off, the ensemble plays “Ganjiao”《赶脚》, “ Zhibu《巧

织布》, “Ge Jiucai”《割韭菜》, “Shiziqiang”《十字腔》, “The Flower”《一枝花》, and “Picking

Persimmons”《摘柿子》.

If the family chooses the one-day business, the ritual only includes Steps 6—11.

Conclusion

Islam and Buddhism, two major and universal religions, have expanded their belief system across geographic, political, and cultural boundaries. When their ideas arrived at the new areas, they experienced the process of integration, or localization. Islam adapted to the cultures of North Africa and West Africa; similarly, Buddhism also encountered and localized to Chinese culture. These two religious localizations have differed the manner of adaptation of the new regions. 76

Beginning in the seventh century, the seven countries and territories of North West Africa gradually were conquered by the Arab World who then Islamized the peoples there. Islamism as a dynamic culture thus spread to these cultural territories, and gained absolute advantage among them.

However, the Islamic religious system changed within these new cultural regions.

When Islam spread to West Africa, it appeared to fit in within a new culture region; inevitably the two heterogenous cultures encountered an absorption process. Also, the West African people held on to their traditional religious beliefs, and Islam confronted the question of how to convince West African people to accept a religion from foreign culture. The manners of Islamic localization in West Africa relied on the two-way exchange and transformation of two cultures to form a hybrid, or West African Islam, in a process of enculturation,87 a kind of superficial localization. The enculturation of Islam in West Africa meant that this religion still maintained its central and essential religious ideas; however, it was impacted by the West African local culture of celebrations. The status of Islam in North Africa was more than its status in West Africa.

Following the rules of Islam, the Islamic rituals of Maghreb did not use the Algaita and other instruments for ritual service. Therefore, the Algaita created by the Arabic culture was not used in Islamic memorials but was accepted in the relaxed Islamic festival settings and in life-cycle contexts. Furthermore, Algaita became a favorite by the West African people after localization, and was then used for their traditional religious ceremonies.

Indian-originated Buddhism also expanded, but to Chinese regions, experiencing cultural localization similar to the spread of Islam to West Africa. However, unlike the localization of Islam

87 “Enculturation is the process by which people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire values and behaviors appropriate or necessary in that culture.” In Joan E. Grusec, and Paul D. Hastings, ed. Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research, 2nd edition (Now York; London: Guilford, 2008), p. 547. 77

in West Africa, the localization of Buddhism in China was characterized by acculturation,88 a more deeply penetrating manner of localization. Chinese Buddhism was affected by the central and essential culture of China. Buddhism diffused into the Chinese latent culture, gaining the acceptance of the Chinese people. This localization obtained wider recognition through practical ways, for example, from the , custom, dress, adornment, music, and arts. The guchui music, which uses the ethnic Han Suona, was introduced into the Buddhist ceremonies, which resulted in the actual practice of Buddhism’s transcultural movement into China.

The Algaita and Suona were in religious rituals of both Buddhism and Taoism, in particular, the functional similarity because of their voice characteristics. But both also played a significant role as metaphysical agents, assisting people to get in touch with their dead deities as these instruments were used as vehicles for communicating thoughts.

88 “Acculturation explains the process of cultural change and psychological change that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both interacting cultures. At the group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture, customs, and social institutions. Noticeable group level effects of acculturation of include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the individual level, differences in the way individuals acculturate have been shown to be associated not just with changes in daily behavior, but with numerous measures of psychological and physical well-being. As enculturation is used to describe the process of first-culture learning, acculturation can be thought of as second-culture learning.” In “Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian History: A View from the First Cataract Region” in Origini: Prehistory and Protohistory of Ancient Civilizations, XXXVI (Gangemi Editore, 2014), p. 97. 78

CHAPTER VI

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE AFRICAN ALGAITA AND THE CHINESE SUONA

After a long process of acculturation and development of new functions on the African continent, the Algaita became a significant part of West African culture. The Suona, with the same genesis of Algaita, also developed new functions in its new cultural context after its introduction into China during the Yuan Dynasty, thriving and very popular until the Ming and Qing dynasties.

In this chapter I discuss the social functions of the two instruments in separate sections.

Social Functions of the Algaita

As described in chapter I, when the single-pipe, double-reed aerophone was first brought to North Africa, then to Greater Maghreb, it was first time introduced to the royal court by the

Islamic musicians. Its function as a representative symbol of the royal court has been retained in the

Greater Maghreb region, especially in the Moroccan royal court. Within Moroccan music, the gaita

(ghayta) as a melodic instrument was usually played by male specialists. These professionals, esteemed with their greater technical ability, perform for the emir, upper-class audiences, and people with economic standing.

After the Algaita was introduced to the countries of West Africa, it was primarily accepted by business people and some rulers of the commercial center; thus its associations with the ruling class. Within the West African music, the Algaita served the royal court in four ways: playing solo, in ensemble, in the court orchestra, and in public processions. The Algaita played solo with singing 79

and praise-words for the emirs, who were patrons of this music. These instrumental roles are familiar in Kano,1 Nigeria.

Unlike solo Algaita, the instrument as part of an ensemble was more common and associated with traditional rulers. In the ensemble the Algaita primarily played with the kakaki (long metal trumpet) and ganga (the double-headed cylindrical drum). This group also performed praise-epithets in the courts of chiefs and local dignitaries.

The Algaita was used similarly in the court orchestra of chiefs, with kakaki and ganga, but two Algaita in the orchestra. This kind of performance is prevalent in eastern Nigeria, especially in the kingdoms of Bornu2 and Toungo.3 Besides the above three functions, the Algaita was used in the processions of chiefs either with a pair of ganguna4 or together with a horn and ganguna.5 This function was seen in the Sokoto,6 Nigeria.

In the West Africa, the Algaita simultaneously functions as an instrument communicating in a surrogate language, based on the particular definition of African peoples for the music (sounds).

The scholar Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia observes these sounds as used for communication, and based on sounds produced by the musical instruments themselves. Such sounds are categorized in two ways: 1) as signals which elicit behavior when interpreted as call signals, warning or alarm signals, and 2) as sounds giving the aural impression of speech when ordered in specific ways,

1 Kano is the state capital of Kano State in northwest Nigeria. The principal inhabitants of the city are the . 2 The kingdom of Bornu (1380 C.E.—1893 C.E.) was a state of what is now northeastern Nigeria, incorporating areas that are today parts of Chad, Niger, and Cameroon. 3 Toungo is a town and local government area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Adamawa is a state in northeastern Nigeria, with its capital in Yola. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamawa_State. 4 “Ganguna” is the plural of ganga drum, most generally used in Hausaland. 5 P. G. Harris. “Notes and Musical Instruments Seen in Sokoto Province, Nigeria,” in The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 62 (Jan. – Jun., 1932), p. 111. 6 Sokoto is a city located in the extreme northwest of Nigeria, near the confluence of the Sokoto River and the Rima River. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokoto. 80

therefore, used for conveying messages.7

Certain musical instruments produce sounds regarded universally as all signals, warnings, or alarms. For example, the Tibetan long horn Dung-Chen, which is always played to sound an alarm, to signal an attack, relies on its characteristics of loud, clear, and melodious sonorities that can transmit a great distance. Moreover, the Chinese bell—also called the big bell, or Buddhist bell—is an essential implement in the Buddhist temple, functioning as a signal for monks to gather together.

African instruments produce sounds that give the aural impression of speech, thus at times are used for conveying messages. These instruments are played as speaking language, “talking” to the listeners rather than solely creating music. In West Africa, such instruments used for different forms of communication that include: 1) aerophones, such as the Algaita, lutes, trumpets, and (to which one may add whistling with the lips), 2) or drums with parchment heads, and 3) , such as the slit gong (sometimes referred to in the literature as the slit drum) and double bells.8

The surrogate language function of these instruments developed in West Africa because of the dual characters, syllable and tone, of the West African language. Words of West African languages comprise several syllables, which determine the tempo of beats and pauses on percussive instruments, the surrogate language. The West African grammatical categories are: 1) the vowels (V)

/a, e, i, o, ε, ɔ, u/; 2) consonants (C) /p, b, t, d, k, g, r, h/; and 3) nasal sound (N) /m, n/. Words composed of these basic elements correspond to the following rhythms:

7 Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia. “Surrogate ,” in Current Trends in Linguistics edited by Thomas Albert Sebeok, Vol. VII (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), p. 700. 8 Idem. 81

a) The vowel (V; any vowel that does not form part of a consonant and vowel (CV) structure and which is a tone bearing unit), the nasal (N), and the open syllable consisting of a CV,9 which correspond with the single short beat /♪♫/ in the music notation.

b) The combination of the double vowel (VV) /ie, ia, ea, eε, oɔ, iu/, which corresponds with the rhythmic pattern is /♫/.

c) Words including V + C + VV correspond with the rhythmic pattern that is /♪♫/. For example, in the , ɔwea ‘civet cat’ is realized as /♪♫/.

d) Words are composed of CV + NV or CV + RV, played as /♪ ♪/. For example, the words mene ‘throat’ and tire ‘head’ are represented as /♪ ♪/ in the Akan language.

e) Words containing /r/, which are typically written without a preceding vowel, are treated in the same manner to the CV + RV, corresponding with the rhythmic pattern as /♪ ♪/. For example, the word pra ‘sweep’ is treated as /♪ ♪/ as well.

f) Junctures of V + V, V + N, and N + V are frequently processed in the same manner as double beats like /♪ ♪/. For example, the connected parts of meyan⌒atumpan⌒a ‘When I drum’ are played as /♪ ♪/.

g) The juncture of two words with similar vowels, where one’s ending and the other’s beginning, is treated as double strokes as /♪ ♪/. For example, the word asa⌒ase is played as /♪ ♪/, to link the last ‘a’ of the first word with the first ‘a’ of the next.

According with the elementary principles of the language and beat, musical instruments play the beats (rhythm) that correspond to the linguistic syllables. Further, musical instruments

9 Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia, op. cit., p. 715. 82

qualified to communicate in the surrogate language must match the tones of language. In the West

Africa, tones of vernacular (national) languages are loosely classified as high ( ＇), low (｀ ), falling

(or middle) (＾), and rising (ˇ). For example, 1) the of has high and low (two tones), and the Yoruba has high, middle, and low (three tones); 2) the Ga, Dagbani of Ghana have high and low (two tones), the Dangme of Ghana has high, middle, and low (three tones), and the

Ewe has high, rising, and low (three tones); 3) the Hausa of Niger has high, falling, and low (three tones), and the Zarma has high, rising, and falling (four tones); and 4) the Hausa of Nigeria has high, falling, and low (three tones) and the Yoruba of Nigeria has high, middle, and low (three tones).10

Nketia clarifies tones into words of interpretation, which divides words into three categories:

a) Monosyllabic words composed of high or low tones, such as owó (‘money’) and ọjà

(‘market’) in the Yoruba language, on the membranophones or drums are similarly high or low tones of musical language. Melodic instruments create pitches that, following the high or low tones of language, also present connections of words accurately by melodic movement up or down.

b) Dissyllabic stems made up of high—high, high—low, low—high, or low—low tones, follow tonal patterns: [H, H (ˉˉ)], [H, L (ˉ_)], [L, H (_ˉ)], or [L, L (_ _)]. For example, olówó means

‘a wealthy person,’ kúrò means ‘leave,’ ìyá means ‘mother,’ and bàtà means ‘shoe’ in the Yoruba language. These syllabic patterns played on musical instruments convey messages as surrogate language.

c) Polysyllabic combinations of nominals are infinite in variety. For instance, 1) bèrèmpɔ̀ ń

10 See also Kazadi wa Mukuna. “Creative Practice in African Music: New Perspectives in the Scrutiny of Africanisms in Diaspora.” Research Journal 17 (2), 1997, pp. 239-250. 83

‘nobleman,’ kɔ́ tɔ́ kórɔ́ ‘curved stick,’ and ɔ̀ déáfòɔ́ ‘witch’ in the Akan language; 2) ọ́ khọ́ khọ̀ ‘fowl,’

á-tuàbé ‘quick’ in the . The membranophones or drums play high or low tones, and pitches are chosen as well as melodies, organized based on their linguistic meaning.11

The above discussion shows how tones are applied in West African national languages and how the changing of tones impacts the meaning of words; the West African languages are different from languages that depend on the evolution of accents of words to modify meanings of sentences. In short, even if a West African vernacular word is spelled the same, the tones changing means the definition will be modified. For instances, in the language:

1) ōnkō is played on tones of [ ˉ ˉ ] (H—H), transmittable to the meaning of ‘let him go,’ or ‘he should go’; however, if these sounds are played as [ _ ˉ ] (L—H), the meaning might be altered to ‘he does not go,’ or ‘he should not go’; Further, while the pattern is played as [ – _ ˉ ]

(M—L—H), its meaning might be transformed to ‘he will not go.’

2) In the Twi language, daadeē is played on tones as [ _ ˉ ] (L—H), which means ‘iron’; however, if it is played as [ ˉ _ ] (H—L), it refers to a large tree.

3) Also in the Twi language, ōbōfoō is played as [ _ _ ˉ ] (L—L—H), which denotes

‘hunter’; however, the tones played to [ _ ˉ _ ] (L—H—L), refers to ‘messenger.’12

While West African musical instruments are played to surrogate language, they create the

“music” as a synthesis of tones and syllables. The music here refers to “messages and speeches” to listeners familiar with West African cultures. For instance, in the , musical instruments play the Mē wō ayaa do rhythmic line as /♪ ♪ ♪ ♩♩♩♩/ and the tones of [ _ _ _ ˉ ]

11 Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia, op. cit., pp. 719-721. 12 Victor Kofi Agawu. “The Rhythmic Structure of West African Music,” in The Journal of Musicoogy, Vol. 5, no. 3 (Summer, 1987), p. 405. 84

(L—L—L—H), which convey the message ‘I have worked for nothing.’ However, when musical instruments play the Mēwōō ayaa do rhythmic line as /♪♩♩ ♪ ♩♩ / and the tones of [ _ _ _ ˉ ]

(L—L—L—H), the meaning of the “speaking” message becomes ‘I work for nothing.’ The small alterations of rhythms and tones will convey various senses in the message. The following example, using an Yoruba incantation chant, indicate the practical application of tones and syllables in a musical work:

O lo ri i -- gho o o mid high high mid -- high low low O so i- le e tun mi e e mid high mid high mid high mid mid mid mid A je i- le e tun mi se se low high mid high mid high mid mid mid Ti ’gi t’o pe sa a nu a fo mid mid low low high low high high low low E da kun e sa a nu mi o. mid high mid mid low high high mid mid.

The Algaita has enough tones to perform tones and syllables in a surrogate language, and can also play glides, or pitches representing falling and rising tones of the spoken language, which are difficult to express by one-tone or two-tone instruments, e.g., membranophones. When the

Algaita emulates the tones of language, the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger of the left hand play medium, high, and extra-high tones, for example, F#, A, B with right-hand ring finger playing the low tone B. In particular, the left hand playing three tones [F#, A, B] indicates the high tones of the language／ , the triplet figure in the motive [F#, A, F#, E, D] indicates the falling tone of language＾ , and the three tones [F#, E, D] indicate the low tones (＼) 85

or . These changes of tones and their long and short syllabic quantities express unverbalized text.

Figure 14. Hausa traditional Algaita music “Malleeri.”13Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r9SOZ3Y50pg. (Traditional Algaita player, Abubakar Shehu Abubakar performs on Friday, June 6, 2014.)

Aside from its solo “speaking” the Algaita can also play together with ganga drum or other rhythmic instruments as an ensemble in speaking messages. The Algaita’s function of speaking in the surrogate language is demonstrated in its role for royal court music where it transmits various and eulogies for notable chiefs and emirs, and sometimes both sings and plays greetings or praiseful words associated to his patrons. It not only speaks words of fulsome praise to living notable individuals, but also delivers texts of invocations, prayers, and eulogies to ancestor chiefs; the West Africans believe these ancestors know how to interpret them.14 Below I discuss how the Algaita is used in religious celebratory or memorial festivals:

First, Sufism is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam. Practitioners of Sufism

13 Jason John Squinobal. “West African Music in the Music of Art Blakey, Yusef Lateef, and Randy Weston” (Doctor’s dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 2007), p. 279. 14 Surrogate language replaced by spoken speeches is not a one-to-one correspondence, which is the force and significance of what is communicated. Thus, this kind of instrumental systems of communication may be brief or extended versions of the original message. This system needs listeners to understand its rules. If audiences must be trained to understand the meaning of messages surrogated by instrumental music. 86

often belong to different ṭarīqah,15 the term for a school or “order” of Sufism. Sufis emphasize spiritual development, so follow a Sheikh,16 and meet at Zawiya17 for weekly supererogatory divine liturgies, such as Haḍra,18 Dhikr,19 Majlis,20 and Halaqa.21,22

Sufism generally welcomes music as Sufis view music as spiritual messages, the vehicle for contact with the supererogatory. Membranophone and aerophones (Algaita and other reed ) are regularly favored; other musical instruments are used as is usual.

Second, the Algaita is used for the Swam and ’Eid al-Fitr, one of the Five Pillars of

Islam23 fasting in the month of Ramadan.24 This event is included within two principal festival contexts containing musical performances in mornings and evenings.25 Ramadan, occurring in the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, is a time of spiritual reflection, improvement, and increased devotion and worship. Muslims are expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam, by way of Sawm, to commemorate the first revelation of the Qur’an to Muhammad, which begins at

15 Tarīqah is especially used for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking Haqīqah, which translates as ‘ultimate truth.’ 16 Sheikh is commonly designates the ruler of a tribe, who inherited the title from his father. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh. 17 Zawiya is an Islamic religious school or monastery. The term is Maghrebi and West African, roughly corresponding to the Eastern term Madrasa. A zawiya often contains a pool, and sometimes a fountain. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_(institution). 18 Haḍra is a collective supererogatory ritual performed by Sufi orders. It is often held on Thursday evenings after the nigh prayer, on Fridays after jumu’ah prayer or on Sunday evenings, and can also celebrated on special Islamic festivals and at rites of passage. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haḍra. 19 Dhikr is the name of devotional acts in Islam in which short phrases or prayers are repeatedly recited silently within the mind or aloud. A person who recites the rosary is called a dākir. Most Sufis follow this practice of Dhikr although the word being recited varies. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr. 20 Majlis is an Arabic term meaning ‘a palace of sitting,’ used in the context of ‘council,’ to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups be it administrative, social, or religious in countries with linguistic or cultural connections to Islamic countries. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majlis. 21 Halaqa is a religious gathering or meeting for the study of Islam and the Qur’an. Generally, there are one or more primary speakers that present the designated topics of the halaqa while others sit down and listen. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halaqa. 22 Michael Frishkopf. “ ‘Islamic Music in Africa’ as a Tool for African Studies,” in Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 42, no. 2/3, (2008), p. 495. 23 The Five Pillars of Islam are five basic acts in Islam, Shahada (Faith), Salat (Prayer), Zakāt (Charity), Sawm (Fasting), and Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca), considered mandatory by believers and are the foundation of Muslim life. 24 Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting to commemorate the first revelation of the Qur’an to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The month lasts 29-30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan. 25 Michael Frishkopf, op. cit., p. 490. 87

dawn and ends at sunset.

The performances in evening contexts happen during the last ten nights of Ramadan, highlighting the vocal recitation of prayers. Occasionally, the chanting praises are accompanied by beating the drum. The Algaita (oboe) and nfir (trumpet) are always used for morning rituals, when performers rouse the devout for suhūr26 (their pre-dawn meal).27 The Algaita and nfir are responsible for the melody, based on religious chants from mosques prevalent in Marrakech,28

Morocco.29 Further to the west of Africa, the Islamic festival uses more liberty, is more easily influenced by local traditional music, and absorbs pre-Islamic practices. In Ghana and Nigeria, aerophones and membranophones are used to accompany faithful chanting in the morning contexts of Swam.

The extremely free religious festival ’Eid al-Fitr, or Festival of Breaking the Fast, is an important religious holiday that marks the end of Islamic holy month of Swam. The Eid is the first and only day in the month of Shawwāl,30 during which Muslims are not permitted to fast. The festival day celebrates the conclusion of the twenty-nine or thirty days of dawn-to-sunset fasting during the entire month of Ramadan. The ’Eid al-Fitr, liturgically centered on supererogatory prayers – Salat al-’Eid,31 is sanctioned by the Prophetic Hadith.32,33 The form of celebration is not

26 Suhūr is an Islamic term referring to the meal consumed early in the morning by Muslims before fasting, sawm, before dawn during or outside the Islamic month of Ramadan. The meal is eaten before fajr prayer. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhur. 26 Michael Frishkopf, op. cit., p. 490. 27 Idem. 28 is a major the Kingdom of Morocco. Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural, religious, and trading center for the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa. 29 Idem. 30 Shawwāl is the tenth month of the lunar Islamic calendar. Shawwāl means to ‘lift or carry;’ so named because a female camel normally would be carrying a fetus at this time of year. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawwal. 31 Salat al-’Eid, also known as Eid prayers, is the special prayer offered to commemorate two Islamic festivals. The two Islamic festivals are: ’Eid al-Fitr, and ’Eid al-Adha. 32 Hadith is one of various reports describing the words, actions, or habits of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The term comes from Arabic meaning a “report,” “account,” or “narrative.” Accessed October 31, 2017, 88

fixed to rigorous Arabic texts, so ’Eid al-Fitr generously absorbs a great quantity of African, especially the West African, performance styles. The instruments used for ’Eid al-Fitr include praise singing, drums, horns, Algaita, trumpets, bells, and rattles, and performances are based on local music.

Third, the Algaita is used for the Hajj and ’Eid al-Adha. Similarly belonging to Ramadan, the larger Islamic celebration is Hajj. Hajj, another of the Five Pillars of Islam or the annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, is the largest annual gathering of people in the world. Hajj means “to intend a journey,” which connotes both the outward act of a trip and the inward act of making intentions.

During Hajj, pilgrims join the procession of hundreds of thousands of people, who simultaneously converge on Mecca for the week of the Hajj, and perform a series of rituals. Everyone walks counter-clockwise seven times around the Ka’aba,34 runs back and forth between the hills of

Al-Safa and Al-Marwah,35 drinks from the Zamzam Well,36 goes to the plains of Mount Arafat37 to stand in vigil, spends a night in the plain of Muzdalifa, and performs symbolic stoning of the devil,38 throwing stones at three pillars. Then the pilgrims shave their heads, perform a ritual of animal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith. 33 Michael Frishkopf, op. cit., p. 493. 34 Ka’aba is a building at the center of Islam’s most sacred mosque, Al-Masjid al-Haram, in Mecca, al-Hejaz, Saudi Arabia. It is considered the “House of Allah” and has a similar role to the Tabernacle and Holy of Holies in Judaism. Wherever they are in the world, Muslims are expected to face the Ka’aba when performing Salāt (Prayer). 35 Al-Safa and Al-Marwah are two small hills now located in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia between which Muslims travel back and forth seven times during the ritual of Hajj and Umrah. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safa_and_Marwa. 36 The Zamzam Well is located within the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, sixty-six feet east of the Ka’aba, the holiest place in Islam. Millions of pilgrims visit the well each year while performing the Hajj or Umrah pilgrimages, in order to drink its water. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamzam_Well. 37 Mount Arafat is a granite hill east of Mecca on the plain of Arafat, which is about twelve miles southeast of Mecca. It reaches about 230 feet in height and is also known as the Mount of Mercy. According to Islamic tradition, the hill is where the Islamic prophet Muhammad stood and delivered the Farewell Sermon to the Muslims who had accompanied him for the Hajj towards the end of his life. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Arafat. 38 Stoning of the Devil is part of the annual Islamic Hajj pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. It is one of a series of ritual acts that must be performed in the Hajj. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoning_of_the_Devil. 89

sacrifice, and celebrate the three-day global festival of ’Eid al-Adha.39,40

The annual celebration of Hajj is held in West Africa, the embarkation and return of pilgrims always accompanied by singing of songs. The festival contexts, ’Eid al-Adha, always use instrumental performance, a similar characteristic celebration as the above mentioned ’Eid al-Fitr, marking the end of the sacrifice of Hajj. Traditional African instruments—Algaita, drums, trumpets, bells, horns, and rattles—are allowed to mix within the festival performances.

Aside from celebrating Islamic cultural festivals Africans celebrate their own ceremonies and festivals without restraint. All musical instruments are used to express joy and show good wishes for the future. The Algaita has a significant role in these activities, which I discuss further below.

The African festivals and ceremonies, established by these peoples through long social practice, are held at specially designated time. During these periods, people gather together to express the commemoration and cherished desire for special events, special people, or supernatural events. Sometimes, the activities are held to show the passion of production, life, politics, culture, and religion. African festivals and ceremonies divided loosely into three types:

1) New Year. The New Year brings new hope and Africans have their specific ways of celebrating. Regions differ in their celebrating contexts, but all celebrate from the eve of the New

Year. The new year celebration lasts through the night till dawn, with people surrounding campfire, singing happy songs, playing melodic and rhythmic instruments, and dancing to express their joy

39 ’Eid al-Adha is the second of two Muslim holidays, and considered the holier of the two, with the meaning “solemn festival.” Like ’Eid al-Fitr, ’Eid al-Adha begins with a prayer of two rakats followed by a sermon. ’Eid al-Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj, the pilgrims performing the Hajj, from Mount Arafat, a hill east of Mecca. ’Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the thirteenth day of Dhu al-Hijjah. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eid_al-Adha. 40 Francis Edwards Peters. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places (Princeton, New : Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 3-19. 90

and desire for good luck in the next year.

2) Agricultural practices. For a long time, Africa’s main modes of production were hunting, gathering, farming, and tending . These modes of production allow them to know the natural environment, seasonal changes, as well as animal and plant growth patterns. They also are aware of several natural disasters beyond their control, thus they can only let these forces

“manipulate” or “bestow.” Consequently, they have learned to set distinct seasons, as they desire that brings the best . People gather together during the agricultural seasons to give thanks to the supernatural powers that bestow the blessings, and set up corresponding festivals to express gratitude. These festivals include ones for sowing, harvesting, and .

Africans engaged in farming pay close attention to the sowing festival day, which reminds all that the season has come and the planting has started, will hopes that the village will have a bumper harvest. People generally are entertained by happy dances, the melodic Algaita and rhythmic drums accompanying the dances to celebrate a festival expressing their belief in a good future harvest. After the carnival celebration, farmers begin to go to the fields.

After planting, the farmers work hard toward the harvest. After reaping, in order to demonstrate their elevated mood and giving thanks for the blessing care, they host the harvest festival to celebrate, enshrine and worship sacrifices to show respect for Heaven’s gifts. The celebration is often chaired by chiefs. The cattle and sheep are consecrated with thanks to Heaven, which provides the beautiful weather for the as well as enough food and clothing. After slaughtering cattle and sheep, chiefs spill the blood of the livestock on the ground, enriching it to prepare for the next year’s harvest. After these steps, the people share beef and lamb, and make 91

campfires. This celebration lasts three days.

Besides the agricultural planting, there is fishing and hunting. People, who rely on fishing for their livelihood, set up the fishing festival to celebrate and pray for a good harvest. They believe that sacrificial rituals are necessary before the start of the fishing season. On the fishing festival day, chicken, sheep, and the first-caught fish are killed in a sacrificial ritual. The routine is managed by the chief, which includes a fishing competition where whoever catches the biggest fish is the champion. After the contest, the official fishing season begins. Musical performances are used in this whole process of ritual to create a buoyant atmosphere and to stimulate the spirit of competition.

3) Traditional religious practices. As mentioned earlier, when West Africans were forced to adopt Islam, the ensuing process of localization included Islamic festival ceremonies, which absorbed African indigenous cultural elements. Therefore, West African original religious celebrations were preserved, and West Africans continued to celebrate by their old .

African traditional religious festivals included celebrating and worshipping gods and supernatural power, for example, to provide happiness and good fortune and to dispel disasters. Tribes held grand celebrations for their gods, offering the best sacrifices, and also by praying for blessings of gods and ancestors.

The Algaita plays a significant role in these life-cycle celebrations in which both African

Muslims and non-Muslims are similar. Muslims hold fewer constraints in attitude about using music in these settings; life-cycle celebrating reflects Islamic localization of the moral principles and customs of West Africa. Thus, these ceremonies use a variety of musical genres and musical features, resulting in complex convergences, synergies, and syncretism between Islamic styles and 92

West African national ones.41

Characteristics of African music include those that inspire social interaction and popularity, thus music accompanies almost every moment of life, and the life-cycle is accompanied by music because of customs. Every critical time of life, such as maternity, marriage, and funeral, must have music, and the Algaita plays significant roles in all of these key moments.

The first important moment in life is birth, and a ceremony is held for this occasion.

Africans have their unique ideas and customs concerning their . This concept is directly related to their living environment, marriage system, religious concept, and productivity. If they fail to produce enough, more children are required. At the same time, if the lack of necessary medical care or the death rate of infants is increased, they also need more children. In Africa, more children, especially more sons, symbolize wealth and prestige.

A few days after the birth of newborns, usually seven days, a ceremony is held for the newborn. The most respected elder in the area gives the name to the baby, which symbolizes the child’s welcome into the community. In Africa, a variety of methods for giving the name are used, such as using names of ancestors, or seeking a name from the gods. After the naming, people go to pray, pouring the Kaoliang liquor on the ground to worship their ancestors and the gods of the land.

The child is embraced to recognize the graves of ancestors, especially the child’s, who, if she takes the name of an ancestor, must visit and identify the ancestor’s grave. Musicians will play aerophones, membranophones, idiophones, and sing a song in this process to convey blessings and express happiness in the newborn for the host family.

41 Michael Frishkopf, op. cit., p. 494. 93

Once the child is mature, marriage becomes another important moment. Different marriage concepts, values, and aesthetics of the various tribes in Africa, and the marriage customs of various socials and different tribes in different times are not the same. There are three main types of marriage in Africa: monogamous, polygamous, and polyandrous. forms the majority classes across the African continent, and and share the minority. Polygamy is more widespread because every family needs more workforces in African society; so marrying more women means more children, and more wealth created, and higher prestige in the community. Thus, the number of wives a man has becomes a sign of his wealth.

Before marriage, dance is the most common form of courtship. The Algaita as the melodic instrument is played with rhythmic drums to accompany the dance, which makes it more brilliant and likely to result in courtship. Also, tattoo, prey, and ornament are attractive objects to the opposite sex. A successful courtship to marriage. Then, the male will give betrothal presents the female, including cattle, sheep, and chickens, also including clothes and various decorations and jewelry, or camels in some areas. In short, these gifts amount to a bride-price; the male should, according to the particular circumstances of his family, give the best possible betrothal gifts to the female.

The wedding usually lasts seven days or even longer, day and night. On the marriage day, the man’s primary family members, the Algaita player, and drummers comprise the group of the bridegroom who go to bride’s to escort her to the wedding. This group sings and dances all the way to accompany the bride back to the home of the bridegroom. Then music will be played for the newly married for seven days, which signals the woman’s move from her paternal home to her 94

husband’s.

Africans pay much attention to the funeral, the last critical rituals of the life-cycle and the most complicated, time-consuming, and costly. They think highly of the funeral, based on the

African concept of the soul. They believe that they live because their spirit lives within the body, but if it leaves the body, they will get sick or die. The complicated funeral process is to bring the soul to the rest, and let the member leave the community to join the world of the spirits.

After death, members of the host family deliver the news to the relatives and their neighbors. The process of giving an obituary notice includes playing drums, Algaita, and other trumpets, as well as loud shouting and crying, with a variety of strong voices to give notice of the death. When people hear instruments producing the distressed and aggrieved sung melodies, they go to pay their last respects to the deceased, one after another. The funeral ritual lasts several days, sometimes three days or four days. During this time, people sing mourning songs with melodies played by aerophones (Algaita and other trumpets) and membranophones.

The last step of funeral ritual is the burial, which has five types: 1) burial in the soil; 2)

“heavenly burial,” where the body is exposed to the open air and eventually decomposes, then goes to heaven; 3) the body laid in a hollow tree, called a “live tree burial,” 4) cremation; and 5) water burial. For burying the deceased, singers sing mourning songs, and aerophones, as well as membranophones, play sorrowful tunes.

The Algaita also plays a particular role for cleansing and chasing away bad spirits, because Africans believe that the varieties of sounds produced by this instrument possess mystical powers. These sounds are recognized as comprising a metaphysical agent and as a creative force to 95

construct a bridge between humans and spirits. Different than conventional Western composers, who might begin a piece with a theme, then develop it into a more elaborate work, African traditional musicians create their performances, often spontaneously by studying the psychological situations of the environment in which they are performing.42

The Algaita and other instruments also function as a form of traditional therapy in Africa.

Among African societies, people usually consider diseases as caused by bad thoughts or spirits.

Sickness, and even the death are also considered caused by the force of an evil spirit. Death, then, has four causes: 1) witchcraft or sorcery, 2) incantation, 3) the soul of a deceased person, and 4) the gods. The concepts of illness and death have great influence, so when Africans get sick they seek treatments from a witch doctor or herbalist.

Witch doctors are the clerics of the traditional African religions, and also the physicians, treating the patient with witchcraft. They possess rich and varied knowledge of biology, pharmacology, and psychology, so the therapy includes scientific compositions. Treatment of patients includes finding the “evil spirit” first, which they believe gives the patient misfortune. This evil spirit is caught to rid it of its power and to provide the psychological relief. Every word and movement of the doctor has a therapeutic effect. The psychological effects assist patients to overcome a serious illness, which has an irreplaceable role of medicines. Although these kinds of treatments might be difficult to understand by other cultures, they are said to cure patients.

Traditional African instruments are used in the course of the witch-doctor treatment, performing polyrhythmic, percussive, and pentatonic pieces, centering a spiritual therapy through

42 Ademola Adegbite. “The Concept of Sound in Traditional African Religious Music,” in Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 22, no. 1 (Sep., 1991), p. 52. 96

exorcism. The Algaita and kakaki play melodic patterns, and drums play rhythmic patterns, associated with particular spirits, to assist in dispelling evil spirits said to be occupying the patients.

These models invoke and placate corresponding spirits and thus constituting diagnosis and therapy.43

The Algaita is used for the above activities as , all invoking gods, spiritual sustenance, for the ruling and upper classes; however, these uses have less relation to the localized secular usage or those of the Islamic and Western African religious festivals, and life-cycle celebration contexts.

The Algaita is also used for the secular music of instrumental dance ensembles, with and drums in Northeastern Nigeria, or with the Gbande drum44 for the performance of the Swange dance of the Tiv and Hausa people. The function of Algaita in Swange dance music is to produce beautiful, sweet sounds capable of assuaging the musical thirst of the human soul. When it is played, the Algaita’s tones are said to ascend in an ambrosial essence that disarms anger, softens asperity, and persuades the inimical spirit humans into dreamy silence, rejuvenating a redolence of integrity.45 Another function of the Algaita in Swange dance is to reflect the meaning of the whole dance as public secularity and entertainment, because the dance is a form of urban recreational dance where men and women dance together.46

Algaita Pedagogy and Status of Players

43 Michael Frishkopf, op. cit., p. 499. 44 The Gbande drum is a one-sided open-ended drum using animal skin as a membrane. 45 Richard Aôndowase Tsevende, Tim Cuttins Agber, Don Saa-Aôndo Iorngurum and Nancy Ngunan Ugbagir. Tiv Swange Music and Dance (Nigeria: Midan Press, 2013), p. 14. 46 In all African culture, dance, music, and song are woven together to express of reflect the communal values and social relationships of the people. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://www.britannica.com/art/African-dance. 97

Thus, the Algaita is used in almost every aspect of life, playing a significant role both in the material life and spiritual life. What, then, is the status of the Algaita players within African society? They are primarily considered in the upper of society. They perform for the community, and are often idolized in their villages. They generally sit with the king or chief because of their elevated status. Broadly speaking, the characteristic of the African continent is that almost all members of the community participate in music-making, thus all Africans are seen as musicians in the broadest sense. Musicians who choose music as a career are divided into three categories: the non-professionals, semi-professional, and professional.

Non-professional musicians are relative to professional musicians, teachers, musical masters in that they are amateurs, playing some music but not following a special master to learn performance skills, technique, and artistry. They usually learn through social experience and public participation. Semi-professional musicians earn more income from their music but also rely on their other occupations to support themselves, such as blacksmith, soothsayer, or healer. For instance,

Senufo47 orchestras are composed of ten musicians who might also be blacksmiths. Many harp and lute players in other areas of Africa are also soothsayers or healers.48

Professional musicians are experts who play to earn their entire living. In Western Africa experts include: trained instrumentalists, master instrument builders, tuning specialists, and other professionals. They generally train through informal apprenticeships under the tutorial supervision of a relative. Mnemonic aids, such as the singing of nonsense syllables, serve for basic rote learning.

47 Senufo people also known as Siena, Senefo, Sene, Senoufo, are an African ethnolinguistic group. They consist of diverse subgroups living in a region spanning the northern Ivory Cost, southeastern Mali, and western Burkina Faso. One subgroup, the Nafana, is found northwestern Ghana. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senufo_people. 48 Karlton E. Hester. Bigotry and The Afrocentric “” Evolution (Santa Cruz, CA: Hesteria Records & Publ. Co., 2001), p. 48. 98

These musicians are attached to court rulers or chiefs, who serve as their patrons. Correspondingly, some professional players earn their income by traveling from village to village.

Among various communities in Africa professional musicians belong to a different status in society, roughly divided into two categories. One type is respected as high-level expert, in service to chiefs, emirs, governors, or kings. The other is regarded at the bottom of society, maintaining their meager livings by their musical skills and traveling among villages. But in between, for example, the Hausas of Zaria49 distinguish two or three social strata based on occupational status and rank, with high officials, wealthy merchants, Muslim scholars, and farmers in the upper range, and a variety of occupations, including musicians and butchers, at the middle and bottom. However, in Igbo of Obimo,50 less than five hundred miles to Zaria, players are given greater respect for their artistry and the pleasure their music gives.51 In Obimo, musicians are generally regarded as upper-class.

In Africa, having retained the method of learning through apprenticeships, their elders use the oral teaching to teach playing skills to younger players. Thus they learn by rote and practicing alongside the masters. The elder generation has strict requirements for young students to ensure they inherit the individual skills of playing their instruments.

Aside from apprenticeships, another significant method is the musical inheritance families hand down to their children. If a family has an Algaita player who is a professional musician, he will pass on his playing skills to his son. If there is no son at home, he will pass on his skills to his daughter.

49 Zaria is a major city in Kaduna State in northern Nigeria. 50 Obimo is a town in the Nsukka local government area of Enugu State in Nigeria. 51 David Ames. “Professionals and Amateurs: The Musicians of Zaria and Obimo,” in African Arts, Vol. 1, no. 2 (Winter, 1968), pp. 42, 82. 99

Social Functions of the Suona

The Mongolian rulers brought the Suona to the Central Plains, where players served in the army, thus maintaining its functions in military music in the Middle East regions. During that time, this instrument was used to inspire morale in battle, so the Mongolian army used the instrument for this purpose during their campaigns. Once the Mongolian army captured the territory, the military’s instrument use declined with the cessation of fighting. The Central Plains region was then represented and dominated by the Han agricultural civilization, and the Mongolian rulers and armies were required to adapt to a farming culture, thus giving up their nomadic life on horses. The battlefield function of Suona gradually disappeared, reserved only to perform of bands honoring the guard in a court ritual.

By the Ming dynasty, the use of the Suona was relatively widespread, not only used by military bands of the court, but also popularized in private use among official circles, demonstrating its progressive, transformation, from court to private use. The literature of the Ming Dynasty recorded the “Suona as seven holes, top and end, are made of copper, and the tube is made of wood.

No clear record has indicated what period the Suona appeared in the Central Plains, but it started as a military musical instrument. Now, it is famous among the people.”52 Qi Jiguang53 in The

Troop-Training Records54 [《练兵实纪》] described the form of the honor guard of high-ranking military officers. This honor guard included around 150 soldiers, some privates, a variety of banner and , and instrumentalists playing Suona, Sheng, Di, Guan, and (percussion) gold

52 Wang Qi, and Wang . Sancai Tuhui (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1988), p. 1134. 53 was a military generaly of the Ming Dynasty. He is best known for leading the defense on the coastal regions against pirate activities in the sixteenth century. 54 The Troop-Training Records [Lianbing Shiji《练兵实纪》] concerns the Han military works of the Ming Dynasty. 100

drum, Dianzi drum, Yun drum, Bo drum, and small drum. The Sanqu,55 a type of military poetry, included Suona music in the Ming Dynasty. (See Tunes· Chant of Suona [Chaotianzi: Yong Suona

《朝天子·咏唢呐》] description of the instrument and its function in Chapter I):

The trumpet, or Suona, has a small body but a loud sound. Boats of officers come and go ceaseless and rely on Suona to show the social status of them. Soldiers listen this sound and will feel anxious, ordinary people hear this sound and will feel afraid. How to distinguish what is true or false? Everybody can ‘see’ the scene that this family is destroyed, and that family is sad, and all the geese are flying away from the sound of the Suona is played on official boats.

By the Qing Dynasty, the social function of the Suona was to play for the governor for court feasts and for the honor guard. Documents from this period recorded that the Suona was used for court banquets. The Pandects of Temperament [Yuelü Quanshu 《乐律全书》] noted:

The music of Altishahr:56 all banquets have music; one musician plays a hand drum, called the Dabu; one plays small drum, called the Nagala; one plays Huqin, called the Haerzhake; one plays , called the Kanaier; one plays , called a Saitaer; one plays Hubo, called the Lababu; one plays , called the Balaman; and one plays Jinkou, called the Suona.57

The applications of the Suona were abundantly recorded as used in the honor guard during the Qing Dynasty. In the Wenxian Tongkao of the Qing Dynasty: Music One we find,

55 The Sanqu, also known as literary song, was a notable Chinese type of poetry. It possibly began in the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234), especially associated with the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. 56 Altishahr is a historical name for the Tarim Basin region. The term means the “six cities” in Turkic languages and refers to oasis towns along the rim of the Tarim, in what is now southern Xinjiang Uyghur of the Autonomous Region of China. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altishahr. 57 Zhu Zayu. Yuelü Quanshu [The Pandects of Temperament], vol. 13 in Wanyou Wenku (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1936), p. 9417. 101

The honor guard band of Imperial includes two Luo, two drums, four Huajiao, two Xiao, two Sheng, four frame drums, two flutes, two flutes of feature, two Tanban, two big drums, four small brass cymbals, two small gongs, four big gongs, two Chinese gongs, and four Suonas.58

Tongdian of the Qing Dynasty: Music Two records that “During the Emperor’s royal progress, the musical ensemble contains big and small copper horns, gold horns, Mongolian horns

(Suona), gold drums, cymbals, gongs, Sheng, and Di.”59 Tongdian of the Qing Dynasty: Music Four also notes the ensembles for:

1) The tour of the Emperor: the Guchui ensemble at the southern part of the suburbs includes four big trumpets, four small trumpets, four Suonas, and twelve other musicians; 2) the big Guchi ensemble has four bell-shaped percussions instruments played by troops, two cymbals, two drums, two Dian, four Di, two gongs, two Guan, two Sheng, eight Suonas, sixteenth big trumpets, sixteenth small trumpets, four bell-shaped percussions instruments played by troops, twenty-four Huajiao, twenty-four drums, twelve flutes, four clappers, and twenty-four drums; 3) the Guchui ensemble in the northern part of the suburbs includes four big horns, four small horns, four Suonas, and twelve other musicians; 4) the tour of the Emperor: eight big brass horns, eight small brass horns, eight Suonas, two gongs, two Dragon Di, two flat Di, two Guan, two Sheng, two gold, four cymbals, two Xinggu, and four Mongolian horns; 5) for going on an expedition: the big Guchi ensemble contains two gold, four bell-shaped percussions by troops, two cymbals, two Dian, two drums, four Di, two gongs, two Guan, two Sheng, eight Suona, eight small trumpets, and eight big trumpets; 6) for the triumphant return the musical band includes two gold, four big brass horns, four small brass horns, two gongs, two copper drums, four big cymbals, two small cymbals, eight Suonas, four Huaqiang drums, four triumph drums, four Haidi, six Guan, six Xiao, six Di, six Shengs, four Chis, four gongs, everyone holds one instrument and other twenty musicians.60

In short, almost all ensembles of the court feast and honor guard contain multiple Suonas.

58 Zhang Tingyu. Wenxian Tongkao of Qing Dynasty, in Wanyou Wenku (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1936), p. 9448. 59 , and Liu Yong. Tongdian of Qing Dynasty, in Wanyou Wenku (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1936), p. 6206. 60 Ji Huang, and Liu Yong, op. cit., p. 9447. 102

(The Tibetan court also used a similar instrument, the Gyn-Ling, to coordinate the Gongyun Music and Dance [Gongyun Yuewu, 供云乐舞].61 In this court performance of music and dance, the musical part employed three musical instruments, the Gyn-Ling, bell, and Dama drum.62)

During the Ming Dynasty, the use of the Suona emerged in secular music, developing its presence until the Qing Dynasty; thus the Suona became an essential musical instrument for various folk activities, such as weddings, funerals, festivals, ceremonies, temple fairs, sacrifices, birthdays, housewarmings, and store openings.

Once the feudal monarchy ended, so the functions of Suona in the , court feast and banquet, honor guard, and official circles disappeared; however, the function associated with folk activities developed and has been notable since the Qing Dynasty. In folk activities, the

Suona’s primary role was as lead of other woodwind instruments and percussion, rather than as a solo musical instrument. This is the Guchui ensemble63 or Chuida ensemble,64 as it is called in southern parts of China, generally includes four categories.

The first is composed of two Suona leaders and percussion, and excludes the Sheng. The two Suona may play at the same pitch, or one Suona can be at a higher octave than the other. This type of band consistently is utilized in marriage and funeral events in the Dongbei, Shandong,

Henan, and Anhui Provinces, the north region of Province, Yanqing of Beijing, the west and northwest areas of the Hebei, Shaanxi Province, Gansu Province, Provinces, and the central

61 Gongyun music and dance is a kind of Tibetan classical court music. The word “gongyun” means “sumptuous tribute” and combines with music and dance. 62 Liu Yong. Zhongguo Suona Yishu Yanjiu [Research on the Chinese Suona Art] (Shanghai: Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press, 2006), pp. 33-34. 63 The Guchui ensemble is a ‘drumming-and-blowing’ ensemble. The term has been applied mainly to northern wind-and-percussion ensembles, led mainly by the Suona or Guan. 64 The Chuida ensemble generally denotes a larger instrumentation including strings, with a large and important percussion section, found mainly in the south. 103

part of the Shanxi Province. This kind of ensemble always plays traditional and historical pieces preserving many traditional tunes. When the pair of Suonas are played, the drums regularly accompany them, but almost no copper percussion is used.

The second type of ensemble consists of one lead Suona (only special events use two or three Suonas), accompanied by a Sheng or a D and percussion. The Dongbei Province Sheng and

Suona bands, the Shandong Province Suona band, the Hebei Province, the Chongwen and

Chaoyang District of Beijing, the Guchui ensembles of the southern part of the Heibei Province, the northern region of the Anhui Province, the north area of Suzhou Province, and the Shanxi Province use this type of ensemble. It is the most popular compound mode of ensemble to the present day.

Significantly, this second type of ensemble adds the Sheng to the first type of ensemble.

Because of the Sheng is a fixed-pitch instrument, the pitches of the Suona must also be fixed, and thus the timbre among different musical instruments is coordinated and mixed. Therefore, this ensemble produces richer musical effects and sweeter sounds. The Suona as the only lead instrument can provide the musician opportunity to show off his or her virtuosity and improvisational competence. The repertoire of this type of band is more representative of the northern regions of

China, such as the Dijiao《笛绞》, Kaimen《开门》, Bainiao Chaofeng《百鸟朝凤》, Yizhimei 《一

枝梅》, Fanzidiao《凡字调》and Longhua《龙花》 part of the northern part of the Anhui and Suzhou

Provinces, Quanjiafu《全家福》of the Henan Province, and Da Desheng《大得胜》of the Shanxi

Province.

The construction of the third type of ensemble adds some string instruments and percussion from the group of local operas, such as the Chuida bands and Chuige groups of the 104

Central Hebei, the Xiyue band of Shaanxi and Gansu, and the Chuida bands and Guchui bands of the Central of the Shanxi. The main feature of this kind of group is its inclusion of the and

Huhu, common instruments in dramatic productions. This kind of band is also used more for folk operas. However, various shows of different provinces have their unique characteristics, so this type of ensemble tends toward the local aesthetic, and is not as popular as the two types of bands mentioned earlier.

The fourth type of ensemble is used exclusively for folk dramas, although similar to the third type of band. The structure of this group is based on the second and the third types of ensembles.

Different from the forms of Guchui groups in the north parts, there are generally three types of Chuida ensembles in the southern part of China.

The first kind of ensemble uses the Suona is lead accompanied by orchestral instruments; gongs are also lead instruments of the percussion. This kind of band is used in the gongs and drums bands of the Zhejiang Cheng village,65 the Shifan gongs and drums bands of the Ningbo City,66 the gongs and drums bands of the Zhoushan,67 the gongs and drums bands of the southern part of the

Suzhou Province,68 and the woodwind bands of Fujian Quanzhou city.69

The second kind of band is also uses the Suona is the lead accompanied by orchestral instruments, but the drums lead the percussion. This kind of band is used in the gongs and drums

65 In the gongs and drums bands of the Zhejiang Cheng village the percussion part includes five small gongs: the Gou gong, Dang gong, Jin gong, Zheng gong, and Zhang gong, as well as four big gongs: the Jin gong, Zheng gong, Zhang gong, Dong gong. 66 The gongs and drums band of the Ningbo City feature ten gongs: one gong, four Ling gongs, two Zheng gongs, two gongs, and one Zhang gong, as well as one small gong, and one Bei gong. 67 The gongs and drums band of the Zhoushan include eleven gongs and five to seven drums, besides Jiao, Jing, and Bei gongs. 68 The Shifan gongs and drums band of this region includes four gongs: the Ma, Xi, Tang, and Yue gongs. 69 The woodwind band of the Fujian Quanzhou contains the Nan, Bei, Jing, Datang, and Wan gongs. 105

bands of Jinhua of the Zhejiang Province,70 gongs and drums bands of Tongtou village,71 and the big gongs and drums of the bands of Guangdong Province.72

The third kind of ensemble is comprised of woodwinds and percussion. There are fewer percussion instruments than in the first kind of band. In performance, the percussion maintains a fixed rhythmic pattern. This sort of band is popular in a large region of China, used for the big

Guchui ensembles of the Puxian of Fujian Province, the groups of Pingtan, ensembles of the Hubei

Province, as well as the Hunan, Yunnan, Hubei, and Sichuan Provinces.

The Chuida ensembles feature two and sometimes as many as three or four Suonas, rarely only one. These groups continue to use traditional features, and rarely have Sheng and Suona play together. The bands of the southern part of China have more percussion than ensembles of the northern part and percussion hold the higher position than the woodwind. Additionally, Chuida bands of the south contain more musical instruments used for dramas, which broadens the ensemble’s sonorities and uses.

The Suona in Guchui and Chuida ensembles play a significant role in the Chinese folklore activities. The primary kind of activity is of folklore activities are life rituals, including all services held at different ages during the life-cycle: 1) birth ceremony, 2) Guanji ritual73 (grown-up ritual), 3) wedding ceremony, and 4) funeral ritual. The Chinese pay attention to these rituals not only in terms of basic human growth, but also in demonstrating the worship of the continuation of life, and in

70 The gongs and drums band of Jinhua of the Zhejiang Province contains Datang drum, Xiaotang drum, Ban drum. 71 The gongs and drums band of Wenzhou Tongtou village use the Gaojiao drum as the central musical instrument. 72 The big gongs and drums band of the Chaozhou of Guangdong Province uses the Su, Zhong, and Da drums, all central musical instruments. 73 The Guanji ritual (冠笄礼) is the traditional of the Han nationality, marking children becoming adults and formally entering into society. 106

terms of their belief system.

In addition to Buddhism and Taoism mentioned in the previous chapter, Chinese belief systems include the critical thinking around Confucianism. Faith in Confucianism ensures that the

Chinese celebrate each significant moment of life with a grand ritual of celebration or memorial.

Confucianism plays the most important role in this process, and even some Buddhist and Taoist activities are held in service to these life stages. Confucian thought entails the highest belief in

Confucianism. In the pre-Qin period,74 the idea of Confucian included equality of status with what was called the “other Hundred Schools of Thought.” During the period,75 rulers who followed Confucianism forced the burning of books and burying of scholars. Until Emperor Wu of

Han,76 China “abandoned the other hundred schools of thought, only respecting Confucian thought,”77 which assisted those in power in maintaining authoritarian rule. The connotations of

Confucianism were plentiful and complex, and the combination of imperial power has gradually developed the basic theory and thought, the unification of the Chinese in a ritual system. For instance, 1) When Duke , of Ch’ î, asked Confucius about government, the Confucius replied,

“There is the government when the prince is the prince, and the minister is the minister; when the father is the father, and the son is the son.”78 2) There are three cardinal guides in which ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife. The meaning of Confucianism includes benevolence and , , which formulated Chinese values, behavioral norms, and guidelines based on six virtues (wisdom, faith, holiness, benevolence, and righteousness), six

74 The pre-Qin period was from the 21st century B.C.E. –221 B.C.E. 75 Qin Shi Huang period was from 247 B.C.E.—220 B.C.E. 76 Emperor Wu of Han ruled from 141 B.C.E. –29 B.C.E. 77 This occurred in 134 B.C.E. 78 Confucius. Confucian Analects. 107

behaviors (filial piety, friendship, marriage, responsibility, and comport and compensate the bereaved family), and six arts (rites, music, archery, riding, writing, and arithmetic).

Music for Funeral

The traditional ethical norm of the China occurs in the affection between the younger generation and elder generation, and reflects the behavior of filial piety. Confucius said, “…family reverence, is the constancy of the heavenly cycles, the appropriate responsiveness of the earth, and the proper conduct of the people.”79 Additionally, he said, “Of all the species in the world, humans are the most precious. Of all human conduct, nothing is greater than filial piety.”80 The six virtues and behaviors are intended to explain that the filial piety is more important things than anything else; it is the virtue and the embodiment of the family. Confucius believed that benevolence was the highest realm of personality, and if people wanted to achieve this realm, they should start from filial piety.

Filial piety has two levels of meaning obedience[Xiaoshun 孝顺] and respect [Xiaojing

孝敬]. In actual behavior this means that children and grandchildren support and wait on parents while they are still alive, and obey decisions and opinions of their parents and grandparents. When parents get older, children and grandchildren should serve them. When the parents die, the children should hold the funeral ritual to express their sorrow of the death, revealing the affection of family.

The behavior of filial children in the funeral, the moral norms of the Chinese

79 Confucius and his followers, Xiaojing·Sancai [The Classic of Xiao]. This sentence translates to: What is filial piety? That is the principle of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the proper conduct of the people. 80 Confucius and his followers, Xiaojing·Sancai [The Classic of Xiao]. This sentence translates to: Of all things between Heaven and Earth, people are the most important. If says the most important human behavior is filial piety. 108

nation also has requirements, which is that the teacher said: When a Xiao son loses his parent, he cries without trying to stop himself, his politeness is without pleasantry, his words are without adornment, when he dresses in beautiful clothes he feels uncomfortable when he hears the music he does not feel joy, and when he eats delicious food, it is not tasty. These behaviors are sadness and grief. Eating after three days is to teach the people not to let dying to injure the living, such that the damage (from the death) does not destroy the nature of people. Such is the policy of the sages. Mourning is not to exceed three years; this is to show the person that has an end. Prepare for the deceased parent inner and outer coffins, burial clothes and burial blankets, and raise the coffin. Set out the offering vessels and mourn him. Beat the breast, jump up and down, and cry. With grief see him off to the burial ground. Divine a proper grave site and place him there to rest in peace. Make a temple to make offerings to his spirit. Conduct sacrificial ceremonies in the spring and autumn to regularly think of him. When alive, serve him with live and respect; when dead, help him with grief and sorrow. The duty of people is fulfilled, the obligations both during life and after death are satisfied, and the service of the Xiao son to his parents is at an end.81,82

From these norms one can know if people intend to achieve the standards and are recognized as family, and society as the filial piety; people must follow these standards and complete them. The rules of the funeral ritual require that only a dutiful son or daughter can cry, and cannot eat or wash his or her head for three months, a kind of ascetic behavior to repay the parent for raising him or her. Believers understand that if parents are still alive, their children can be filial in various ways. However, when parents die, obviously their children have no further chance to serve them, except to hold the solemn ceremony to express the emotion of any reluctant or familial affection.

The funeral not only reflects and strengthens the affection from the filial children to their parent, but also offers the chance to reinforce the love of the whole family and clan. Members of the

81 Feng, Xinming. Trans., “Aiqin Zhang.” [Chapter of the Sorrow for Lost Parent] in Xiaojing [The Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao)] (Haichao Press, 2011), pp. 22-24. 82 Confucius, and his followers. “Aiqin Zhang.” [Chapter of the Sorrow for Lost Parent] in Xiaojing [The Classic of Filial Piety] (Haichao Press, 2011), pp. 22-24.

109

entire family of distant or near kinship with the deceased participate in the funeral, according to their family identity, in expressing memories of the dead. Because the whole funeral ritual is complicated and cumbersome, these relatives will with the host family to help to get the affairs ready. Therefore, the funeral ceremony is an opportunity to communicate emotions among the family members and enhance the cohesion of the whole clan. Besides, friends and their children are also given the chance to acknowledge the deceased, so the funeral ritual also can help to repair and nurture friendships.

The number of the attending relatives and friends demonstrates the moral quality of the dead.

The belief in the concept of filial piety and the high regard for the funeral ceremony occur mainly in the Han Chinese regions. The faith systems of some minorities are more particular to their cultural systems, or they have their special funeral customs because their living environment, and need not follow Han Confucian thought to determine funeral norms.

Using music in the funeral ceremony emerged at the end of the ,83 through the Jin Dynasty, when extravagance was prevalent, and the elaborate funeral service was flaunted in front the others. The early Chinese text, Jinshu·Lizhi [《晋书·礼志》] recorded that “In the Han and Wei period, funerals had an honor guard group and combined with a Guchui band.”84

This kind of funeral was weakening and disappears. In the Quantangwen [《全唐文》], wrote The Statement of the Rules of the Funeral Ritual [Lun Sangzang Yuzhi Shu《论丧葬逾制疏》], stating that

83 The Warring States period was an era of ancient Chinese history following the and concluding with the Qin wars of conquest, which saw the annexation of all other contender states, ultimately leading to the Qin state victory in 221 B.C.E, the first unified Chinese empire known as the . Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period. 84 , Xunaling. Jinshu: Lizhi. 110

Talking about the elaborate funeral, such as plentiful of sacrifices, and music, there are so many examples that people held extravagant funeral ceremonies, even people were not served their parents when they were still alive, but only compared unrealistically of how luxurious of funeral. Therefore, this kind of funeral style should be stopped, and the setting of music also needed to forbidden. If someone did not comply with the new rules, they would get the crime.85

The article describes the prevalence of the funeral at that time, and that it has been combined with music. However, because of the trend of comparisons among several families holding funerals, some parents became destitute just to seem equal to higher-income families. Li

Deyu wrote this article to curb such tendencies of comparison. Although using music in the funeral ceremony was a burden for many, they still needed to express their sorrow. They believed that music was a significant part of the whole funeral process; it satisfied the spiritual requirements of the people attending. Thus, even if the was a burden, the Chinese kept the custom of playing music for the ceremony. Even though during the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasties rules prohibited the use of music in the funeral ritual, people still needed to enjoy the music. Therefore, while the prohibition was less constrained, playing music in the funeral for the public appeared again. This custom was continual for a millennium in China.

The Suona was introduced to the Central Plains during the Yuan Dynasty, and experienced a fusion process within the Central Plains Han culture and the process of moving from traditional in court to its prevalence in the folklore. Not until the Ming Dynasty, does there appear a record of Suona as lead instrument in the folk ensemble and widely used there. Thus, the Suona ensemble was extensively used for funerals since the Ming Dynasty.

In order to carry out the ceremonious funeral, the Han region uses a full set of burial

85 Dong, Gao 董诰, Yuan 阮元, and Song 徐松. Quantangwen [The Book Recorded the Stories of Tang Dynasty], Vol. 701, written from the 1808 C.E.—1814 C.E. 111

procedures, using Suona music because of the demands of the different ritual steps. Although there are various funeral activities among diverse areas, the commonly funeral operations are classified into two durations: 1) one to three days, is also known as “field work,” [Tianshi, 田事], and 2) three to seven days, also called as “official work.” [Guanbinshi, 官宾事].

One-day funeral l Requesting or picking up the coffin. This occurs at 7:00 a.m., moving it from the central room

(a one-storey Chinese traditional house consists of several rooms in a row) to the outside and

into the shed. During this time, two Suonas play “Da Kaimen” [《大开门》], a stately, solemn,

and bold music. l Requesting the hearse. This occurs before the 8:00 a.m., and if one spouse has died before, and

the funeral is for the other deceased spouse, the filial son should hold a mourning stick (called

a Kusang stick, about a foot long, wrapped in white paper), while others move to the hearse,

then to the grave of the previously deceased person. Then, the filial son picks up a piece of soil

and puts into the hearse, which symbolizes that the two deceased people are together. The

hearse is then returned to the shed. During this process, the Suona plays “Fanzi Diao” [《凡字

调》] and “Xiliujin” [《喜柳金》] relaxed and joyous music. l Welcome the sacrificed relatives. These are welcomed to the “sacrificed table,” beginning after

breakfast at 9:30 a.m. During this step, the host family of deceased moves the sacrificial table

to the main intersection of the village to welcome the kinsfolks who have come to attend the

funeral (mainly to meet any just-married daughter of the family, the nominal foster daughter,

niece, granddaughter, grandniece, and relatives of the deceased family). The Suona plays 112

“Fanzi Diao” 《凡字调》[ ], “Xiliujin” 《喜柳金》[ ], “Mengjiangnv” 《孟姜女》[ ], and “Xiaoguafu

Shangfen” [《小寡妇上坟》], these tunes imitating crying or wailing. When the welcoming

sacrificial group makes its way back of the familial home, the Suona plays “Xiaoguafu

Shangfen” [《小寡妇上坟》], “Guanggun Kuqi” [《光棍哭妻》], relaxed, cheerful, and warm

pieces, sometimes adding to the feelings of the sorrowful and miserable. l Thanks-giving to all the guests. This begins around 12:00 p.m. or lunchtime, where the dutiful

son kneels down in front the guests to thank each one. The elder male of the host family yells

his thanks. The Suona performs “Fanzi Diao” [《凡字调》], “Xiliujin” [《喜柳金》], cheerful,

happy, and bold music. l Dismantling of the shed. This occurs at the 4:30 p.m., meaning the shed is pulled down, and

the coffin is bundled up. For this step, two Suonas play “Yanluo Shamo” [《雁落沙漠》],

“Baotai” [《抱台》], and “Siguan Diao” [《四关调》], music featuring excitement and joy. l Burying the coffin. At 5:00 p.m., that dutiful son and another fifteen people move the coffin to

the graveyard. Two Suonas play “Kaichang” [《开场》], “Dakaimen” [《大开门》], solemn and

stately forms of music. l Kowtowing and burning of paper. The paper is made to resemble money, as an offering to the

dead at 6:00 p.m. All members of the family kowtow in front the coffin. In this process, two

Suonas perform “Baotai” [《抱台》], “Siguan Diao” [《四关调》], and “Sihesi” [《四合四》],

cheerful and happy music. l Putting the coffin into the grave. The grave is selected by the dutiful son and dug in advance.

Two Suonas plays “Kaichang” [《开场》], “Baotai” [《抱台》], “Siguan Diao” [《四关调》], 113

and “Sihesi” [《四合四》], also cheerful and happy styles. l Burning the palanquin. The palanquin, plastered with paper for the deceased people. At 7:00

p.m., two Suonas perform “Lahao” [《拉号》], a straightforward and unadorned music,

expansive and unbroken.

Two-day funeral

The first day: l Invitation of musical ensemble. The ensemble, which has received the notice, arrives at the

host family’s home. The dutiful son kneels down and kowtows to express the thanks to the

band. When the band arrives, two Suonas perform “Laobangtai” [《老梆台》], “Jiazi Bangtai”

[《夹字梆台》], using these sounds to inform the neighbors of the upcoming funeral. In some

regions, the Suona plays sorrowful and suffering tunes, such as “Shieryue Diaoqing” [《十二月

调请》], and “Qinxianglian” [《秦香莲》]. l Requesting the hearse and burning paper money. The paper is made to resemble money and

burned as an offering to the dead for the journey of the deceased. If the deceased is male, and

his wife has died before him, the dutiful son should go to the cemetery to pray to her spirit first.

If no spouse has died beforehand, this step is skipped. The children burn a paper-plastered cow

(for a woman’s death), the paper-coated horse (for a man’s death), and paper money for the

death at the intersection of the villiage. A Guchui ensemble plays tunes or well known pieces

from operas, such as “Qingheling” 《[ 庆贺令》], “Shangzi Kaimen” 《上字开门》[ ], and “Fanzi

Kaimen” [《凡字开门》]. 114

l Inviting of a prestigious person of the village. This person will write the for the

deceased. In this step, this person manages the ceremony and chooses the repertoire, such as

“Yuanxiao Ge” [《云霄阁》]. When the filial son gives thanks to the managing person, the

Sheng and Di players perform “Liuzi Kaimen” [《六字开门》]. During the manager holds the

ritual, two Suonas play “Suonapi” [《唢呐皮》]. l Drinking of Mengpo soup. This helps the Yama86 to carry off the spirit of the deceased. The

children of the deceased must see the soul off from the village intersection. Then, the ritual of

drinking the Mengpo soup symbolizes helping the deceased person to “forget all the things that

happened when he or she still alive.” The Suona plays “Qingheling” 《[ 庆贺令》], “Shiyangjing”

[《十样景》], “Jixianbin” [《集贤宾》], “Kaimen” [《开门》], and “Fanzi Diao” [《凡字调》]. l Lineal relatives kneel down. These relatives kowtow in front the coffin; friends do not need to

do so. Then, while music is played in the shed, the members of the host family give thanks to

their relatives and friends. The Suona plays pieces of local operas and tunes. Before the

opening of the performance, an ensemble plays the gongs and drums first, then Suona performs

“Sanludian” [《三哭奠》], “Qinxuemei Diaoxiao” [《秦雪梅吊孝》], and “Mengjiangnu

Kuchangcheng” [《孟姜女哭长城》]. l goodbye to the deceased. This refers to covering the coffin, before which the filial son

kowtows nine times, and friends and family may express their sorrow and anguish. Then, all

the attendees go to sit or rest. The Suona plays “Pingdiao Wuliuwu” [《平调五六五》] and

“Tianxiatong” [《天下同》].

86 Yama is a Hindu god of death and lord of the underworld. 115

l The Guchui ensemble afterwards performs in the shed.

The Second day: l Opening door. For opening the familial home door, two Suonas, as leaders of the Guchui

ensemble, play “Dakaimen” [《大开门》], “Yizhihua” [《一枝花》], “Jiangjunling” [《将军

令》], and “Chaotianzi” [《朝天子》]. l Mourning for the dead. This process involves receiving guests, and giving thanks to guests

where lineal families and friends come to sacrifice for the deceased person. Lineal relatives

and friends give money and presents to the host family. After the sacrificial ceremony, the host

family serves the guests and gives thanks to all. During this time, the Suona performs “Yadiao

Wuliuwu” 《雅调五六五》[ ], “Pingdiao Wuliuwu” 《平调五六五》[ ], “Fandiao Wuliuwu” 《凡[

调五六五》], “Qingheling” [《庆贺令》], “Yijiangfeng” [《一江风》], “Fanzi Diao” [《凡调

子》], “Liujinzi” [《柳金子》], “Kaimen” [《开门》]. The Sheng and Guan ensemble plays

“Fanghedeng” [《放河灯》], “Jixianbin” [《集贤宾》], and “Caichage” [《采茶歌》]. l Moving the coffin. The coffin is moved out of the home and sacrifices offered on the road,

comprising the climax of the funeral ritual. The coffin is lifted by its frame and moved to the

street. The relatives of the deceased may weep and kowtow to recall the deceased’s spirit. This

process lasts a long while, two or three hours. The Guchui ensemble plays the following tunes

of music during the entire process: “Dakaimen” [《大开门》], “Tianxiatong” [《天下同》],

“Jixianbin” [《集贤宾》], “Shiyangjing” [《十样景》], and “Qingheling” [《庆贺令》]. l Burying the coffin. All the attendees walk to the graveyard to bury the deceased. During the

walk, the Suona plays “Wuliuwu” 《五六五》[ ], “Shiyangjing” 《十样景》[ ], “Laobangtai” 《老[ 116

梆台》], “Chizikaimen” 《尺字开门》[ ]. When entering the cemetery, people burn paper money,

and the Suona performs “Tianxiatong” 《天下同》[ ], “Dakaimen” 《大开门》[ ], “Suonapi” 《唢[

呐皮》], and “Shangzi Kuaibangtai” [《上字快梆台》]. Then, it is that means people

covering the coffin, and the Suona plays “Kuhuangtian” [《哭皇天》]. l Erecting the stone tablet. This and carving the name and the story and any philanthropic acts

on the tombstone of the deceased. The Suona plays “Wuzikaimen” 《[ 五字开门》] and “Jiaojuzi”

[《叫句子》]. l Attendees return home. Then the Chuida ensemble sits to play music.

[Note: this kind of funeral ritual is prevalent in the Shandong and Henan Provinces.]

Three-day funeral l Playing music and sounds in the shed. The Guchui ensemble arrives at the host family’s home,

where they play music for three intervals to inform neighbors that they have arrived. The

ensemble performs “Gongcheshang” [《工尺上》]. l Reporting to temple. The attendees burn paper money at the temple of the local god of the land,

and pour the water (water in which rice has been cooked) on the ashes of the deceased,

which is called “Songjiangshui.” This behavior is made in order to report the deceased

information to Yama. After this, the host family repeats the behavior three times every day to

deliver food to the deceased. The Guchui ensemble plays “Jiutiaolong” [《九条龙》],

“Kulingding” [《苦伶仃》], and “Liuheyin” [《柳河吟》]. l Burning paper money. The paper is burned three times before putting the corpse into the coffin. 117

The band performs “Gongcheshang” [《工尺上》]. When the coffin is nailed shut, the

low-pitched Suona plays “Pogongyin” [《破工音》], “Kuhuangtign” [《哭皇天》], or

“Kulingding” [《苦伶仃》]. Finally, the Suona performs “Huanghetao” [《黄河套》],

accompanying the weeping of family members of the deceased. l Servicing sacrificial dishes. During this step, or the of sacrifices, while people

convey each dish, the Suona plays the music of “Xiaolongwei” [《小龙尾》], “Jiqiang” [《祭

枪》], and “Liuheying” [《柳河吟》] together. l Going to the temple to pray and incense. The Dizi plays “Xiaojindui” [《小金对》] and

“Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》]. l Offering sacrifices to the spirit of the deceased. While the guests burn paper money before the

hearse the dutiful son and daughter kowtow, the Guchui ensemble performs “Taozi Xunxiang”

[《太子寻乡》], “Jiqiang” [《祭枪》], and “Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》]. l Moving the coffin and delivering paper money. This step indicates seeing the deceased depart

this world with burned paper money and the other objects made of paper. The band plays

“Liuheyin” [《柳河吟》], “Jiqing” [《祭枪》], “Chuanmacao” [《串马槽》], “Suwu Muyang”

[《苏武牧羊》], and “Kuliuzhou” [《哭六妯》]. l Saying goodbye to the spirit of the deceased. The dutiful son and daughter kowtow in front the

coffin to say goodbye. The band plays “Kuchangcheng” [《哭长城》], “Natianer” [《拿天鹅》],

and “Jiqiang” [《祭枪》]. l Weeping eighteen times. This step indicates that the son and daughter of the deceased pass

around the hearse eighteen times to mourn, and burn paper money. The Guchui ensemble 118

performs “Shibu Zhong’en” [《十步重恩》] accompanied with singing by the female members. l Sitting overnight. All the sons and daughters shift duties to keep watch over the hearse and

coffin at night. The Guchui ensemble performs twenty-four songs, chosen according to the

Twenty-four Stories About Filial Piety.87 The band also plays “Natian’e” [《拿天鹅》],

“Guangun Kuqi” [《光棍哭妻》], “Gufu Shangfen” [《寡妇上坟》], “Guafunan” [《寡妇难》],

and “Jidagang” [《锯大缸》]. l Burial of the coffin. For this, the Guchui ensemble performs “Liuqingniang” [《柳青娘》] and

“Liuheyin” 《柳河吟》[ ]. After burying the coffin, the band plays “Gongcheshang” 《工尺上》[ ].

After this step, the funeral ceremony has ended.

[Note: this kind of funeral and the selected Suona repertoire are prevalent in the Dongbei Province and the other northeast regions.]

‘Official work’ [Guanbinshi, 官宾事]: From Three to Seven Days l Announcing the obituary notice. The members of the host family are sent to deliver white-and

yellow-colored obituary notices to relatives. The lineal relatives of the deceased person must

hurry back for the funeral even if they live a long distance away. The Guchui ensemble plays

“Shieryue Diaoqing” [《十二月调情》], “Shieryue Kanma” [《十二月看妈》], and

“Qinxianglian” [《秦香莲》]. l Setting up mourning hall. Indicates building the hearse bed, incense burner table, writing spirit

tablet, setting out sacrificial foods, cleaning the body, grooming, and dressing the deceased in

87 The Twenty-four Stories About Filial Piety [二十四孝故事] is a classic text of Confucian filial piety written by Guo, Jujing [郭居敬] during the Yuan dynasty (1260 C.E.—1368 C.E.) 119

cerements, and putting the body in the coffin, covering the body with a quilt, and covering the

face of the deceased with yellow or white paper on the face of the died person. Others will

build a shed in the yard during this time, setting out the sacrificial table, and configuring

photos of the deceased, putting a basin under the sacrificial table of burning paper money, with

which relatives and friends may condole themselves. The dutiful sons and daughters stay in

mourning overnight to keep watch on the spirit of the deceased. l Reporting to temple. Indicates the funeral procession going to the temple to kowtow and burn

incense before carrying the coffin to the cemetery. The Chinese believe that after saying to the

temple, the Yama will open the door and will accept the deceased. The group reporting to

temple is large, the filial sons and daughters dress in coarse or hemp cloth garments of

mourning. Music and firecrackers are loud, and a walk around the village in one circle sends

the deceased off on the last journey. When they arrive at the village intersection, people set off

more firecrackers and fireworks, plaster paper on a cow or horse, and paper money is burned.

For this process, the Suona band plays tunes and opera tunes with no fixed repertories. l Putting the corpse in the coffin. This step refers to the folk tradition, where the body on the bed

is called the corpse and once in the coffin is called jiu [柩]. The body stays in a room for three

days and then is placed in the coffin. If cremation [Huohua 火化] has been chosen, the filial

sons and daughters put the ashes of body in the coffin, and cover the ashes with cerements. l Carrying the coffin to the cemetery. This occurs at 7:30 or 8:00 a.m. Before this step, all

members of the family hold a ceremony to say goodbye to the deceased; then the coffin is

moved out to the mourning hall. If the graveyard is not a long distance, they walk to the 120

cemetery, carrying the coffin. The eldest or mourning son leans on the Kusang stick to weep,

the other sons and grandson follow, the womenfolk of a family following the sons and

grandsons. If the graveyard is a very long distance from the host family, all members of family

drive in to the cemetery and the coffin transported to the cemetery by the as well. The

Guchui band performs “Qinxianglian” [《秦香莲》], “Shieryue Diaoqing” [《十二月调情》],

and “Fanzi Diao” [《凡字调》]. l Burying the dead. This step involves the dutiful sons digging the hole for the coffin. After this,

people burn the paper money, firecrackers, and the filial sons and daughters kowtow. The

Guchui band performs “Shieryue Kanma” 《十二月看妈》[ ], “Qingxianglian” 《秦香莲》[ ], and

“Fanzi Diao” [《凡字调》]. l After the funeral. The filial sons and daughters burn paper money every seven days, which is

called “Zuoqi” [做七]. This step must be completed seven times in forty-nine days, after which

the dutiful sons and daughters hold sacrificial activities every year in three years, and then

every three years.

[Note: This kind of ceremony is used by families of officials or wealthy families.]

Modes of Performance and Religious Meanings

There are three playing modes the Guchui ensemble uses for the funeral ceremony: 1) sitting and playing, 2) standing and playing, and 3) walking and playing. The sitting and playing style, also known as “Sitting in the shed,” denotes the band sitting in a reed or canvas shed built in the yard of the host family; the musicians sit around a table to play. The standing and playing mode 121

indicates players standing to play music on some steps of the funeral ritual, such as the burying step of the ritual, which requires standing. Walking and playing way is also known as “walking in the street to play,” where musicians play music as they walk inn the street, according to the requirements of the funeral ceremony, such as reporting to the temple, carrying the coffin to the cemetery, and worshipping on the road.

The Suona plays during the funeral ceremony, which is not only expressing the sorrowful feelings, but also joyous tunes or fragments of dramatic music reflecting on life at a deeper level. In accepting that we all die, the ritual assists in passing away peacefully, considering the passing also as a happy event. Therefore, some more buoyant touches are gradually added in the funeral ceremony.

The integration of Buddhist and Taoist ideologies in the funeral ritual, thus making up

Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, forms a unity to the ceremony. The idea of reincarnation in

Buddhism ideology also influences the outlook on human lives. The belief in a future world makes death easier if deceased viewed as “going to the heaven,” which reduces the fear of death. Therefore, the Chinese also call the funeral the “white happy event.”88 Besides, the ideology of Taoism, viewing death as a process of returning to nature, it is perceived as going back home, which should be a happy event. People view the life as a long trip, and the death as a return to the original home, thus not painful, and accompanied by appropriate Suona and percussions music.

Buddhists and Taoists also use the Guhui ensemble at the sacrificial rituals (I discuss the relationship between the Guchui ensemble and the Buddhist and Taoist music in chapter IV).

88 “White happy event”the “white” refers to the color of the mourning dress. 122

Therefore, the host family invites the monks and Taoists to participate in the funeral ceremony and to recite scriptures to release the soul from purgatory, including also asking the Guchui band to play for the funeral, which same to only inviting musical bands to play for the funeral ceremony.

Music for Weddings

The Han Chinese not only invites the Guchui ensemble to play for the funeral process, they also ask the group to perform at the weddings to help celebrate the jubilant feeling. For the wedding ceremony, if a band is not affordable, it can be canceled. Moreover, the repertoire of wedding music is more arbitrary, needed only to create a joyous atmosphere.

The Chinese attach importance to the marriage that derives from the prerequisite of reproduction to strengthen the clan, and to bring advantages to family, inheritance of property, authority, and social status from the older generation. The saying goes that “There are three forms of unfilial conducts, of which the worst is to have no descendants.”89 This saying means that having no is the worst problem, especially for men. Therefore, if the people want to produce descendants, they can do anything and are even allowed to violate the law and discipline rite. The expectation of reproduction is first reflected in the care put into the wedding.

Since the Zhou Dynasty, marriage has been considered part of the ritual system, and formulating the marriage as six stages: 1) Nacai [纳彩], the man invites the matchmaker to go to girl’s family to propose marriage. If the family accepts this proposal, the man brings presents to make an offer of the marriage; 2) Asking to name a date [问名], the man asks a go-between to ask

89 Mencius and his followers. “Lilou Zhangju ,” in Mencius. There are twenty-eight chapters in this book, and this sentence wrote in the chapter fourteenth. Mencius was a Chinese philosopher who is the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself. 123

the birthday of the fiancée and prepares to match the date of birth with the eight characters of a horoscope [Shengchenbazi 生辰八字];90 3) Naji [纳吉], letting her family know the result of the match, Shengchenbazi; 4) Nazheng [纳征], when they are engaged to be married, the man’s family sends betrothal presents to the fiancée’s family; 5) Asking the date of wedding [请期], or choosing the wedding date, after Nazheng; and 6) The welcome [亲迎], when the groom visits the bride’s family to marry her. The provisions of the marriage remain as arrangements for the grand celebration on the welcoming day, the other steps are considered as preparation. The significance of the wedding day concerns its marking two families of different surnames coming together as one, thus inheriting the ancestors of the other’s family and producing future generations.

The use of music in the wedding goes back to the Northern and Southern Dynasties.91

Like the music of the funeral ceremony, wedding music has been sometimes fashionable and other times suppressed in China. Likewise, the music used in the wedding eventually becomes customary, a stable cultural from with an invisible power, which adapts to the spiritual life of individuals, thus difficult to prohibit by governing bodies. Some regions use the proverb, “If do not invite the

Guchui ensemble to perform music, the bride will not marry.” Thus, the Guchui ensemble is relatively common, if simply constructed, and the Suona usually plays the lead role of the band, although sometimes there are two Suonas to create more sounds to celebrate. The Guchui ensemble is also called the Suona band.

Based on the wedding process of traditional folk, the diverse regions of China have their own wedding preparation and ceremonies, which can be classified into three durations of the ritual:

90 Match the Shengchenbazi means to ask whether the birthdays of male and female are well matched. The Chinese believe that if they have a good birthday match, their married life will be good; if not, they cannot marry. 91 The Northern and Southern Dynasties, from 420 C.E. to 589 C.E. 124

one day, two days, and three days.

One-day Wedding Celebration

The one-day wedding is a relatively simple way to celebrate. The participants might choose to shorten the complicated process as far as possible; just leaving the one-day on the wedding day, but basically there are two styles of doing this.

The first style: l Welcoming the bride. This takes place when the groom goes to the bride’s family home to

meet her. The greeting group is composed of a Dake (elder, peer, who is paid to be present)92

and two Suona players (called Chuishou in this function). The Suona players accompany the

welcoming team as they make their way to the bride’s family, eat with the family, then the

bride leaves her family to move to the groom’s family (called Qijiao) at this auspicious time.

The bride’s family must pay the Suona players with money and gifts [Huahong, 花红]. The

bride travels in a palanquin and the Qijiao indicates her departure. When the palanquin arrives

at the groom’s family, they will hold a greeting ritual, which is called as “welcoming palanquin”

or “welcoming flower.” During the greeting ceremony, the Suona player performs tunes, such

as “Qingtian Ge” 《青天歌》[ ], “Huanyin Dabaidui” 《欢音大摆队》[ ], and “Xiaokaimen” 《小[

开门》]. l Wearing red. [Pihong, 披红]. The uncle of the groom drapes red clothes over the groom’s

shoulder who then kowtows to his uncle. During this step, attendees set off firecrackers, and

92 The Dake refers to a person sent to the bride’s family to welcome her, or to the people accompany her back to the bridegroom’s family; Dakes are respected as distinguished guests. The elders, peers, and younger generation form the Dake. The amount of Dakes is not fixed, but must be an odd number, such as five, seven, or nine, so that the number of Dakes on both groom and bride’s side add up to even numbers, thus everything comes in pairs.

125

the Suona player performs tunes of “Qiujisheng” [《秋季生》] and “Pu” [《谱》]. l Receiving guests. The groom’s family sets up their home banquet in the courtyard. The

relatives and friends may drink and converse cheerfully and humorously. The Guchui band

performs the beating of gongs and drums resounds to the skies, and may be heard for a few

miles to generate a happy atmosphere. The style of Suona music should be unrestrained,

cheerful, light-hearted, and humorous. The Suona players may display their skills as much as

they like and show off their virtuosity to immerse guests in a happy feeling. The tunes of

Suona music are “Zhuangyuan Youjie” [《状元游街》], “Yinniusi” [《银纽丝》], “Daochun”

[《道春》], “Siyewa” [《四页瓦》], “Fenhonglian” [《粉红莲》], and “Xiaofangniu” [《小

放牛》]. l Bride and groom bow to Heaven and Earth. This refers to the most important part of the

wedding ceremony, presided over by an official, or chief witness. The steps of the ceremony

are as follows: 1) sounding the salute and music performed; 2) the chief witness declares the

marriage certificate’s contents; 3) he bows to Heaven and Earth, to the parents of bride and

groom, and bow to each other of bride and groom; 4) toasts to the bride and groom by guests; 5)

bride and groom telling the story of how they met; and 6) all move into the nuptial chamber.

During these steps, the Suonas play the tunes “Xiangqin” 《相亲》[ ] and “Pihong Guahua” 《披[

红挂画》]. l Seeing the Dake off. Once the wedding ceremony is over, the groom’s family sees the

departure of the bride’s Dake. During this process, two Suona players play tunes of

“Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》] and “Fenhonglian” [《粉红莲》]. 126

l After the Dake’s departure, the wedding celebration is over. The groom’s family pays the

Suona band and also includes gifts such as cigarettes and liquor, signifying their sharing in and

contributing to the family’s joy. They may give also the players a bonus.

[Note: this kind of wedding celebration is prevalent in the Gansu Province.]

The second style: l Sounding the Suona. This refers to the Suona band arriving at the host family’s home at dawn

to play. The groom, his father, mother, and the person presiding over the ceremony are present.

The family gives cigarettes and tea to the Suona band to express their welcome and that the

players play to the best of their ability. The Suona band plays “Fanzi Diao” [《凡字调》] and

“Xiliujin” [《喜柳金》], to inform the groom’s family, as well as their friends and neighbors,

that the band has arrived. The sound of the Suona reaches very long distances, the first sound

of the entire wedding celebration, thus called as “Sounding the Suona.” l Burning the “happy paper money.” An unmarried male relative and the groom visit the

ancestral grave to kowtow three times and burn happy paper money in front the tombstone,

which indicates telling the ancestor the good news of the family and their desire that Heaven

and their ancestors bless their happiness in marriage. In this process, the Suona performs

“Xiliujin” [《喜柳金》]. l Welcoming bride [Chutangzi, 出趟子]. This involves members of the groom’s family sent to

the bride’s house to greeting her. On the way, when procession cross the bridge, the guests

burn firecrackers to express the hope of avoiding mishaps and continuing happiness in the

future life. The Suona band plays “Fanzi Diao” [《凡字调》] and “Xiliujin” [《喜柳金》]. 127

l Transfering dowry and dressing up [Shangtou,上头]. These steps refer to the groom placing

the dowry in the car. The Shangtou indicates that the bride is dressed up, which includes

putting on the topknot, dressing in the red bridal coat, and putting on red socks and shoes.

During Shangtou, one boy and one girl from the groom’s family hold a rooster and a hen, and

stand in front the main gate to wait for the palanquin or the bride’s car. When the bride does

her makeup, she sits on a chair covered with a red coverlet, the footstool of Dou (a measure for

grain) is filled with corns, grains, and rice, and a paper-wrapped brick is placed under the Dou,

called a “gold brick.” These objects are arranged to express the blessing of the bride’s family

for the bride. They may wish for a happy future for her as a wife who: 1) produces bumper

, 2) is promoted step by step, 3) brings wealth and treasure, and 4) becomes a faithful

old grey-headed couple with her husband. At this time the Suona band plays “Huaihong” [《淮

红》]. l First happiness at the main gate [Lanmenxi, 拦门喜]. In this step the players of the Suona

ensemble stand in a particular way in which the groom’s welcoming team must pass and form

a wall. The group plays “Wannianhuan” [《万家欢》]. The wall serves to block the bride from

going to the main gate until her family has given her dowry to the groom’s family. This

transfer is called the “Moxingzi [磨性子],” for its use to train the bride in patience as a new

wife to ensure she becomes the ideal type of woman, as an understanding wife and loving

mother. l Kowtowing. During this step the bride enters into the central room. The new couple kowtows

to their elders and other lineal relatives, and these elder members of the family give money to 128

the new couple and welcome new family members to join their clan. During this process, the

Suona plays the folk song “Manganniu” [《慢赶牛》] in front of the door. l “Three sides.” [Zuosanzhao, 作三招]. In this step the Suona band stands to play “Fanzi Diao”

[《凡字调》], the bride with her relatives and friends, and the groom with his families and

friends, take their seats at the banquet from three sides, hence the name Zuosanzhao. l The Nao bridal chamber [Naodongfang, 闹洞房]. In this step friends and family members

crowd into the bridal chamber to play pranks on the new couple about their wedding night,

their celebrating is accompanied by Suona music of “Naodongfang” [《闹洞房》] and “Hunliqu”

[《婚礼曲》].

[Note: this kind of wedding ceremony and the music of Suona is popular in the Hebei Province.]

Two-day Wedding Celebration

In this type of wedding ceremony the Guchui ensemble is invited to the host family’s on the first day, and plays music to accompany the entire marriage process. After the musician’s arrival, relatives and friends arrive continually to celebrate.

The first day: l The Guchui ensemble comes to the groom’s family at the 10:00 a.m. on the first day. Their

arrival and the Suona music signal the beginning of the wedding celebration. l The Guchui ensemble plays “ Kaimen” [《五字开门》], “Pingdiao Wuliuwu” [《平调五

六五》], “Fandiaozi” [《凡调子》], “Shiyangjing” [《十样景》], and “Jiaojuzi” [《叫句子》]

to inform relatives, neighbors, and friends that the wedding celebration has started. 129

l Posting antithetical couplets on the doorway and reporting to the ancestral grave. This step

indicates the members of the groom’s family writing antithetical phrases on the paper and

pasting it to the door, to the accompaniment of Suona music and the sounds of firecrackers in

the background. Then the groom goes to the ancestral grave to kowtow and burn the paper

money, thus informing ancestors he will marry today. The Guchui ensemble plays

“Shiyangjing” [《十样景》]. l Evening performance. This performance begins at the 7:00 p.m., guests arrive continually as

the evening dinner proceeds. The elder generation sits in the central room, and other guests sit

in the shed built in the courtyard, called as “Kepeng.” The band plays “Qingheling” [《庆贺

令》], “Jixianbin” [《集贤宾》], Bainiaochaofeng [《百鸟朝凤》], and “Wuzi Kaimen” [《五

字开门》]. The band also performs pieces of local operas of “Huamulan” [《花木兰》],

“Chaoyanggou” [《朝阳沟》], “Dajinzhi” [《打金枝》], “Huadachao” [《花打朝》], and

“Hemiangye” [《喝面叶》]. These pieces are played until midnight, and immerse the members

of the family and other guests in a celebratory atmosphere.

The second day: l Relatives and friends come to celebrate and help to prepare. The groom travels to the bride’s

family to greet and bring the bride back to his household. l Groom’s greeting of in- [Jinmenli, 进门礼]. Here the groom goes to the bride’s family at

7:00 a.m. When he walks in the main gate he should bow to the father- and mother-in-law,

called the Jinmenli. At this time, the Guchui ensemble plays Haorizi [《好日子》] and

Dahuajiao [《大花轿》]. 130

l Welcoming the bride. The groom embraces the bride in groom’s home. The Suona plays the

joyful tune of Fuqishuangshuangbajiahuan [《夫妻双双把家还》]. l Performing formal bows by bride and groom. The climax of the entire wedding celebration

occurs when the new couple places incense and fruits on the sacrificial table and bows three

times. Then they bow in directions of Heaven and Earth, bow to their parents, and to each

other. After this step, a person of high prestige and wide respect gives the blessing to the new

couple, thus proving the legitimacy of the marriage. In this process, the Suona plays the

cheerful music of “Taihuajiao” [《抬花轿》] and Bainiaochaofeng [《百鸟朝凤》]. l Moving into the bridal chamber. The groom embraces the bride and leads her into the bridal

chamber, and guests follow them for the Nao bridal chamber. The Suona plays “Kaimen” [《开

门》]. l Guests treated cordially. The groom’s family has arranged a banquet to entertain guests. The

Suona band plays “Shiyangjing” [《十样景》], “Fandiaozi” [《凡调子》], “ Paiziqu” [《弦

牌子曲》], and tunes from local operas. l Starting the banquet. This step indicates the entertainment of family members and guests.

During the process, the new couple proposes the toast and urges the guests to drink. The Suona

plays “Qingheling” [《庆贺令》], “Wuliuwu” [《五六五》], and “Liuzi Kaimen” [《六字开

门》]. The family bids farewell to the guests after the Nao bridal chamber. The entire feast lasts

until 10:00 p.m. or later.

Simplified Process of the Two-day Wedding Ceremony 131

The first day: l In the evening of the first day, the groom’s family invites the Guchui ensemble that

accompanies the groom to the ancestral temple or grave to kowtow. At night, the Guchui

ensemble sits and plays music on the street, conveying the happy news of the wedding to the

neighbors.

The second day: l The groom visits the bride’s family the morning of the second day. The groom pays a

somewhat ordinary visit to his in-laws. The bride changes into the wedding clothes and sits in

the palanquin to travel to her fiancé’s family. After the formal wedding ceremony, the husband

and wife move into the bridal chamber, step onto the marriage bed, and Nao bridal chamber

with guests in the chamber follows. At last, the groom thanks relatives, friends, and guests who

attended the celebration. The Guchui band sits and plays music or walks with the groom while

playing. The repertoire is “Taihuajiao” [《抬花轿》], “Baihuatang” [《拜花堂》], “Putianyue”

[《普天乐》], Bainiaochaofeng [《百鸟朝凤》], “Yizhihua” [《一枝花》], and “Dadijiao” [《大

笛搅》].

[Note: this wedding process is widely used in the Shandong Province.]

Three-day Wedding Celebration

The one-day wedding and two-day party are a relatively uncomplicated wedding celebrations compare to the very traditional ceremony, which usually lasted three days and is prevalent in the Dongbei Province. 132

The first day: l The Guchui ensemble plays in the shed. The Guchui ensemble should arrive at the groom’s

family in afternoon or evening. When the group arrives at the gate, musicians play three

intervals of music, called “Xiangpeng.” This loud music signals the musical band has come

and the wedding celebration has begun, thus neighbors hear of this good news. For this step,

the Guchui ensemble plays “Gongcheshang” [《工尺上》], “Daguniang ” [《大姑娘美》],

“Tianxiayue” [《天下乐》], “Haqingge” [《海青歌》], and “Taiyin” [《呔音》].

The second day:

The family and friends prepare the palanquin and make sacrifices to ancestors on the second day. After breakfast, the Guchui ensemble plays for two hours, and then the wedding ceremony begins. l Filling the kettle [Zhuangbaoping, 装宝瓶]. In this step two girls fill a tin kettle with the

Gaoliang liquor and give the new couple a blessing. The Suona band plays “Liuyaojin” 《柳摇[

金》] and “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》]. l Filling the pillows. Two girls fill the new couple’s pillows and bedcovers with the buckwheat

or withered . The Suona plays “Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》]. The covers filled with

buckwheat and wilted sorghum produce sounds of friction from their movement, which

signifies negative or bad feelings or events [Yinxiezhiqi 阴邪之气], which are thus driven

from the new couple’s room. l The new couple changes into their ceremony garments. The mother or the sisters of the groom 133

assist him in dressing, draping the traditional red coat over his shoulder, and the red flower on

his breast. The Guchui ensemble performs “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》] and “Dakaimen” [《大

开门》]. l The groom goes to the ancestral grave to worship his ancestors and offer sacrifices to them,

accompanied by the Guchui ensemble that play when they arrive at the cemetery, and

firecrackers are set off. The repertoire is “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》], “Liuqingniang” [《柳

青娘》], “Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》], and “Xiaokaimen” [《玉芙蓉》]. The band passes through

each village on the road, playing music to inform everyone of the good news. After offering

sacrifices to ancestors, they repeat these steps when they go to the home of the bride. l Setting the banquet. This refers to the groom preparing the lunch, and proposing a toast to each

guest while the band plays the music of “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》].

[Note: after the lunchtime, the Guchui band plays music continually the whole afternoon. The musicians perform folk songs, traditional tunes, local operas tunes, accompanied by acrobatics and unique performance techniques. The ensemble is required to play until the evening or later.]

The third day: l The third day is the most significant, when the formal wedding celebration occurs. Before

dawn, the Guchui band begins playing again, the pieces are “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》] and

“Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》]. These pieces are used to call all relatives and neighbors together.

The marriage requires a bridal sedan chair or three cars, and the Guchui ensemble walks in

front of the bride and groom and their families, or rides in a second car. The Suona plays

“Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》] and “Shuilongyin” [《水龙吟》]. The musicians play floridly and 134

joyfully as they go through the villages, which serves the groom family to flaunt their

prosperity and broadens the reputation of the ensemble. l When the groom’s welcome group arrives at the bride’s family’s home, the Guchui ensemble

performs “Wannianhuan” 《万年欢》[ ] and “Liuqingniang” 《柳青娘》[ ], then break after which

they move to play in the shed, built for the occasion. The bride’s family prepares the lunch for

the musical band, called Shangchefan. After lunch, the Suona plays “Wannianhuan” [《万年

欢》] and “Liuqingniang” [《柳青娘》] again, and the bride begins preparing for the ceremony,

putting on her makeup and changing to formal dress. The Guchui group performs continually

during this time, as she will thank and reward them later for their work in creating and

reinforcing a cheerful atmosphere of the wedding. After dressing, the bride travels to the home

of the groom’s family, and as she leaves the band plays “Baolongtai” [《抱龙台》] and

“Xiaolongwei” [《小龙尾》]. After the bride sits into the palanquin for her journey, the Suona

performs “Deshengling” [《得胜令》] and “Huanghetao” [《黄河套》], which elevates the

wedding atmosphere to a new high. When she and the band return to the groom’s family, her

relatives and friends will be there with the groom’s welcoming group. l Once the wedding party is assembled at the groom’s home, firecrackers are set off. The

groom’s side blocks the front main entrance as a show of training the patience of the new wife.

The Suona performs “Chaotianzi” [《朝天子》] and “Baolongtai” [《抱龙台》]. After bowing

to Heaven and Earth, bowing the parents and to each other, the new couple moves into the

bridal chamber. The Guchui ensemble plays “Dongfangzan” 《洞房赞》[ ] and “Haiqingge” 《海[

清歌》]. Then the band sits in the shed to continue playing music until the evening, when the 135

feast begins. During the feast the new couple to proposes a toast to guests and thanks them for

attending the wedding ceremony. The Suona performs “Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》]. After the

feast, if it is not too late, the band plays lively tunes and local opera pieces, and musicians use

this period to show off their virtuosity, to impress the audience and to broaden their future

business. l At last, the new couple bids farewell to their relatives and friends accompanied by the band’s

“Baolongtai” [《抱龙台》], “Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》], and “Huanghetao” [《黄河套》]. After

the guests leave the village, the band plays Gongcheshang [《工尺上》] indicating the formal

end of the wedding celebration.

Conclusion

Thus, Suona music closely follows wedding celebrations and funeral ceremonies, demonstrating its importance since the Zhou Dynasty in the continuation of traditional ceremonial music (Liyue, [礼乐]). Music is an essential part of ceremony protocol and conventions; without it the ceremony would be incomplete; moreover, the Chinese have no other concrete form to assist in expressing their emotions. Consequently, the Guichui ensemble not only accompanies the wedding celebration, one of the significant “red events,” (Hongshi, [红事]), or happy occasions, but also plays an important role in other red events.

The Chinese define red events by their opposite, the “white event” (Baishi, [白事]), which refers only to the funeral ceremony. A red event indicates a happy event, of which there are wide ranges, including weddings, births, a baby’s first month anniversay, a boy’s first head-shaving, among others. All these are accompanied by Suona band music. 136

1) Baby’s twelfth day [Shiershan, 娃娃十二晌]. Shiershang, also called Xiaomanyue, celebrates the twelfth day after a baby’s birth. A wealthy family or a long-married couple, without children, host this celebration and invite a Guchui band to play cheerful music, “Wannianqing” [《万

年青》] and “Haiqingge” [《海清歌》] to set a cheerful ambience.

2) Baby’s first month [Banmanyue, 办满月]. A month after the child’s birth, the parents hold a celebration for his or her first month of life, called Banmanyue. The Guchui ensemble is invited to add to the fun, playing “Wuzi Kaimen” [《五字开门》], “Xiyangyang” [《喜洋洋》],

“Mantanghong” [《满堂红》], “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》], and “Yufurong” [《玉芙

蓉》]. These pieces increase the festive atmosphere for the baby and parents.

3) First head-shaving [Timaotou, 剃毛头]. This celebration is for boys only. If the couple only has one boy, his parents will allow him to keep a short braid, signifying their looking forward to him growing up healthy and disease-free. When the boy is six or twelve years old, his short plait will be shaved. If at six years it is not cut, the boy must wait until he is twelve to shave this braid.

Shaving the head is usually done on the second day of February, November, or December. The celebration lasts two days.

The first day: l Playing music similar to the wedding celebration, the Guchui ensemble arrives to the host

family home in the morning. The parents or steward of the child welcome the band and offer

cigarettes and tea. After everything is ready, the band plays lively, cheerful Suona repertoire,

such as Jiujiuyanyangtian [《九九艳阳天》], Huangtugaopo [《黄土高坡》], and Haorizi [《好 137

日子》]. The music lets the neighbors know about the head-shaving event. When friends hear

the music, they come to congratulate the parents and wish the child health and happiness as he

grows. l Receiving guests. Indicates that when neighbors and friends are coming continually, the

Guchui ensemble plays music throughout. l If the boy has Gandie93 and Ganma,94 he must go to meet them at the 11:00 a.m. The parents

of the child must buy new clothes for the Gandie and Ganma, and the child must invite them

himself. When they arrive at the family home of Gandie and Ganma, fireworkers are burned to

signal their arrival, the Gandia and Ganma also set off firecrackers in response. The Ganba

and Ganma prepare presents for the band musicians and give each player four eggs, signifying

a blessing to the child. After eating the eggs, the players return to performing. Then the Ganba

and Ganma dress in new clothes prepared by the parents and the child also changes to new

clothes, made by his Ganba and Ganma. After this, the entire family and musicians return to

the boy’s home. l Hospitality. This step signifies when they have all returned home and lunch begins. l After lunch, relatives, and friends come continually, and the Guchui band plays throughout.

The second day: l After first-day preparations the second day is for shaving the boy’s head. In the morning, the

barber arrives; the child’s family prepares a double amount95 of red towels for the ritual, and

93 Gandie is the man whose position is roughly equivalent to a foster father and godfather without religious or legal complications. 94 Ganma is the woman whose position is roughly equivalent to foster mother and godmother without religious or legal complications. 95 Double amounts signify that good turns come twice. 138

soup for the barber. The barber requires more than one razor, which signifies as the good luck

for the child. Generally, according to the age of the boy, the barber prepares the elements of

the ritual corresponding the numbers of razors. l The barber praying [Jingdao, 敬刀]. This step involves the barber kowtowing before the

razors in preparation of the shaving, praying to the master barber to bless and protect

everything, and ensuring things go smoothly. In the central room, using four desks placed

together as a big table, the barber lays two pieces of red or towels on the table, one used

for the boy to sit on, the other used to enclose around his neck. The water used must have

flowed from a spring or river, indicating the child will grow up healthy, without disease. The

Suona band plays music to accompany the boy and his parents as they go to the riverside to

fetch the water. l Shaving the head. The Ganma embraces the child, and the barber begins shaving his head.

During this process, the Guchui band plays music as background. After cutting the hair,

firecrackers are set off. The shaved braid, red clothing, mirror, and razor are then put in a

basin. l Washing the basin. The family brings the bowl, sacrificial food, and sacrificial table to the

riverside, burns incense, paper money, and sets off firecrackers to offer to the gods of the river.

Then the parents put the basin in the river. After this step, they can eat the sacrificial food, and

the band plays music to accompany the small meal. When they return home, the Guchui

ensemble takes the break. When they reenter the central room, the band plays more music,

such as “Fanyi Diao” [《凡乙调》], “Yunliyou” [《云里游》], and “Sanyanhou” [《三眼猴》]. 139

l Dinner. A banquet is prepared to thank all the guests, especially the Gandie and Ganma.

4) Birthday celebration [Hedashou, 贺大寿]. Hedashou refers to the younger generation celebrating the birthday for an elder, sixty years old or over, generally lasts two days.

The first day: l The host family invites the Guchui ensemble to sit down in the shed and play music.

The second day: l The Guchui band plays at main gate of the home to congratulate the person on their birthday.

When all the guests arrive, the group performs the lively and happy music, such as

“Bainiaochaofen” [《百鸟朝凤》], “Wuzi Kaimen” [《五字开门》], “Liuzi Kaimen” [《六字

开门》], “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》], and “Baxian Qingshou” [《八仙庆寿》].

These rituals and the Suona band’s participation demonstrate its significant role in all the ceremonial activities in life, especially in the wedding celebration and funeral ceremony.

The Guchui Band Role in Folk Rituals

Besides their use in ceremonial activities concerning the life-cycle, the Suona and Guchui bands are closely linked to performing rituals of Chinese folk beliefs. These beliefs differ from religious beliefs discussed in chapter IV, thus also combine with folk customs to form a kind of spiritual sustenance. These traditional beliefs have strongly influenced Chinese spiritual and material life. Often folk people believe that good luck and happiness, or the ominous and misfortune, 140

are due to mysterious powers. These spiritual faiths are intangible, so people project them onto particular deities, which become targets for worship or for offering sacrifices. Therefore, in the long , anything or anybody might be considered to have some mysterious power, and can serve as a sacrificial object. For instance, people attribute a drought to a certain force that manages the rain, but if it refuses to rain, they imagine the superior power of God has played a particular role blocking it––the , for example––and offer sacrifices to him. They wish for the Dragon

King to understand their sincere desires and to receive their tributes, then let the rain fall. Therefore, folk beliefs are primarily manifested in offering sacrifices to a variety of gods, ancestors, and spirits.

Before the Han Dynasty, generally the Chinese believed in what they thought of as natural gods. By the Han Dynasty, the introduction of Buddhism and Taoism had increased the Chinese devotional system by two. By the seventh century, Islam had also spread to China and gradually became a favorite among many ethnic groups. Thus, the natural deities, Buddha, and gods of entirely different religions became gods in people’s minds, and were worshipped to bring safety, reduce disaster, and to achieve aspirations.

Later, people continued to create gods, and regarded some significant figures in their history as gods. Thus, Confucius, Guan Yu,96 and Yue Fei97 became gods. These demons surround all aspects of life; people with expectations went to worship the relevant gods to pray for a blessing.

Various rituals and activities of deities became an important part of social life and thus the custom.

If all the gods could bless people as safe, help them achieve desires, they would worship them, and

96 Guan Yu (160 or 162 C.E.—220 C.E.) was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. He played a significant role in the events that led to the collapse of the dynasty, and the establishment of the state of ––founded by Liu Bei––during the Three Kingdoms period. 97 Yue Fei (1103 C.E.—1142 C.E.) was a Han Chinese military general who lived during the Southern Song Dynasty. He is best known for leading Southern Song forces in wars of the twelfth century, between Southern Song and the Jurchen – ruled Jing Dynasty, in northern China before being put to death by the Southern Song government. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yue_Fei. 141

gain happiness at some point. Since the Ming Dynasty, when the Suona became widely used in folk music, it also was extensively used for sacrificial performances.

One , called Yingshensaihui [迎神赛会], constitutes a cultural activity carried out in a city or urban area, beginning at a temple, then traveling around streets and lanes to hold the sacrificial ritual of praying to expel misfortune. The third syllable of the word Yingshensaihui, ‘sai’ means to offer anything to a god. This kind of activity appeared during the North Wei period,98 after which generations handed it down. The purpose of this action was not only to entertain the gods, but also to transform the misfortune into entertaining people, inspiring them to engage in celebrating this ritual. This ceremony was also believed to provide oppotunities for the development of art.

There are various kinds of temple fairs [Miaohui, 庙会] held every month in China. The typical temple festivals are held for (Daode Tianzun), , Zisun Niangniang,

Manjushri, Gautama Buddha, Yaowang, Guanyu, Dragon King, God of Thunder, Erlang ,

Zhongyuan Diguan, , Puan Zushi, Beiyue Dadi, Zhang Fei, , City

God, Shuiguan Dadi, Ziwei Dadi, Confucius, Xiyue Dadi, Taiyi , Dadi, and Huayan

Buddha. Moreover, all worship their Zushiye,99 in order to bless a business or make a job go smoothly. Different temple fairs offer the likelihood for Suona music. The Yinshensaihui fair has a diversity characteristics, but generally proceeds as follows:

1) Welcoming the god. This is the first event of the entire Yingshensaihui, held before offering the divine objects and foods to the god. The welcome group of the god includes the Guchui ensemble, an honor guard team, and the juggling groups. The Guchui marches in front of a parade,

98 The Northern Wei period lasted from 386 C.E.—535 C.E. 99 Zushiye is considered the person who created this trade. 142

and playing joyful music, which is followed by the juggling shows. The participants walk across streets to dispel disasters and eliminate diseases, and to pray for blessings and happiness.

Three bands of Guchui (or Suona) ensembles are invited to participate in this event. The groups play for the opening, with the procession, and for the juggling shows.

2) Offering the sacrificial objects and foods to the god. After walking the streets, the second part of the ritual is provide divine objects to worship the god. The participants, holding the divine objects and the Suona bands enter the temple and set these on a table in the temple’s main hall.

3) Setting up and playing music. Participants put the delicious foods and sorghum spirits on the sacrificial table, and the host speaks, praying to help all participants obtain the safe lives without mishap. The musicians play music to accompany the dance and operas.

Besides these events, held in more urban areas, various villages have ceremonies to worship the deities or ancestors of their families or communities. The town will hold a ritual on the birthday of the elder or village leader to grant wishes by providing precious divine things. Most people pray for future safety and their desires achieved. After the process of praying, the god of the village will return to the village temple.

The Guchui ensembles, invited by the village people, walk in front of and behind the sacrificial group. Some bands are organized to the demands of the community. The wealthiest family of the town pays large fees to put the musical group together, employing master musicians to instruct novice members in developing musical skills.

The Chinese have various gods corresponding to countless sacrificial activities, 143

accompanied by the Guchui ensemble, the standard configuration in any ceremony. The band plays a significant role in all rituals, regardless the size of the musical group.

Another folk festival, the [Yulanpenjie, 盂兰盆节] (a Buddhist festival, mentioned in chapter IV, is held on July 15 in the annual lunar month. On that day, the temple holds a chanting ceremony to rid ancestral spirits of their suffering. With the spread of Buddhism, this kind of Buddhist ritual gradually combined with other folk activities and became the

[Guijie, 鬼节] to celebrate ordinary people. The Bon is a transliteration of the Sanskrit

“Ullam-bana,” which means, “inverted pendulum.” This word is used to describe suffering, the ‘Pen

[盆]’ meaning the vessel, is used for holding divine objects. For the Bon festival, Buddhist temples hold a chanting ceremony [Yulanpen Fahui, 盂兰盆法会] for rescuing all living things from suffering of the inverted pendulum (the painful and suffering) of their parents or relatives.

In Taoism an altar is set up to take lonely souls and ghosts across to sentient beings everywhere. Living people bring sacrifices to graves, burn paper money, and serve fruit and pastries, or offer “clothes” made of paper, to let the ancestors eat and keep warm in the winter. Additionally, participants put “lotus lights” (candles set on the plates) in the river water to sacrifice to the river god for assisting ghosts in the river in ascending to the Sukhavati.100 On this day, both Buddhist and

Taoist temples invite the Guchui ensemble to accompany the ceremony for releasing souls from purgatory. The band plays “Shuilongyin” [《水龙吟》] to worship ghosts in the rivers.

In addition to these rituals of folk beliefs, the Chinese worship supernatural powers. Since ancient times, except for in nomadic areas, most of China has relied on farming and fishing as

100 Sukhavati refers to the western pure land of Amitābha in Mahayana Buddhism. 144

primary modes of production. People believe that whether they rely on the harvest or fish, how much they reap or catch is attributable to the blessings of gods. Therefore, they organize a variety of sacrificial activities, and offer sacrifices, for example, in praying for good weather. If they receive a good harvest after their hard work, they also hold rituals to offer more sacrifices, and express thanks for the blessings of gods. The Guchui ensemble plays loudly in order that their sounds convey participant desires great distances to gods. Prayers for rain and worship of river gods are related to water, and the Chinese believe the Dragon King rules waters and rainfall, so the ensemble repertoire is chosen for its links to water [水] or [龙]; thus they play pieces such as “Yitiaolong” [《一

条龙》], “Batiaolong “[《八条龙》], “Shuilongying” [《水龙吟》], and “Jiangershui” [《江儿水》].

Besides worshipping gods and Heaven for health, smooth production, and enough food and clothing, the Chinese also worship their ancestors on the birthdays, or the family sets a particular time to offer sacrifices to their progenitors. The younger generations express their desires in front of ancestral graves to pray they take care and bless the younger generations. Worship of ancestors need not require a Guchui ensemble; only the wealthy families can afford musicians to play for family sacrificial rituals.

The Suona used in folk festivals plays a different role than in the music mentioned above.

It functions as entertainment in these, even as the music in these festivals is at times lively happy, or cheerful.

The most common festival to use Suona music is the Spring Festival. Different provinces in China have their way to celebrate in their own way; representative folk celebrations are Shehuo, yangge, Hanchuan, Wulong, and Wushi. Bands are invited to play to provide a cheerful atmosphere, 145

the Suona and percussion. The repertoires includes “Wulongwu” [《舞龙曲》], “Yudeshui” [《鱼得

水》], and “Shulong Diao” [《耍龙调》].

Suona Music, Pedagogy, and Status of Players

Although playing the lead in the Guchui ensemble, Suona playing has not been highly respected as an occupation. Their status has ossilated over the millennium. When the instrument was introduced into the Central Plains, the social status of Suona players was very low. After they built reputations in courts or served officials, they were considered “fed” [Huanyang, 豢养],101 meaning like slaves who served their master. They had little freedom, and were seen as commodities, their music given as gifts or be sold.

The emperor’s court set up a particular office of “music family” [Yuehu, 乐户], to train musicians and dancers, who were registered in the census differently. Individuals enrolled into the music family were not considered equal, the color of the paper of the census register differed from that indicating ordinary people. The court also stipulated that the music family could not participate in examinations to become officials, and had no chance to upgrade their position. Moreover, children of such families could not intermarry with those of common people, thus could only intermarry among other musical families. Therefore, the social status of musicians remained at the bottom of Chinese society, generation by generation.

The Yuan Dynasty divided the social strata divided into Jiuru Shigai [九儒十丐],102 with

101 Huanyang [豢养] means to feed. Chinese use this verb to describe feed pets, which means the Suona players are like the pets. 102 Yuan Dynasty issued levels of the occupation system as Jiuru Shigai [九儒十丐], which includes that the first as government officials, the second mandarins, the third monks, the fourth Taoists, the fifth doctors, the sixth workers, the seventh craftsmen, the eighth the prostitutes, the ninth Confucians, and the tenth as beggars. 146

Suona artists at the “beggar” level. Any occupation was deemed of higher value than these artists.

Until the Ming and Qing dynasties, then in the beginning of the Republic of China,103 the social status of Suona players remained at the lowest level of the ‘Xiajiuliu’ [下九流] of Sanjiao Jiuliu [三

教九流].104 Suona players and other instrumentalists were called tortoises [Wangba, 王八],105 implying they forgot the eight standards of people, and could not be considered human. They were disliked and avoided not only when alive, but said to be shunned when they died. Unable to enter the ancestral hall when alive and also could not be buried in the ancestral grave once they died.

Although the social status very low of musicians, many Chinese seek to study in instrumental skills. Suona players cannot give up this low-level status profession at the bottom; they inherit the family playing skills from generation to generation. Although ordinary people might discriminate against Suona players, artisans106 have maintained the concept that people with a craft can earn a livelihood at any time, the core problem for individuals living at the bottom of the community. These musicians are proud of their performing skills, but dealing with making a living while also gaining the respect of relatively wealthy families, makes the profession and practitioners very attractive in China.

In the process of passing on Suona performance skills, most of these artists depend primarily on [Kouchuan Xinshou, 口传心授], an apprenticeship that relies on masters

103 This period of the state in East Asia lasted from 1912 C.E.—1949 C.E. 104 Sanjiao Jiuliu [三教九流], the Sanjiao indicates Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and the Jiuliu is classified according to levels:1) the high level includes emperors, sages, recluses, officials, scholars, warriors, peasants, workers, and businessmen; 2) the middle level includes officials, doctors, geomancers, painters, intellectuals, Qin and chess players, monks, Taoists, and nuns; and 3) the low level includes witches, prostitutes, wizards, workers, barbers, Suona players, actors or actresses, beggars, and sugar sellers. 105 Tortoise [Wangba, 王八] is the homophonic word for “forget eight standards,” [Wangba, 忘八] in Chinese, written by the Qing Dynasty Zhaoyi’s Gaiyu Congshu [《陔馀丛书》] Vol.38. Here it is written that the Chinese pay attention to the standards of the people, which include retaining customs, justice, honesty, cleanliness, concern for shame, filial piety, love and respect, , and trust. 106 Artisans: the Suona players belong to one kind of artisans that because they rely on their skills to earn income. Besides, barbers and tailors also belong to this kind of people, who also earn their livelihood by their skills. 147

instructing their apprentices. Additionally, every Suona well-known family holds the core concept that performing skills are handed down within the family, educating the young male generation rather than the young female generation, considered the playing skills and characteristics of their families as reserved for future generations.

The oral tradition in China focuses on comprehension of the essence of music inherited for thousands of years, emphasizing performance skills, styles, and characters. In modern China the oral tradition is not as systematic and professional as ordinary school education; however, such accumulated experience over time has irreplaceable value in the modern educational system. When

Suona masters guide their apprentices, they use very strict requirements. They require their pupils to follow them repeatedly in performance practices of singing, memorizing, and understanding the deeper meanings of the Suona repertoire; only then can the apprentice begin practicing the instrument. The entire tradition of teaching and learning reflects the concept that music should be comprehended in the heart before training in playing skills can occur. When disciples demonstrate that they know the depth and charm of the music, their masters will allow them to practice technique, which ensures these musicians gain enough ability to express the emotions of the repertoire accurately to audiences.

In addition to using oral tradition, some masters also employ Gongche notations [工尺

谱],107 traditional Chinese notation of characters used to instruct the singing and playing. Gongche notation was prevalent in the Ming and Qing dynasties, written in ten Chinese characters: He [合],

Si [四], Shang [上], [尺], Gong [工], Fan [凡], Liu [六], Wu [五], and Yi [乙], which

107 Gongche notation [工尺谱] is one of the traditional Chinese notation, which uses the words of Gong [工], Che [尺], and other words to write the notation, so gets the name as the ‘Gongche notation.’ This notation is widely used of songs, , dramas, and instrumental music. 148

correspond to the Western musical alphabet as g, a, b, c1, d1, e1, f1, g1, a1, b1. This notation is widely used of sons, folk arts, dramas, and instrumental music.

The notation method of Cuongche as: 1) the Chinese character ‘ 亻,’ which indicates pitches are played one octave higher than the original, the character ‘ 彳,’ means the pitches are played two octaves higher than the original; 2) the left-falling stroke, which refers to pitches played an octave lower than the original, and two left falling strokes, indicates playing pitches two octave lower than the original; 3) the sign ‘ 、’ indicates repeating the note once, and the sign ‘ 、、’ indicates repeating the note twice; 4) the mark ‘ , ’ indicates to lower the note a major second or minor third; and 5) ‘ V ’ indicates to raise the note a major second or minor third.

In terms of scale and key the notation corresponds to the Suona as follows:

The The The The The The The Chinese Western pitch of pitch of pitch of pitch of pitch of pitch of pitch of traditional scale Suona the first the the third the the fifth the sixth scale tube hole second hole fourth hole hole hole hole a b #c1 d1 e1 #f1 g1 Zheng scale (Xiaogong scale) Chi 尺 Gong 工 Fan 凡 He 合 四 Yi 一 Shang Sizi scale G scale 上 (Wuzi scale,or Zhenggong scale Gong 工 Fan 凡 He 合 Si 四 Yi 一 Shang Chi 尺 Liuzi scale F scale 上 Fan 凡 He 合 Si 四 Yi 一 Shang Chi 尺 Gong 工 Fanzi bE scale 上 scale He 合 Si 四 Yi 一 Shang Chi 尺 Gong 工 Fan 凡 D scale 149

上 scale (Gonagzi scale) Si 四 Yi 一 Shang Chi 尺 Gong 工 Fan 凡 Liu 六 Chizi scale C scale 上

筒音 一孔 二孔 三孔 四孔 五孔 六孔 中国传 西洋调 统调名 式 a b #c1 d1 e1 #f1 g1 正调（小 工调） 尺 工 凡 合 四 一 上 四字调 G 调 （又名 五字调， 正宫调） 工 凡 合 四 一 上 尺 六字调 F 调 凡 合 四 一 上 尺 工 凡字调 bE 调 合 四 一 上 尺 工 凡 小字调 D 调 （工字 调） 四 一 上 尺 工 凡 六 尺字调 C 调

Table 1. Suona Pitches and Instrument Keys (Holes) Corresponding to Chinese Characters, Scales, and Western Scales.

The beat patterns are: 1) Sanban [Senza Misura],108 2) Liushuiban [only has downbeat], 3)

Yiban Yiyan [two-fourths], 4) Yiban Sanyan [four-fourths], and 5) add Zengban to Yiban Sanyan.

The sign of ‘Ban’ is ‘ 、’ or ‘ x .’

Beats: Downbeat: Upbeat: One downbeat one upbeat Downbeat：、or x Upbeat: ○ One downbeat three upbeat First downbeat：、or x First upbeat：、 Middle upbeat： Middle downbeat：L （—） ○ Last upbeat：L First upbeat ： L Middle upbeat：△ Last upbeat：L Add beat to the one downbeat First downbeat: First upbeat：

108 Sanban [Senza Misura] means without counting in a measured way, or free time. 150 three upbeat 正板：、 头眼：、 中眼：○ 末 增板：X 头眼：、 中眼：○ 末 眼：、 眼：、 Middle downbeat： Middle upbeat： 正板：L 头眼：L 中眼：△ 末 增板：X 头眼：L 中眼：△ 末 眼：L 眼：L

板式： 板： 眼： 一板一眼 板：、或 x 眼：○ 一般三眼 实板：、或 x 头眼：、 中眼：○ 末眼：L 腰板：L （—） 腰眼：L 中眼：△ 末眼：L 加增板的一般三眼 实板： 实眼： 正板：、 头眼：、 中眼：○ 末 增板：X 头眼：、 中眼：○ 末 眼：、 眼：、 腰板： 腰眼： 正板：L 头眼：L 中眼：△ 末 增板：X 头眼：L 中眼：△ 末 眼：L 眼：L

Table 2. Beats, Downbeat, and Upbeat of Chinese Notation

The Gongche notations provide the necessary information of pieces of traditional qupai of

Suona and also preserved these tunes today.

Conclusion

Observing and analyzing the use of the Algaita and Suona, homogenous double-reed, in two different cultural environments, reveals a process of acculturation these instruments within their located cultural contexts. Their process was long-term, taking place over hundreds of years in both

West African countries and China.

This acculturation process different to the religious acculturation and enculturation process mentioned earlier in chapter V demonstrated the dissemination of instruments often accompanied by an invasion of a strong culture into a weak one. These instruments retained at least parts of their cultural background when they took on the new cultural environment; for example, the 151

Algaita and Suona were used in the court music and military music and these two functions matched their roles in their original culture. Once the instrument was disseminated into the new environment, however, the traditional repertoire played was not always accessible, or not directly introduced into the new cultural environments surrounding the instrument. Consequently, once brought into the new geographic area, the instrumental music took forms influenced by the new environment, thus closely related to the adopted history, folklore, faith, geographical location, social features, and philosophy.

As a result, the new roles of these instruments appeared according to the preferences of the new environment. These new roles were achieved through the newly emerged functions in the new context. At the same time, performers used the musical materials of their own culture to create new music for the instrument, facilitating the traditional and natural uses of the instrument in new activities to meet expectations in the new context. In short, the creation of music within new cultures was part of acculturation and new social functions and pieces for Algaita and Suona emerged within this long process.

Even with their similar genesis, the Algaita and Suona functioned differently in their use within various cultural contexts. The Algaita was played for African chiefs, governors, and Muslim emirs, in part, because Muslims had introduced the instrument with Islam, the first major religion to integrate fully in West Africa. The Algaita was used in festivals of Islamic influence, as well as functioning as a surrogate language formed by features of the African language and unique eulogizing. The Algaita’s new role accompanying African dance occurred naturally, as many

Africans societies considered music and dance as an entirety. Finally, the Algaita served in healing, when witch doctors and traditional healers used this music in particular medical practices in Africa, 152

for example, in their treatments to drive out evil spirits.

We might speculate as to why Algaita and Suona performers have such different levels of social status in West African countries and China. In answering, it may not prove too simplistic to say that almost all Africans play some sort of music, that these societies think more highly of music than the Chinese, and thus that the social status of African musicians is generally higher. Even though in China a variety of musical activities serve rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations, music and musicians have always been regarded as subordinate to the activities they served. Moreover, most of the Chinese population has not dedicated enough attention to music to separate to it from its service.

Based on this ingrained concept, we could say that most Chinese regarded and dance performed at the royal court [, 雅乐] as important because it served Confucian customs and morals; they also favored folk music for amusement and entertaining traditional beliefs, helping to achieve filial piety, to enhance the festive atmosphere, and prayers to reach gods. With the music itself they were not particularly concerned, so the status of artists has reflected them as servants to any of these activities. Consequently, Chinese society considers musicians as inferior.

Compared to the study of logical and natural phenomena of these similar instruments, with different functions in different cultural environments, the more impressive results of this research explain why they have the same functions as used in the two continents at such a long distance. Here again, the simple response is that the two instruments have more similarity than difference in function in the two continents, both are used for marriage celebrations, funeral rituals, life customs, and folklore activities. Their emergence of general characters has been influenced by the following:

1) By and large, humans pay attention to critical moments and stages of life: newborns, 153

growing up, weddings, and funerals. Therefore, we hold important ceremonies to celebrate or sacrifice at these significant moments. The Algaita and Suona have played similar roles in enforcing happy or distressed atmospheres normal to such occasions.

Moreover, such rituals and celebrations are held publically, and the host family seeks to inform neighbors and friends of their importance, thus need the sounds of ritual music to be heard at long distances. Both Algaita and Suona can deliver sound at long distances, and assist in expressing emotions normal for such rituals, thus they both possess the significant factors in them.

2) Even before they were invaded and colonized, and the instruments were acculturated,

West African countries and China had agrarian societies with economies based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland, hunting, and fishing. Commercial models and large-scale production became additional modes of production, occupying a small part of the whole society.

Thus their social values and manners of production gave them respect for natural forces on which they depended, desire for the best harvest acted on through prayer and worship. Moreover, they believed that the ritual details, for example, the use of the loud and clear instrument to convey their wishes at higher and longer distances affected the gods with powers to help them achieve their desires and hear their requests. So, the Algaita and Suona became important in the same function of conveying powerful musical messages.

3) For hundreds of years, the populations of West African countries and China viewed playing a musical instrument as a kind of skill not highly valued in the majority of schools. The best way of learning such skills was to apprentice with the master. Masters always concentrated on teaching several apprentices, inviting them to live with the family to facilitate their learning in the 154

oral tradition. This teaching method required no materials of education, only to focus on the manner of demonstration and imitation between master and apprentice. Algaita and Suona teaching reflected this kind of education, which emphasized the master’s instruction on playing techniques and performance experiences with stringent requirements, and the students’ assiduous practice to achieve the criterions set by the master and to finish their apprenticeship.

4) The playing skills of Algaita and Suona were passed on primarily to male rather than female students. The male was viewed as the primary productive force of the agrarian society, thus his status was higher than that of females. Moreover, in the common marriage customs in these countries the woman moved in with the man’s family, becoming a member of his family, and families set out to preserve assets and intangible properties for their male heirs. Reflecting this process of inheritance, masters of the Algaita and Suona passed down their techniques and practices to young males; in some families these performing skills reflected ancestral inheritance values.

5) The Algaita and Suona functions in folk activities used to entertain common people but also to entertain the gods were mixed and inseparable. West African countries and Chinese populations believed in supernatural powers and the existence of gods, thus all aspects of secular life were related to their belief in the gods. Entertainment of ordinary folk they viewed as pleasing to their gods, who, they believed, could bring happiness, eliminate disasters, and help them achieve their desires. These populations’ in the entertainment or worship of gods led, they believed, to the latter’s blessing of mysterious forces.

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CHAPTER VII

NEW DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF THE AFRICAN ALGAITA AND CHINESE SUONA

In considering new trends of the Algaita and Suona, we must understand how the effects of slavery, , and wars played role in their development.

Since the 1880s, European executed new colonialism that started a comprehensive colonization of the entire continent of Africa, known as the time. In 1885 C.E.,

British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition. Thus, the region where the Algaita was commonly used became colonies, under the rule of Britain, France, and . These European countries brought urbanization to Nigeria, Mali, Niger, Chad, and

Cameroon, influencing in no small way their traditional culture. The emergence of the new urbanization precipitated the beginning of the decline of traditional African music.

In fact, European colonialism may have had little direct impact on West African traditional music at the beginning of the colonization. However, the expansion impacted the entire cultural environment in which West African music had survived. In this chapter, a discussion of the positive or negative influences of colonization African continent might be summarized as follows:

European colonial governments colonized the African continent primarily commercial purposes, appropriating lands primarily based on extracting and ores, pleasant , and fertile soil for . They also settled and immigrated into these areas, interrupting the living environment and lifestyle of Africans. Because the colonists had no in-depth understanding of the distinct ethnic cultures and beliefs among diverse ethnic groups in Africa, they governed states 156

by their subjective intention, causing devastation and conflict in the lives of Africans.

European colonialism caused such influences together: 1) destroyed the traditional fabric of the African community, 2) removed the power of the village chiefs, 3) fragments traditional

African society, culture, and value, and 4) transformed the lifestyles of Africans.

As the reflection of these social changes, music also changes. Besides medical methods, the education system, and religion, colonists also brought musical instruments and styles to Africa in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Africans used these instruments, preferring the keyboard, , trumpet, , , , and in their performances. Later in the twentieth century, with the appearance of recording, radio, the burgeoning ,

African musicians quickly created new musical genres throughout the continent, as well as began conducting analysis, research, and musical borrowing. American jazz with its influence of African musical and cultural elements was re-introduced to Africa and exchanged influence with African music. As early as the Europeans colonializing Africa, Africans were exposed to the foundational understanding of European . Thus, jazz would not have seemed too foreign, and learning and imitating jazz elements, combined with their traditional musical elements, created new genres of African . Gradually, African musicians began to include trumpet, tuba, guitar, and saxophone to their traditional percussion ensembles. African players of these musical instruments were invited to join bands. Musicians did their best to mimic Western musical genres and forms, and correspondingly their traditional African music had less appeal.

Since the 1920s, new genres of West African music, such as Palm-wine, , and

Jùjú, were distinguished from traditional music. Palm-wine music developed in the early twentieth 157

century in the British-colonized and Anglophone areas of coastal West Africa, corresponding now to

Sierra Leone, , Ghana, and Nigeria. It mainly evolved among the Kru ethnic group. This kind of new music featured a fusion of African folk music from these regions with imported

Calypso.1 Basic instruments were guitar, percussion, and vocals; other instruments were added at random as well as combining melodies and rhythms with calypso. The influence of Palm wine music when the development of both highlife and Jùjú occurred. Highlife originated in the early twentieth century, blending harmonic and rhythmic structures of traditional Akan music with

Western jazz horns and multiple electric . Highlife was popular across the border of Ghana and other mainly English-speaking countries like Nigeria.2 Jùjú emerged in the Nigerian colonial capital of around 1932 C.E., derived from traditional Yoruba percussion. The Yoruba word

“jùjú” means to throw, or something being thrown. It evolved in urban clubs and was later incorporated into funk, reggae, and Afro-beat. During the 1950s, the talking drum, electric guitar, and were incorporated into jùjú.

1 Caribbean Calypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean music that originated in Trinidad and Tobago during the early to mid-twentieth century and spread to the rest of Caribbean Antilles and Venezuela. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_music. 2 New World Encyclopedia. 2017. “,” accessed March 22, 2017. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Music_of_Africa. 158

Figure 15. Gange Brass Band, Festival at the Desert, January 8-11, 2004, in Essakane, Mali.3

3 http://www.flickr.com/photos/cultrvultr/888853162 159

Figure 16. Gange Brass Band, Festival at the Desert, January 8-11, 2004, in Essakane, Mali.4

New Trends Impact on the Algaita

The new musical attitude of combining traditional instruments with new-fashioned music styles began to change during the colonial period, which influenced the development of Algaita music, resulting in the following:

1) Algaita as an aerophone less prevalent than percussion or idiophones in the African traditional music. Therefore, when European music was introduced, percussions and idiophones were easy to combine with European and American instruments to play musical styles with

European and American pop and traditional musical elements.

4 http://www.flickr.com/photos/cultrvultr/888852992/in/photostream 160

2) The Algaita’s four or five tones, competent for its function as a surrogate language, conformed to the new music ensembles uneasily and slowly. Additionally, other European aerophones––trumpet, tuba, trombone, French horn, and saxophone––have been introduced to

Africa, thus changed the Algaita’s role when ensembles required one or more woodwinds.

3) European colonists promoted Christianity to convert Africans, who had vacillated their religion incorporating Islam in West Africa. Nigeria, for example, was divided into Northern and Southern Provinces, and Lagos Colony during British rule. Christianity penetrated at a higher rate in the southern region, and those entering the church, were forced to leave their faiths of Islam or African traditional religions. Therefore, the primary function of the Algaita in service to Islamic emirs or village chiefs declined or disappeared.

4) Colonists introduce new medicine and to Africa, and vigorously popularize scientific methods. Africans no longer rely on traditional treatments or cure process that requires Algaita music to cleanse and chase away bad spirits. Although Africans accept the new medical care, they sometimes continue to use traditional therapies, which lose their attraction gradually.

5) Number of various celebrations of new years, weddings, and festivals remains steady even in the colonial period, with Europeans bringing their festivals and ceremonies to Africa.

Such celebrations are inseparable from musical performances, still using African percussion and idiophones. However, African musical preferences change, with more liking electric bands that include guitar, electronic instruments, saxophone, and keyboard. African ensembles, in order to attract more audiences, include trumpet, tuba, trombone, guitar, and saxophone players in their 161

bands.

6) The significant number of African labors recruited to , mines, and extracting gold and during the colonial period transforms the agricultural modes and lifestyles of

Africa. Africans who worked in traditional farming, hunting, and fishing in villages are now employed by European companies, farms, and mines. Western educational models with scientific knowledge changes traditional sacrificial rituals. The Algaita is used used for the agricultural ritual activities.

7) Western colonist modes of education end or severely weaken the apprenticeship and teaching through the oral tradition. West Africa sets up music schools, instructing students in traditional instrument skills, but also teach younger generations musical knowledge, theory, and compositional styles of Western music, as well as playing skills of Western instruments. Thus, oral tradition is weakened also affects the enthusiasm of youth in traditional music learning. The heritage and popularity of the Algaita is significantly threatened.

8) The introduction of European culture to facilitate colonial domination requires their subjects to learn a foreign language as the . This threatens the survival of traditional

African languages and music, the latter with its close relationship, declines even faster than the languages. The function of the Algaita as a surrogate speaking language, although not disappearing, is significantly reduced in other traditional activities.

To sum up, Europe’s colonization decimated the African systems of living, more so than anything since the introduction of Islam, and stymied or forbade the influence of other foreign cultures. Also, the gradual spread of electric and electronic instruments, radio, television, the 162

Internet, recording technology led many musicians to give up their traditional musical instruments and discard traditional repertoires.

The Algaita and its function in West Africa were also influenced by music and musicians from the . In the mid-twentieth century, some African American artists and musicians came to Africa in search of their origins. These “cultural ambassadors” believed that, despite the dispersion of Africans globally through the transatlantic slave trade, as members of the African

Diaspora their primordial culture remained intact, thus they possessed a distinct cultural heritage from the African continent. They contended that before global black liberation could be attained, people of African descent, particularly those living in the United States, the Caribbean, and Europe, must reassert and embrace their cultural heritage and eliminate other alien cultural influences.5 Thus during the political unrest and struggle for civil rights in mid-century American, these African

American musicians and poets developed the American Black Arts Movement, which emphasized a renewed interest in their historical roots and African traditional culture. With their music, they began to connect with African traditional cultural roots.

Acting in coordination with the American Civil Rights Movements, African colonies declared independence one after another. These countries fought and transformed colonial life, earning their freedom at the same time. After they had fought for autonomy, they were able in some ways to actively recover their ways of life, especially in regenerating their music. In spite of the impact of modern styles such as highlife and jùjú in the mid-century, traditional African musicians maintained the music of traditional instruments and other musical styles of the West African region,

5 John Douglas Baskerville, The Impact of Black Nationalist Ideology on American Jazz Music of the 1960s and 1970s (Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen Press, 2003), 37. 163

this “classical” music emerging. For instance, Dan Maraya (1946 C.E.—2015 C.E.), a Nigerian

Hausa Griot best known for playing the ,6 focused on his personal heroes, such as drivers and soldiers, rather than the wealthy and famous in his repertoire of praise singing, incorporating social commentary.

These traditional artists interacted with African American musicians looking for their cultural roots, thus making many modern musical works, combining American jazz with African national music elements. Foremost among them, Yusef Lateef, Art Blakey, and Randy Weston, who all made at least one trip to Africa. These trips were influential in their creative life. Although they differed in their ideas about the relationship between African music and African American creative musical works, they used African local musical elements, identified in their travel, in their compositions, performances, and recordings.

With his background as a woodwind instrumentalist, Lateef especially was more concerned with West African native woodwind instruments and utilized Western theory and jazz composing techniques to write many new works for quintet and orchestra. He also fully manifested the timbral features of West African aerophones-personalized sound.

Lateef composed his Sister Mamie, according to the Hausa traditional song Malleeri; thus, his work combines the musical techniques of jazz to traditional playing feature of the Algaita.

6 Kontigi is a one-string or two-string lute used in Hause music of northern Nigeria, Niger, and among the Hausa minorities in Benin, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Cameroon. It is also found among Islamized peoples throughout West Africa. The best-known player is Dan Maraya Jos. 164

Figure 17. Hausa traditional song “Malleeri” performed on Algaita.7

Transcribed by Jason Squinobal Sister Mamie Yusef Lateef q=120 Algaita               5                  9               13                  17                         

21            

25                       29             33          37    

                 41   

                 

45                          

50                       361    

Figure 18. From “West African Music in the Music of Art Blakey, Yusef Lateef, and Randy Weston” of Jason John Squinobal. The transcription was by Jason John Squinobal.

7 Jason John Squinobal. “West African Music in the Music of Art Blakey, Yusef Lateef, and Randy Weston,” docter’s dissertation (University of Pittsburgh, 2007), p. 279.

165

Lateef used standard jazz notation for Sister Mamie such as 1) Scooping during the duration of the note ; 2) Scooping from one note to the next ; 3) Scooping up into the note ; 4) Falling off of a note ; 5) Glissando into a note ; 6) Sliding from one note to another note .8 This piece also reflects the gamut of Algaita and the traditional musical types produces from the foundation of West African language. Lateef’s compositions fully embody his emphasis and incorporation of West African traditional music in the following ways:

1) Improvisational composing and playing routinely used in African traditional music.

2) Close relationship between the double-reed musical instrument and Islam and the strong influence of Islamic traditions on the music of double-reed instrument in Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria.9

3) The pentatonic scale, which traditional Western African music always used, the

Western equal temperament, and jazz techniques using the , Germanic flute, , algaita, shannie, bamboo flutes, Indian temple flute, and moan flute in his quintet and orchestral works, The African American Epic Suite exemplifies these works.

8 Jason John Squinobal, op. cit., pp. 222-223. 9 Ibid., p.279. 166

Figure 19. The African-American Epic Suite of Yusef Lateef.

The appearance of such African American artists advocated the promotion of national

West African music and the trend of recovery and attention to its traditions, and in relatively remote rural areas, traditional music on traditional musical instruments were preserved. Many artists, however, gave up traditional instruments and songs in urbanized areas.

The above-mentioned African American musicians’ jazz compositions including African traditional musical elements can also be seen as a product of . The transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world extended and intensified social relations. Newly 167

created musical works, reflecting musical instruments from various cultures, to mix and hybridize under the influence of globalization.

If the works of African American musicians were in part based on European and

American creations and added elements of traditional musical elements of West Africa, the of musical ensembles, on the other hand, involved the musical bands of African continent assimilating European and American instruments, especially electronic instruments. In particular, with the introduction of the synthesizer, musicians begin to imitate every timbre they could, including eventually the timbre of Algaita, in some ways a threat to the survival of the acoustic Algaita in West Africa, because performers preferred the electro-acoustic instruments, which were new and thus more attractive to audiences.

The rapid spread of technology, which included recorded music and movies, meant that

African musicians also depended on these channels to disseminate their music. Thus, musicians worldwide now used the musical materials of other cultures, obtained by such resources, and also even now mix these cultural elements to form new musical works. In the case of the discovery of the

Algaita, for instance, the Canadian composer Howard Shore used the African rhaita specifically for the character Mordor’s theme in The Lord of Rings series of films.

The diffusion of culture also meant the hybridization of playing skills. For example,

Lateef’s attraction to the West African Algaita not only originated from his desire to understand his

African cultural roots, but also as a performer of wind instruments he would pay attention to the woodwind of other cultures using his knowledge to learn skills of related aerophones, with techniques similar to his skills. Although his skills playing Africa woodwind instruments would not 168

reach the level of a master, Lateef could use the Algaita to play saxophone jazz repertoire or perform traditional Algaita music on saxophone. This kind of hybridization is a common occurrence and an outcome of globalization.

Faced with the emergence of so many styles converging in any field, people began to criticize fusion as harming the diversity of cultures. The postmodernist art movement emphasized the personality and rejected the consistency of construction, literature, painting, and design.

Musicians, who have been influenced by this trend, emphasized the concept of pluralistic musical culture, breaking with modernism, of viewing solely Western music as the standard. This ideological trend meant that any folk music of world could become an appreciative object in a multi-cultural world, and every folk music given its unique value.

Under the influence of this trend, musicians of all ethnic groups were realizing the value of their national music culture. Even if many musicians were still trained by the Western music system, their techniques based on the diatonic system of Western music or privileging the symphony orchestra, they also chose musical instruments outside the European tradition, or creative and playing techniques, that reflect different aesthetic ideas to express themselves in a wider variety of ways. This trend provides the ideological support for preserving the characteristics of the ethnic music under the impact of globalization. More and more composers use musical elements from their own ethnicity to advocate for the “voice” of their nations.

Over its history of colonization, Africa has altered its traditional folk activities, religious beliefs, and social properties; along with the transformations in the entire African social culture, its musical culture also changed. The living space of traditional music narrowed, the traditional 169

functions of music almost disappeared from serving folklore, playing for healing and witch doctors, accompanying ritual activities for agricultural production, or praying for assistance at critical moments in life. Europeans introduced musical instruments from their culture into Africa, changing the auditory habits of Africans, and replacing their instruments with European ones similar in nature, thus influencing the choices of music to the detriment of preserving African traditions.

With the independence of West African countries, their ethnic music was able to be restored, especially with the almost simultaneous postmodernist trends that provided the theoretical support for recovering traditional music. Nevertheless, the music of the world was dominated by

European and . Especially, once the rapid development of globalization, the media, included the Internet, which replaced the instrumental music as a functional tool of the agricultural society to the purely instrumental music performed on the stage or for leisure. From there it became a commodity to spread all over the world. The rapid changes of the world musical field still threaten the survival of the traditional Algaita.

New Trends Impacting the Suona and

Suona music, widely applied to accompany with the folk activities since the Ming

Dynasty, became the representative musical instrument of its social function. The new trends in

Chinese music have emerged long before the People’s Republic of China in 1949 C.E.

Traditionally, the Chinese divided music into Yayue [雅乐] and Suyue [俗乐]. Yayue music related to rituals and , used to improve the self, bring peace of mind, and supported the acceptance of moral law and ethical norms [Li, 礼]. Yayue was also used in the royal court, for 170

serious ceremonial music, Confucian rites, as well as worshipping Heaven. It combined law and rituals to represent the aristocracy; therefore, the “music” [Yue, 乐] could not be freely heard or played by ordinary people. If ordinary people utilized the performance of Yayue, their behavior was interpreted as offending the obsession of hierarchy and going against superiors. The Suyue, distinguishable from the Yayue, indicates secular and folk music, including folk songs, music ensembles, dramas, and dances. The Chinese define “music” as having specified functions, to entertain people, entertain gods, or special service ceremonies, unlike the Western view of music appreciation. Because music was taught through the oral tradition, Chinese had no history of studying music at school. Thus ordinary citizens never consider music a subject for study. They chose to play music as a career, but never learned it otherwise, even for fun.

This attitude changed after the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in the early twentieth century, and music became the subject studied schools, with textbooks and a unified learning process. For a while after the Qing Dynasty ended Suona music and Suona or Guchui ensembles failed to change or adapt to the new music education system, but no longer serve rituals and folk activities that were progressively fading away. The situation of Suona was a dilemma during this period, and it remained unknown for time how this music would continue to be used, if at all.

During the early twentieth century, new musical education institutions, founded by musicians who studied in the West, appeared that reflected the emergence of a new social structure, influenced by historical and social transformation since the Chinese New Democracy Revolution of

1919 C.E. These musicians, founders of new music educational establishments, promoted the establishing of the Western creative techniques and theories in China, included: 171

1) Li Shutong [李叔同] (1880 C.E. —1942 C.E.) whose “School Songs” refer to a) propagating the patriotic spirit of ‘rich country and strengthen army’ to resist the bullying and humiliation of Western nations; b) praising the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishing the new republic system of government; c) educating students in the primary and secondary schools in the various “army songs;” d) calling on the emancipation of women and furthering equality between men and women; e) advocating new knowledge, removing old customs, and establishing a new general attitude toward learning from school education; and f) educating the young generation to love life and nature.

2) Xiao Youmei [萧友梅] (1884 C.E.—1940 C.E.), who made significant efforts and gave impetus to the major of music education; this major began to take shape and attracted the attention of music circle. In 1922, the nation brought out the new educational system; the previously optional

“singing songs” class was changed to simply “music” class, formulated as a compulsory class in primary school.

3) Li Jinhui [黎锦晖] (1891 C.E.—1967 C.E.), who made considerable strides in the New

Music Movement10 and advocated for new music and literature to move forward together. In his compositions, he chose themes opposed to feudal education, with attractive texts, easy to understand, concise, vivid music language, inheriting and developing the essence of Li Shutong’s “School

Songs.” Because Li Jinhui switched to composing in modern styles, he is often dubbed the “father of the Chinese popular music.”

4) Zhao Yuanren (1892 C.E.—1982 C.E.), whose compositions broke through the

10 The New Music Movement usually refers to the rise of the 1930s, the left-wing music movement led by the , and the revolutionary music movement during the War of Resistance Against and the War of Liberation. The new music movement is the weapon of the national liberation movement and the revolutionary struggle, and the new music adheres to the favored direction. 172

limitation of “School Songs,” which borrowed melodies and tunes from those of foreign countries.

From the end of the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, Chinese musicians began to create music and write in their own fashion. The founding members of the Chinese new musical culture discussed how to build the new musical culture, and how to integrate Chinese traditional music with new musical culture, whether or not to completely abandon the Chinese traditional music or to use the Western musical system introduced during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Their considerations resulted in three trends of new music in China:

1) Some viewed Western music as superior to Chinese traditional music, and regarded the

Western music system as teacher of creative methods, and drew support from the musical knowledge of Western music to improve Chinese “old music” in establishing new music.

2) Other Chinese musicians held the opposite view, declaring Yayue [雅乐]11 as the

“legitimate” Chinese music, worth renewing and developing, which defined the “traditional”

Chinese music.

3) Some musicians felt no need to use the Western musical system as a reference for new

Chinese music, as advocating Westernizing was already widespread in the world. In the end, those musicians in power to shape it agreed that China should adopt the Western music educational system as well as Western forms and varieties, but preserve characteristics and techniques of

Chinese music styles.

Following such ideology, music education institutions developed, some becoming renown organizations: 1) Shanghai Professional Training Normal School Music Department [Shanghai

11 Yayue [雅乐] was originally a form of classical music and dance performed at the royal court in ancient China. The basic conventions of Yayue were established in the Dynasty. Accessed October 31, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayue. 173

Zhuanke Shifanxuexiao Yinyueke, 上海专科师范学校音乐科], attached Music

School [Beijing Daxue Fushe Yinyue Chuanxisuo, 北京大学附设音乐传习所], and the National

College of Music [Shanghai Guoli Yinyueyuan, 上海国立音乐院].12 These institutions were viewed as having academic departments with integrity, a clear system of education, and comprehensive curricula.

New music education methods, for example, with separate departments for theory, composition, keyboard skills; voice, strings, traditional music, and new music genres demonstrated the transformed concepts of Chinese music.

Ongoing Political Effects on Folk Art and Music Education

From 1840 C.E.–1949 C.E., amid civil and foreign wars, the Chinese people had struggled just to survive. From long-term oppression and imperialist invasion, the vast rural economy was on the verge of bankruptcy, and the rural population flowed continuously into the cities. Active folk art in rural regions also flowed uninterrupted into the urban areas changing society so that amateur or semi-amateur musicians and folk art groups had to adapt to city lifestyles, conform to the playing standards of urbanites, and gradually professionalize as artists.

Along with the process of urbanization and commercialization, folk arts and artists began to follow new circumstances, norms, and attitudes, resulting in the following: 1) folk artists viewed the city economy as providing better material conditions for their artistic development; 2) musicians

12 Besides these three professional music education departments, the other music educational institutions are: 1） 北京音乐传习所，2）成都高等师范学校乐歌体育专修科，3）私立上海美术专科学校音乐系，4）私立上海新华艺 术专科学校音乐系，5）国立北平艺术专科学校音乐系，6）国立中央大学教育学院音乐系，7）私立燕京大学音乐 系，8）私立沪江大学音乐系，9）武昌艺术专科学校音乐系，10）四川艺术专科学校音乐系，11）上海艺术大学 音乐系，12）国立北平大学艺术学院音乐系，13）北平女子文理学院音乐系，14）北平师范学院音乐系，和 15） 私立北平京华艺术学院音乐系。 174

exchanged information and had more competition in the city, so had to improve their playing skills and hone levels of specialization quickly; 3) the chance to promote communication, interaction, and integration of various regional genres, on the one hand created a new fusion of art forms; on the other, components of artistic styles were virtually eliminated through selection and competition; 4) folk arts and musical genres introduced from Western countries combined and influenced traditional

Chinese music; and 5) urbanization impacted the tradition of educating only young males, thus increasing the number of female artists. The majority of young artists in this transition period failed to retain elements of the cultural background of older generations of traditional musicians, instead using their traditional musical skills and musical forms to play new kinds of music reflecting their own generational values.

Thus, the Chinese traditional rural economic patterns declining, and economic models progressively forming and developing, changed the social environment, including the music functioning to support it. The roles of the Suona, the Guchui ensemble, and Suona music in general faded in daily rituals and entertainment in every sector. The position of Suona player went from the most widespread and known musician, playing for large numbers of dignitaries, and having close relationships with numerous people, to one with no direction or playing only musical works composed for war-related themes.

Both the military arena and the society generally, believed singing a song better and more actively propagating the spirit of, for example, the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937 C.E.—1945

C.E.). Because the Chinese people need no training in musical techniques to sing a song, long-term training, such as that needed to play the Suona, got less attention in the years of fear against invasion 175

and invaders. Thus, because the Suona was viewed as unsuitable for the fashionable music styles, it was no longer used and its role transformed, foreshadowing its identity after the founding of the

People’s Republic of China in 1949 C.E.

With the advent of the Three Policies of the 1920s and 30s––the Land reform movement

[Tudi Gaige Yundong, 土地改革运动],13 Joint state-private ownership [Gongsi Heying, 公私合

营],14 and the Three significant remoldings [Sanda Gaizao, 三大改造],15 to stabilize the domestic situation and promote the national economy–– leaders of the Communist Party of China began to design a long-term plan. The first step was the First Five Years Plan [Diyige Wunian Jihua, 第一个

五年计划] whose implementation marks the beginning of the systematic construction of Chinese , the start of the accelerated industrialization of China, and the establishment of the complete industrial system to consolidate and maintain political independence.

National stability and economic improvement, and government emphasis on music education, meant that institutions of art and music education were built up further. The preliminary construction of the professional music education institutions further merged or extended into the professional music conservatories, which were committed to developing and professionalizing

13 Land reform movement [Tudi Gaige Yundong, 土地改革运动] was the reform of the land ownership. From the 1927 C.E. to 1937 C.E., the Communist Party of China had been practiced the reformation to abolish the feudal foundation, which is to confiscate lands of the landlords forcibly. During the war of resistance against Japan, the Communist Party of China to unite all forces against Japanese aggression, so temporarily stopped the policy of confiscating lands of the landlord, instead of the implementation of the plan to reduce interest rates. During the war of liberation, the Communist Party of China held a national land conference, formulated the outline of the land law, and re-planed the land reformation. The agrarian reform movement allocated the land of the landlord class to the landless and no land peasants liberated the feudal relations of production that bound the productive agricultural forces, and prepared of the rapid industrialization of China. In 1953 C.E., except for the Xinjiang, Tibet, and a few areas, most parts of the mainland of China basically completed the reformation of land. The land reform made the newly established regime of the People’s Republic of China obtain the trust of the peasants. 14 Joint state-private ownership [Gongsi Heying, 公私合营] is the policy applied at the initial stage of the transition period. The private capitalist assets gradually withdraw from the original enterprise, and the state progressively grasped all the assets. At that time, leaders of Communist Party of China took the way that is to buy shares to achieve the establishment of public ownership of the , stable the social order, and consolidate the regime. 15 Three significant remolding [Sanda Gaizao, 三大改造] indicates that the socialist transformation of the three industries of agriculture, handicraft industry, and the capitalist industry and commerce led by the Communist Party of China after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. 176

Chinese music education and specializing musical performance skills. For instance, the National

College of Music (built in 1927 C.E.) was renamed the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in 1956

C.E., and the Chongqing National College of Music (established in 1940 C.E.) and several other music institutions merged with the Central Conservatory of Music in 1949 C.E. These institutions set up folk music departments [Minyue Xi, 民乐系] and established a folk music major in their degree offerings [Minyue Zhuanye, 民乐专业].16 Many folk instruments used only for folklore activities previously were given formal majors in various art colleges, the Suona among them.

Once the Suona was offered as a major in music institutions, teaching artists understood that they could not just compose pieces for the instrument without a solid historical or musicological basis, thus created pieces of Suona music within its long tradition. Therefore, those educated in

Western music theory began to visit the countryside to do fieldwork, collecting and collating folk works for Suona that had almost been lost during wars, recording, editing, and publishing them.

Other musicians summed up the characteristics and techniques of Suona music from these collections and then, using their new education and knowledge of Western music theory, created new Suona works both suitable for the techniques of the instrument, and also combining traditional and new elements. Two collections of traditional Suona works in this period include: 1) Shandong

Folk Music Collection [《山东民间乐曲集》]17; 2) Suona Music Collection [《唢呐曲集》]. These compilations of edited Suona music of the Shandong Province and Northeast area, two important regions of China, elaborately introduced the performances of Guchui ensemble, the use of musical instruments in the ensemble, and structure of Suona music, and how to use Suona

16 Folk music departments and the major in folk music were established for education, performance, and research of folk instruments. 17 Collected by the Shandong Province Music Working Group, published by ’s Publishing House, 1955 C.E. 177

music in marriage and funeral ceremonies. These collections also provided valuable materials for

Suona practitioners and others interested in Suona performance.

The collections also propelled folk Suona virtuosos to eminence, from a life in the various theatrical festivals playing traditional Suona works inherited from generation to generation; they were hired as professional Suona instructors in music conservatories or colleges, thereby ending their life as folk artists. Their new positions as professional instructors provided new opportunities to these folk artists, communicating now with other musicians in the colleges and combining creative theory and techniques of other musicians with their playing skills, based on traditional

Suona works, to standardize the folk works according to Western music theory, or with the help of

Western compositional methods to extend the structures of traditional Suona works. Composers also created new pieces for Suona that reflected their instrumentalists’ new status.

Several Suona players emerged during this period, Wei Yongtang [魏永堂],18 Hu

Haiquan [胡海泉],19 Zhao Chunfeng [赵春峰],20 Ren Tongxiang [任同祥],21 Zhao Chunting [赵春

18 Wei Yongtang [魏永堂]. He was born in 1918 C. E. in Juye county of Shandong Province. When he was fourteen years old, he learned to play Suona in Guichui ensemble from his father Liu Zixin [刘自新]. He can skillfully plays Suona, flute, Sheng, and other percussion. In 1953 C.E., Yuan Ziwen [袁子文]18 and he participated ‘The First Theatrical Festival of National Folk Music and Dance [Diyijie Quguo Minjin Yinyue Wudao Huiyan, 第一届全国民间音 乐舞蹈会演]’ and cooperated to play “Zhuyunfei” [《驻云飞》] and “Shuanghefen” [《双合凤》]. 19 Hu Haiquan [胡海泉]. He was born in 1935 C.E. in Beizhen county of Liaoning Province. Since the childhood, he began to study playing Suona, Guanzi, Banhu, Sheng, and percussions with this father Hu Jingyun [胡景云] and his uncle Hu Jingshan [胡景山] and profession on all of them. His family and other musicians in the village co-organized the Guchui ensemble and were employed to perform for the marriage celebration, funeral ceremonies, and other folklore activities. In 1950 C.E., the sixteen-year-old Hu Haiquan passed the examination of the Northeast Academy of Arts and Sciences [Dongbei Lu Xun Wenyixueyuan Yinyuetuan, 鲁迅文艺学院音乐团] and became a member of the student class. Since that time, he was trained by the solfeggio class, music theory class, piano lessons, and composition class. In 1952 C.E., the third anniversary of the founding of the nation, Hu Haiquan did his first solo Suona performance on the stage to celebrate this National Day, he played the Suona music that is To Celebrate the Victory [Huanqing Shengli, 《欢庆胜利》]. 20 Zhao Chunfeng [赵春峰]. He was born in 1912 C.E. in the Yueling county of Shandong Province. When he was thirteen years old, he formally acknowledged Shao Xianglin [邵相林] as his instructor to learn to play Suona, Guanzi, and then he also followed the famous artist of Guchui ensemble Zhang Shichang [张世昌] to learn playing Suona, Kaxi [咔戏], and Sheng. When he was nineteen years old, he has been enjoyed a high reputation in the folk, known as ‘the king of Suona.’ After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, he was hired as the professor of the Central Conservatory of Music to instruct Suona, Guanzi, and Sheng. 21 Ren Tongxiang [任同祥]. He was born in 1927 C.E. in the Jiaxiang county of Shandong Province. In this village, playing Suona is very common, so it has the reputation of ‘the Home of Suona.’ All males of the family of Re 178

亭],22 Liu Fengming [刘凤鸣], and Liu Fengtong [刘凤桐]23 (a team of brothers), the most renown.

These players depended on their virtuosity to become famous in China and even worldwide. They brought folk Suona music learned in the oral tradition to the stage. Representative

Suona works appearing during this period show some of the highlights of their art,24 which are

Tongxiang are the musicians in the Guchui ensemble, especially his uncle, who is professional in the playing of Sheng, Di, Suona, and . Ren Tongxian was influenced by the Guchui music and folk music since childhood. When he six years old, he started to join in the Guchui ensemble to play Guban [鼓板] and remembered several tunes of folk music only by listening. When he ten years old, he started to follow his uncle to learn to play Suona and then became the leader Suona player in the Guchui ensemble because of his perfection in his Suona skills and even better than many elder generation players in the village. He began to get the attention from the people all over the nation since he participated in ‘The First Theatrical Festival of National Folk Music and Dance’ in Beijing in 1953 C.E. At this festival, he played Bainiao Chaofeng 《百鸟朝凤》[ ] to express the mood of over hundreds of birds that are spilling their songs together and got highly praised by the Beijing circle of musicians and artists and audiences. At the same year, he also participated in ‘The Fourth World Festival Competition of Folk Music [Disijie Shijie Qingnian Lianhuanjie Minjianyinyue Bisai [第四届世界青年联 欢节民间音乐比赛]’ and won the silver medal. In 1954 C.E., he joined in the Chinese cultural delegation to visit India, , and Burma. His performances earned the high praise and also received the gold medal that was awarded of the Burma countries. Then, he has visited the former , , The German Democratic Republic, Australia, , the United States, Kong, Taiwan, and other countries or regions and got warmly welcomed and appreciated. In 1954 C.E., he was hired as a performer of the House and also became the Suona professor at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. 22 Zhao Chunting [赵春亭]. He was born in 1910 C. E. in the Cang county of Hebei Province. The family affected him since childhood to promote his keen interest in Guchui music. When he was eleven years old, he started to study to play Suona following his uncle and his older brother and then became the Suona experts of ensemble and the well-known local musicians. The people of all the country knew him also because he attended ‘The First Theatrical Festival of National Folk Music and Dance’ in Beijing. Then, he was left as the solo performer at the Central Song and Dance Troupe in Beijing. 23 Liu Fengming [刘凤鸣] and Liu Fengtong [刘凤桐]. They are brothers as Suona masters of one family. Liu Fengming and Liu Fengtong were born in 1912 C.E. and 1919 C.E. in an An’hui family. Their grandfather did the work of car pincher, planting vegetable, and playing Suona for the living. Therefore, two brothers learned Suona, Sheng, Guan, and then became the famous Suona masters. In 1952 C.E., When ‘Music Working Group of The Central Ministry of Culture [Zhongyang Wenhuabu Yinyuegongzuozu, 中央文化部音乐工作组]’ collected the folk music in the Bengbu and Fengyang, members of this group found these brothers. At the same year, Liu Fengtong went to Beijing to perform Suona music Hunliqu 《婚礼曲》[ ] for the ‘The Asia and the Pacific Regional Peace Conference’ and got the appreciated by all the audiences. Then, he participated in the Central Song and Dance Troupe and served as the leading Suona player. He also played the solo Suona music Bainiao Chaofeng [《百鸟朝凤》], which is his repertoire and was recorded as the to release. In 1943 C.E., he was elected to participate in the World Youth Festival [Shijie Qingnian Lianhuanjie, 世界青年 联欢节] in of Romania that promoted the Suona music on the world stage. In 1954 C.E., the Chinese Musicians Association in order to develop the folk instrumental music, so that invited some well-known musicians to form the ‘Chinese Folk and Classical Music Itinerant Theatrical Troupe [Zhongguo Minjian Gudian Yinyue Xunhuiyanchutuan, 中 国民间古典音乐巡回演出团]’ went to the major cities for demonstration performances, Liu Fengtong was invited to join in as the Suona solo player. On the other hand, Liu Fengming did not go to Beijing; he was recruited into the Zhihuai Art Troupe [治淮文工团]23 as the Suona performer to play on the work site of Zhihuai [治淮]. His joyful and lively Suona music inspired the enthusiasm of workers at work site. In 1954 C.E., he was elected to participate in ‘The East of China Folk Music and Dance Theatrical Festival [Huadong Minjian Yinyue Wudao Huiyan, 华东地区民间音乐舞蹈会演] and won the first prize of Suona playing. 24 Other pieces of Suona music, played by Suona masters and recorded or compiled by Chen Jiaqi in this period, were: 1) Zhao Chunfeng played Zhenggongdiao Xiaokaimen [《正宫调小开门》] (folk music), Xiaogongdiao Xiaokaimen [《小工调小开门》] (this piece of Suona music is played as duet of soprano Suona and Alto Suona, folk music), Xiaobaita [《小拜塔》] (tune of drama), Taojinling [《淘金令》] (Chuida music), Siliu Ju [《四六句》] (tune of drama), Guojianlong 《过江龙》[ ] (folk music); 2) Zhao Chunting played Yingchunqu 《迎春曲》[ ] (reorganized), Xiaokaimen 《小开门》[ ] (folk music), Xiao Fangniu [《小放牛》] (folk music), Festival [《节日》] (reorganized); 3) Ren Tongxiang played Shiyangjing [《十样景》] (folk music), Fanzi Kaimen [《凡调开门》] (folk music); 4) Wei Yongtang played Baihuatang [《拜花堂》] (folk music); and 5) Xiaogongdiao Erban Banzhuangtai [《小工调二板傍妆台》] (tune from a drama). 179

Bainiao Chaofeng [《百鸟朝凤》], Hunli [《婚礼曲》],25 Fengshou [《丰收》], Taihuajiao [《抬

花轿》],26 Zhuyunfei [《驻云飞》], Yijiangfeng [《一江风》],27 Xiqing Fengshou [《喜庆丰收》],

The Hillside Sheep [Shanpo Yang,《山坡羊》],28 Shandong Dagu [《山东大鼓》],29 Liu Qingniang

[《柳青娘》],30 Lizu Wuqu [《黎族舞曲》],31 Haha [《哈哈腔》],32 Fanshen Daoqing [《翻

身道情》].33

1) Bainiao Chaofeng [《百鸟朝凤》]. This piece of Suona music spread among counties, named Bainiao Chaofeng. The characteristics of this work are unrestrained and inattentive, with improvisational elements. The player can add tunings and sounds of birdsong or rooster crowing,

25 Hunli Qu [《婚礼曲》]. This Suona work is a new version of the traditional folk tunes of Kaimen [《开门》]. Because of this piece of music always was used for the marriage ceremonies so that renamed as Hunli Qu. The Suona player Ren Tongxiang recreated the traditional Suona tunes. The recreation of Hunli Qu became the variations, which plays together with Sheng and four times variation of the whole piece of music. Every variation has its feature, especially the third and the fourth changes that gradually accelerate to add the lively and color to the music and reflects the happy mood and lively atmosphere of the folk marriage. 26 Taihuajiao [《抬花轿》] is a traditional tune, and the author of this music has been unable to research. This recording was notated into numbered Taihuajiao that was according to the oral tradition that was played by Ren Tongxiang and was recorded as notation by Chen Jiaqi. This work is based on the movements of the sedan chair and walking to arrange the melody and rhythm of the music. 27 Yijiangfeng 《一江风》[ ]. This piece of the tune is also the theme of drama like the above-mentioned Zhuyunfei, which is more used in the procession to make the momentum stand out. When many people sing in unison, the Suona players and percussions are playing music to accompany. This version is played by Ren Tongxiang and notated by Chen Jiaqi. The characteristics of Yijiangfeng are melodic, lively, rising and falling in tones that make people feel relax and happy. 28 The Hillside Sheep [Shanpo Yang,《山坡羊》] is the folk tune, which originated the same name melody of Nanbeiqu [南北曲]. This piece of Suona music and the other opera tunes are applied to accompany the banquet and to congratulate a senior person on his or her birthday. The Ren Tongxiang reorganized this version that was different to the traditional tune, the tempo is slow, and the sentiment is elegant, simple and unsophisticated to express the sense of self-satisfied. 29 Shandong Dagu 《山东大鼓》[ ]. This work is created on the basis of the folk song. The Suona Shandong Dagu was composed by the Suona master Zhao Chunting according to the “Shangdong Dagu” [山东大鼓], and the whole piece is happy and cheerful. This Suona work contains three parts of introduction, main part, and coda based on the ternary form. The theme includes four sentences, the former two sentences express the emotion, and the latter two sentences are played by the exceptional playing skills of Suona. The timbre is short and powerful, flexible staccato, and add some variations. The last sentence of this work is the singing melody lasting a long time. 30 Liu Qingniang 《柳青娘》[ ] is the name of the poem [Ci, 词], which is the widely spread and traditional music of Chaozhou[潮州] music. The recorded notation based on the playing of Suona master Zhao Chunfeng and notated by Chen Jiaqi. 31 Lizu Wuqu [《黎族舞曲》] was edited by the Wei Yongtang [魏永堂] and Chen Mingtian [陈明田] in the 1950s on the basis of the Shandong folk music. The feature of this Suona work is that it applied the Shuanghefeng style [Shuanghefeng Xingshi, 双合凤形式] to compose and add percussions to create the happy, cheerful, and festive Chuida music. 32 Haha Qiang 《哈哈腔》[ ]. This version was played by Suona master Zhao Chunfeng and notated by Chenjiaqi. Haha Qiang also known as the Liuzi Diao [柳子调], which is the development style of the folk Yangge [秧歌]. 33 Fanshen Daoqing [《翻身道情》] was edited by the ’an Luyi Art Troupe [Yanan Luyi Wengongtuan, 延 安鲁艺文工团]. The members of Yan’an Luyi Art Troupe explored and reorganized a large number of folk music that was popular in the Shaanbei Province. 180

according to desire and playing techniques. The Bainiao Chaofeng was selected for The Fourth

World Festival Competition of Folk Music repertoire, the folk Suona player Re Tongxiang, assisted by other composers, recreated this work, condensing and compacting the sluggish and loose parts of original work, deleting rooster crows altogether. They also extended the cadenza and increased the final section of the Allegro. The new design for this piece of music better displayed the virtuosic skills of player and made the whole piece and it’s ending joyful and lively.

2) Fengshou 《丰收》[ ]. This piece of Suona music is another version of the traditional folk tunes of Kaimen [《开门》]. Zhao Chunting recreated this release. The feature of this version is that the rhythm is fast and active, the melody is thoroughly delighted and coherent, and the structure is compacted. The tempo of variations is progressively accelerated to express the adept and dexterous of Suona player. This piece of music showed the joyous and happiness when the people got the harvest.

3) Zhuyunfei [《驻云飞》] is a drama tune of Liuzi opera [Liuzi Xi, 柳子戏].34 Since the

Qing Dynasty, this tune has been well known in the Shandong Province as the Guchui tune. This tune and other tunes of “Shanpoyang” [《山坡羊》], “Suonanzhi” [《锁南枝》], “Yijiangfeng” [《一

江风》], “Chaotianzi” 《朝天子》[ ], “Daochunlai” 《到春来》[ ], “Dieduanqiao” 《叠断桥》[ ], “Caichaer”

[《采茶儿》] were at last can trace back to the three hundred years ago. These tunes have been inherited generation by generation. This version is played by Ren Tongxiang and was recorded by

Chen Jiaqi.

4) Xiqing Fengshou [《喜庆丰收》]. This Suona work was arranged by Zhaochunting [赵

34 Liuzi opera [Liuzi Xi, 柳子戏] is one of the traditional opera that popular at the common boundary of Jining, Heze, Taian, of Shandong Province and of Jiangsu Province. 181

春亭]35 according to the folk songs, local dramas, and tunes of opera, which was recorded by Chen

Jiaqi. This piece of music describes the peasants that are celebrating the harvest and their happy mood. The whole music is divided into three sections compiled by three different musical materials.

The first section is based on the folk song and develops to a section. The melody of this section is full of joy and pride. The soft and sweet tones of this part talk about the love of people to their happiness life. The second section is based on the interlude of local drama Erren Tai [二人抬]36 to create this part. The tones are lively and staccato to compose for express the Suona playing excellent techniques of Suona player and highlighting the happy and cheerful moods. The third section is based on the tune of opera “Gongche Shang” [《工尺上》], which is composed to display the improvisational skills of Suona master, the tempo gradually accelerates, and the musical atmosphere is more and more enthusiastic to reach the indescribable joy.

Almost all Suona repertoire composed this period was traditional, passed down from generation to generation, mostly based on folk music and opera tunes reorganized or improved for the instrument. This circumstance related to the sources of Suona music, whose formation, compared with other Chinese native and instrumental music, was relatively late; thus the structure of

Suona music benefited from the influence of a broad range of materials from other arts. In short, it absorbed the repertoire and musical materials from dramas, folk songs, comic dialogues, and song and dance.

Musical materials from other arts include: 1) Daqu and Poems of the Tang Dynasty [唐大

35 Zhao Chunting [赵春亭] (1912-1984), one of famous Suona master who was the professor of China Conservatory of Music and the solo Suona player of China National Traditional Orchestra. 36 Erren Tai [二人抬] originated in Shanxi Province, developed at the , and popular in the central and western regions of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Hebei provinces. There are two roles of this opera so that this opera is called as Erren Tai, one role is the ugly character, and the other role is the female character. 182

曲和唐诗] and Song Ci [宋词],37 Daqu of Tang, for example, might include “Ganzhou” [《甘州》],

“Liangzhou” [《凉州》], “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》], “Liuqingniang” [《柳青娘》], “Yingxianke”

[《迎仙客》], “Langtaosha” [《浪淘沙》], “Yumeiren” [《虞美人》], “Tianxiayue” [《天下乐》]; examples of pieces from the Tang Poem and Song Ci are “Yangliuzhi” [《杨柳枝》], “Yingxianke”

[《迎仙客》], “Wannianhuan” [《万年欢》], “Mantingfang” [《满庭芳》], “Shuilongyin” [《水龙

吟》], “Douyehuang” [《豆叶黄》], “Dianjiangchun” [《点绛唇》], “Xiaotaohong” [《小桃红》],

“Yizhihua” [《一枝花》], and “Fengrusong” [《风入松》].

2) Music from operas, the most influential music on the Suona repertoire. Since the Yuan

Dynasty, the matured step by step, the Suona re-introduced to the Central Plains during the same period, thus built developed from its introduced into China, which absorbed musical materials, mostly melodies, of operas. For example, the sources from Nanbei Qu [南北曲] are

“Liuqingniang” [《柳青娘》], “Tianxiayue” [《天下乐》], “Yingxianke” [《迎仙客》], “Chaotianzi

“[《朝天子》], “Dianjiangchun” [《点绛唇》], “Xiaotaohong” [《小桃红》], “Jixianbin” [《集贤

宾》], “Deshengling” 《得胜令》[ ], “Yizhihua” 《一枝花》[ ], “Zhumating” 《驻马听》[ ], “Putianyue”

[《普天乐》], “Gunxiuqiu” [《滚绣球》], “Qingjiangyin” [《清江引》], “Meihuajiu” [《梅花酒》],

“Dabaimen” [《大拜门》], “Xiaobaimen” [《小拜门》], “Langtaosha” [《浪淘沙》], “Yumeiren”

[《虞美人》], “Mantingfang” [《满庭芳》], “Jianershui” [《江儿水》], “Handongshan” [《汉东

山》], “Shanpoyang” [《山坡羊》], “Bangzhuangtai” [《傍妆台》], “Taojinling” [《淘金令》],

“Zhuyunfei “[《驻云飞》], “Bubujiao” [《步步娇》], “Hongxiuxie” [《红绣鞋》], “Lanhuamei” [《懒

37 The Poem of Tang Dynasty and Song Ci [唐诗宋词] are tunes from vocal music. Daqu of Tang Dynasty [唐 大曲] is both vocal and instrumental music. This instrumental music spread through folklore because court musicians fleeing to folk music, and transformed vocal into instrumental music in the process of circulation. Some vocal parts directly combined with the Nanbei Qu (Chinese opera, as a term can be understood as the same as opera here), and later directly transplanted into Suona music. 183

画眉》].

3) Local dramas, where Suona played for folk activities, using musical elements from local shows. For instance, Suona music mentioned earlier, “Kaimen” [《开门》] (also known as

“Xiaokaimen” [《小开门》]), was influenced by the string band of the Banzi drama [Banzi Xi, 梆子

戏] of the Shandong Province, reorganized for the Suona and well known in the repertoire, evolving into other Suona versions of “Dahetao” [《大合套》], “Wedding Melody” [Hunliqu《婚礼曲》, ], and

“Celebrating” [Huanqing,《欢庆》]. The Suona “Kuwugeng” 《哭五更》[ ] came from a piece of local drama, “Licuilian Shangdiao” [《李翠莲上吊》]. The Suona work “Quanjiafu” [《全家福》] and

“Taihuajiao” 《抬花轿》[ ] of the Henan Province also developed from vocal parts and tunes of Henan dramas. Suona players performed opera aria melodies, or an entire section of an opera directly; this particular form was called Chuixi [吹戏].38 All the above works had long historical paths, so that many of them, notated for Suona (see notation in Chapter V), always appeared in folk activities, demonstrating the integrity and continuity of Suona music.

Besides the collection and development of traditional Suona works, new works also emerged in the mid-twentieth century, popular throughout Chinese society and promoted by the national education system. In 1952 C.E., Liu Shouyi [刘守义] and Yang Jiwu [杨继武] composed the Suona concerto “Celebrating the Victory” [Huanqing Shengli《欢庆胜利》, ]. That same year, the concerto premiered for the public in [沈阳], directed by Yang Jiwu, and performed by Hu

Haiquan. This performance was the first to feature the Suona in a commissioned work onstage with an orchestra.39

38 Liu Yong. Zhongguo Suona Yishu Yanjiu [Research on the Chinese Suona Art] (Shanghai: Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press, 2006), pp. 139-155. 39 This performance was greatly admired by audiences; Hu Haiquan had two curtain calls and reprised the last 184

In 1953 C.E., the work Huanqing Shengli won the Outstanding Work Award in the theatrical festival of Dongbei, also the Bronze award of The Sixth World Youth Festival [第六届世

界青年联欢节]. In 1956 C.E., the Ministry of Culture and the Chinese Musicians Association organized the first National Music Week [第一届全国音乐周], featuring large-scale professional national music theatrical festival for the “prosperity of creation.” Twenty-three provinces, cities, and regions, eighteen ethnic groups, and more than 4500 musicians gathered in the capital. Hu Haiquan performed the Huanqing Shengli again, demonstrating the significance of compositions for folk instruments.

Thus, in the first seven years of the founding of the People’s Republic, the social and musical environment of the Suona and its function changed as Chinese society transformed politically and economically. First, professional musical institutions were established after the founding of People’s Republic of China, from its role primarily as a the Suona in performance and pedagogy became part of the majority of music institutions, and Suona artists were hired as professors, ending their lifestyle dependent on various types of folk activities. The social status of Suona moved from its position as ‘Xiajiuliu’ [下九流] or tortoises [Wangba, 王八] to respected performer and professor of the instrument. This change on the one hand encouraged more students to learn the Suona and improve their skills; on the other, folk artists and other music majors boosted the collection and compilation of Suona traditional works and specific compositions for

Suona.

Second, employed folk Suona players and other musicians, in order to more quickly

movement. 185

collect and edit Suona traditional music for teaching and researching, notated a large number of pieces [Jianpu Jipufa, 简谱记谱法],40 which made this repertoire not only convenient for teaching, but also benefitted its research. Additionally, musicians familiar with Western music theory began to edit, reorganize, and develop these folk works for performance. These traditional works were then selected, notated, and published, transforming the long oral tradition into one based on the transcribed score. Suona professors taught only the profound connotations, emotions, and improvisational techniques not gleaned in the score. Third, with the increase of Suona scores, composers and Suona players were encouraged to collaborate in creating new works appropriate for pedagogy and performing.

Finally, the above transforms altered the social functions of the instrument. Although its main function for folk activities was resuscitated once Chinese society and economy became more developed, these folk functions never regained their important social functions. The role of Suona developed its character as a musical instrument; Suona music became associated with performance, with art, and played for appreciative listeners, thus progressively separated from its role in folk activities.

After 1956 C.E., China officially entered its socialist stage. The dynamic development of agriculture and industry in the national policy enabled peasants and workers to return to a more economically stable life. The atmosphere and Maoist government promoted putting all people to work to build a prosperous, socialist new China, which also reflected the desires of individuals who

40 The numbered musical notations [Jianpu Jipufa, 简谱记谱法] is derived from France in the eighteenth century, with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 representing the seven basic notes in the scale. Modern music educator Shen Xingong [沈心工] is one of the earliest disseminators of this method of notation. He edited Singing Set of Schools [Xuexiao Ji《学校唱歌集》] in 1904 C.E., which became the first published and prevalent singing set. Since then, numbered music notation has spread to schools everywhere. 186

wanted to transform the economic and cultural backwardness of China. By 1958 C.E., the terms

People’s Commune Movement [Renmin Gongshe Yundong, 人民公社运动]41 and the Great Leap

Forward [Dayuejin, 大跃进]42 were prevalent in agricultural and industrial communities, and the

Second Five Years Plan [Dierge Wunian Jihua, 第二个五年计划] had been put into motion. The goal of these three policies was to encourage all Chinese to exert the utmost effort in increasing the output of industrial and agricultural products, which then doubled or more in growth. The original starting point was to change the situation of Chinese economic and cultural backwardness as soon as possible, and the whole society conformed to a high index, blind command, exaggeration, and unchecked prospects.

After this near-mad construction, the People’s Commune Movement and the Great Leap

Forward were considered grave mistakes in socialist construction, ignoring the objective laws of , the processes far too fierce and exaggerating the subjective activity of people, thus destroying a developing road of industrial and agricultural pursuits, the lives of the

Chinese falling into severe financial difficulties and ruin.

The prevailing condition of society at that time was that, no matter what occupation, all society was engaged and connected with the working people. All art forms were thought best as functioning to eulogize somehow the working people as central to society. Thus, the principal subjects or messages of artworks in this period promoted: 1) the working people as actively involved

41 The People’s Commune Movement [Renmin Gongshe Yundong, 人民公社运动] was a monumental decision to explore the Chinese socialist construction at the end of the 1950s. It ran contrary to the relationship between production and productivity. 42 The [Dayuejin, 大跃进] wherein the Communist Party of China carried out a movement to achieve higher indicators of industrial and agricultural production. In May 1958, the Second Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formulated the general line of “Exerting the utmost effort, striving for the best, as quickly as possible to build socialism” [鼓足干劲，力争上游，多快好省的建设社会主义]. The primary goal was to change the economic and cultural situation as soon as possible, but the result was an economic and social disaster, where a famine caused as many as 55 million to die. 187

in the construction of all aspects of the country; 2) scenes of labor, and 3) the rise of peoples, from their hometown in the ruins of wars to prosperous from their hard work. This primary trend in ideology and foundation, occurring from 1949 C.E. to 1956 C.E., allowed more and more writers and artists to develop and new works to emerge.

The Suona’s use developed within this climate, many new compositions and musicians appeared. Suonaists continued their performances and compositions, and many excellent Suona students were trained through formal teaching venues. These students started performing on the stage and composed many new works for the instrument, which benefited the impact of the Suona in

Chinese society, and attracted more students to the instrument. Several performers developed during this period: Hao Yuqin [郝玉岐],43 Chen Jiaqi [陈家齐],44 Zhong Donghe [仲冬和],45 Sun Yuxiu

[孙玉秀],46 and Fan Guozhong [范国忠].47

43 Hao Yuqin [郝玉岐] was born in city of Henan Province in July 1941 C.E., and began his music studies as a child learning Sheng, Dizi, and Suona with his father. In the spring of 1957 C.E., at age fifteen, he participated in the Henan Folk Music and Dance Theatrical Festival and the National Folk Music and Dance Theatrical Festival [Henan Minjian Yinyue Wudao Huiyan, Quanguo Minjian Yinyue Wudao Huiyan, 河南民间音乐舞蹈会演,全国民间音乐舞蹈会 演]. His performances of Suona music “Quanjiafu” [《全家福》] were praised widely by audiences. As one of the representative folk artists, he received the interviews by the national leaders Liu Shaoqi [刘少奇] and [周恩来]. After the theatrical festival, he became the solo Suona musician in the Music and Dance Troupe of Henan Province [Henan Gewutuan, 河南歌舞团]. Since 1965 C.E., he has visited , the United States, Japan, Singapore, Korea, , , Ethiopia, Mozambique, Algeria, and other countries with the Chinese Music and Dance Troupe [Zhongguo Gewutuan, 中国歌舞团], Troupe [Zhongguo Yishutuan, 中国艺术团], and Henan Art Troupe [Henan Wenyituan, 河南文艺团]. 44 Chen Jiaqi [陈家齐]. Born in Nanchong city of Sichuan Province, he studied , Erhu, Dizi, and Sanxian since childhood. In 1957 C.E., he enrolled in the Sichuan Conservatory of Music with a major in Suona performance. In 1959 C.E., he transferred to the Central Conservatory of Music and studied with the Suona master Zhao Chunfeng. In 1962 C.E., he graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music with excellent academic records. The same year, he began teaching Suona at the Sichuan Conservatory of Music. His most well known works are “Tianfuhao” [《天府好》], “Youshi Yige Fengshounian” [《又是一个丰收年》], and “Tieniu Kaijin Shanqulai” [《铁牛开进山区来》]. 45 Zhong Donghe [仲冬和] was born in Shandong Province in 1939 C.E. In 1960 C.E., he enrolled in the folk music department of the Tianjin Conservatory of Music, majoring in Suona but also learning to play Sheng and percussion. He graduated in 1965 C.E. and got an appointment at the Shandong Art Institution as the Suona, Sheng, and percussion instructor. 46 Sun Yuxiu [孙玉秀] was born in Zoucheng of Shandong Province in 1926. He was born into a Suona family, following his grandfather Sun Yucheng [孙余成] to study Suona, and became the outstanding representative Suona musician of the Pin School Suona [Pingpai Suona, 平派唢呐], in the Central and Southern parts of Shandong Province. By the time he was twenty years old, he was well known in the Shandong Province. In 1959 C.E., he started to instruct Suona in the folk music department of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music by the invitation of the president He Lvting [贺绿汀]. Then, he returned to his hometown and engaged Suona folk music performance. 47 Fan Guozhong [范国忠] was born in the Xiong County of Hebei Province Baoding City, in 1938 C.E. He studied with Suona masters of Zhao Chunfeng, Peiyin [梁培印], Yin Erwen [殷二文], and Liu Fengtong. In 1957 188

These players not only learned skills from the elder generations of Suona masters, they also absorbed other performance practices from other Suona schools, developing and improving the traditional works of Suona for the stage. Their education in professional institutions trained them to think about new ideas for the instrument, changing the traditional creative modes of the Suona, resulting in a productive peak of new repertoire for Suona since the founding of the People’s

Republic. Below are some examples of the new Suona repertoire from in this period, such as She

Qing 《社庆》[ ]，Qing Fengshou 《庆丰收》[ ], Tataer Wuqu 《塔塔尔族舞曲》[ ],48 Chundao Chashan

[《春到茶山》], The Another Harvest Year [Youshiyige Fengshounian, 《又是一个丰收年》],49 The

Dance of Yi Ethnicity [Yizu Wuqu,《彝族舞曲》], Flower [Yizhihua,《一枝花》].50

1) She Qing [《社庆》], composed by Ge Lidao [葛礼道]51 and Yin Kaixian [尹开先], in

1964 C.E. In 1965 C.E., Ge Lidao and Yin Kaixian submitted this piece to the Solicit Contributions of Music Works for the Rural Services [Wei Nongcun Fuwu de Yinyue Zuopin Zhenggao, 为农村服

务的音乐作品征稿. This composition was selected in The Selected Works of Musical Instrument

Since the Founding of China Thirty Years [Jianguo Sanshinian Qiyue Zuopin Xian, 《建国三十年器

乐作品选》], and reflected contemporary political, economic, and cultural conditions. In this work

C.E., he enrolled in the music department of Hebei Normal Art Institution [Hebei Yishu Shifen Xueyuan, 河北艺术师范学 院] (the predecessor of the Tianjin Conservatory of Music). In 1959 C.E., he transferred to the Central Conservatory of Music, in Beijing, and learned Suona with Hu Bingzhi [胡炳智] and Ji Wenyi [季文义]. In 1962 C.E., he graduated from the folk music department of the Tianjin Conservatory of Music and became a teacher in the September that year. 48 Tataer Wuqu [《塔塔尔族舞曲》] was written by Li Chongwang [李崇望] and notated by Chen Jiaqi. This Suona music was arranged from the Dizi solo music Tataer Wuqu. 49 Another Harvest Year [Youshiyige Fengshounian, 《又是一个丰收年》], written in 1973 C.E. by Chen Jiaqi, and was well received by the National Music Selected Performance [Quanguo Yinyue Diaoyan, 全国音乐调演]. 50 Flower [Yizhihua,《一枝花》]. Ren Tongxiang edited this Suona piece, and Chen Jiaqi notated sits as a solo work, composed according to local drama and other folk tunes of the Shandong Province. 51 Ge Lidao [葛礼道] was born in Nanjing city in October, 1933. At the beginning of the liberation, he began at the East of China Military and Political University [华东军政大学], the Military Academy of Art Troupe [防空军文工团], and the Vanguard Music and Dance Troupe of Fujian Military Region [福州军区前锋歌舞团] as performer, conductor, composer, and art director. In 1959 C.E., he attended the Central Conservatory of Music, studying the composition and theory, then studied polyphony with Chen Mingzhi [陈铭志] at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. His compositions include: for Suona and ensemble, Sheqing [《社庆》], a solo work Shezu Wuqu [《畲族舞曲》], orchestral music Taiwan Suite [Taiwan Zuqu,《台湾组曲》], and the song Meilide Minnan [《美丽的闽南》]. His eight works have been performed in Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, and elsewhere. 189

the composers used the materials of [Minnan, 闽南] folk music, where rhythm is lucid and sprightly, the melody cheerful and meaningful, with lasting appeal. It earned first prize for the First

Art Select Performance of People’s Liberation Army [Renmin Jiefangjun Diyijie Wenyidiaoyan, 人

民解放军第一届文艺调演].

2) Qing Fengshou [《庆丰收》]. Written in 1964 C.E. by Ren Tongxiang and recorded by

Chen Jiaqi, the work uses traditional creative methods of multiple-stage musical form and a core tone, showing off the skills and features of Suona playing in a lively scene of the peasants in the celebration of the harvest.

3) Chundao Chashan [《春到茶山》], composed by Chen Jiaqi in 1963 C.E., based on the theme of the Jiangnan, which uses a simple pleasant melody, bright and vibrant rhythms, and depicts a labor scene of the tea grower collecting the new leaves on the tea plantation under the sunlight.

4) The Dance of Yi Ethnicity [Yizu Wuqu,《彝族舞曲》], arranged by Chen Jiaqi. This

Suona work was arranged in 1961 C.E. according to the accompaniment music of the folk dance

A’ge Zhui [《阿哥追》]. This music uses a lively and active melody to express the happy mood of youth engaging in their labor.

Other new Suona works were composed in this period: 1) Fan Guozhong’s arranged works of Ganhui [《赶会》], Sheyuan Doushi Xiangyanghua [《社员都是向阳花》], and Songlianglushang

Changfengshou [《送粮路上唱丰收》]; 2) Hu Haiquan’s Nongcun Yinpian Xinqixiang [《农村一片

新气象》]; 3) Bai Chengde [白承德], Hu Jinhong [胡金宏], and Wang Gaolin [王高林] co-notated

Shanxiangchun [《山乡春》]; 4) Hao Yuqi performed and Chen Jiaqi recorded traditional Suona music Quanjiafu 《全家福》[ ]; and 5) Liu Fengtong performed and Chen Jiaqi notated the Suona folk 190

work Xiqing [《喜庆》].

With the development of the national agriculture, the primary livelihood of peasants had been restored, so that folk activities were gradually resuscitated. The members of Guchui ensembles, accompanying these folk activities, opened their old instrument cases and played Suona with percussion pieces again. In particular, the descendants of Suona families inherited and developed

Suona skills and artistry, joining the group handling traditional works. Thus they were able to get more private opportunities on the basis of their excellent skills and plentiful repertoire, but they also could perform on the professional stage and taught at professional colleges. The representative

Suona groups and players who did both were:

1) The Kong family ensemble, in Anyang City [安阳市]52 of Henan Province.

2) The Zhao family band of Guanshan town [官山镇], in the Suining County [睢宁县]53 of the north part of Jiangsu Province, and the Liangsi [梁四] Suona family of Jinhua County [金华

县].54

3) The thirty Suona families living in the Qingyang area of eastern Gansu Province. The

Qingcheng County [庆城县], [环县], [合水县], [正

宁县], Zhenyuan County [镇原县], [华池县], and Heshui County [合水县] of

Qingyang were regions where audiences favored Suona performances.

4) Suona ensembles in the [大同] and [忻州] of northern Shanxi, and

Taiyuan [太原], [阳泉], Lvliang [吕梁], Zuoquan County [左权县], and County [临

52 Anyang City [安阳市] is located in southwest Henan Province and the junction of Shaanxi, Henan, and Hubei provinces. Anyang is the national historical and cultural city with 3000 years of history and the birthplace of the and Han cultures. 53 Suining County [睢宁县] is a county in the Jiangsu Province Xuzhou City. 54 Jinhua County [金华县] is the cultural, political, and economic epicenter of central and western Zhejiang Province. 191

县] in central Shanxi Province; also [长治] and Jincheng [晋城] of Shanxi Southeast, and

Yuncheng [运城] and [临汾] of the Shanxi South region. Representative Suona musicians and ensembles include Li Yufen [李玉芬], Liu Haitao [刘海涛], and Wang Yutian [王雨田] of northern Shanxi, the Shangchuan school [上川派], Xiachuan School [下川派], Dachuan School [大

川派], and Xiaochuan School [小川派] in Lin County of the Central Shanxi, and the Shangdang

Bayin [上党八音] in southeast Shanxi Province.

5) The Suona group of Lizhuang town [李庄镇] in Dangshan County [砀山县]55 of Anhui

Province.

6) The Zhao family band in the Shang town [尚庄] of Xucheng [薛城],56 in Shandong

Province, Zaozhuang [枣庄] city. The Han family group lives in Nigou [泥沟] of Taierzhuang [台儿

庄].57 The Wang family ensemble and Cui family band of the Yang town [羊庄] of Shandong

Province Tengzhou [滕州].

Besides the representative family ensembles, numerous national Guchui ensembles reentered service for folk activities. The universal features of these family bands had passed down generations and restored their performing life after years of political and social upheaval. Because

China was still developing as a society, and the socio-economic conditions were not, commercial awareness improved little for people; thus Suona artists remained mostly as semi-professional musicians who took work as a primary job and played music as a second occupation. The

Chinese were proud to work, and the construction of their new nation their first task, so Suona artists

55 Dangshan County [砀山县], located in the northern of Anhui Province, at the junction of Anhui, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Henan provinces. 56 Xuecheng [薛城], located in southern Shandong Province Zaozhuang City, and neighbor of Tengzhou City. 57 Taierzhuang [台儿庄], located in the center of the Beijing- , the junction of Shandong, Anhui, Henan, and Suzhou provinces. 192

had also to join in agricultural labor. During the busy season, they worked the farmland and in the slack season, they performed for traditional rituals: folk , first birthdays, birthdays, rituals, and festivals. Compared to other farmers who had no skill playing musical instruments, these artists earned two incomes, and though not much extra revenue, they were envied. To some degree, their larger income encouraged others’ interest in learning and playing the Suona.

In short, compared to the previous seven years (1949–1956), more and more Suona music was composed in this decade. The titles of these works reflected the themes of the new era: celebrating the liberation, harvest, and praising the beautiful hometowns after the diligent work of the people. Some considered the topics of these works to overemphasize the values of the state, political reasons that hindered diversity of subject. To others, this phenomenon sufficiently proved music as a reflection of social and cultural values.

Creative techniques matured in Suona works, their length extended and made suitable for the stage. People heard not only the themes of these pieces, focusing also on listening for enjoyment; these were cheerful, lively, and showed off the Suona performer’s skills. Therefore, these works became central repertoire for many Suona performers and audiences who enjoyed them. During this period folk Suona ensembles played for folk activities, thus Suona artists and other musicians in the band developed their audiences, which paved the way for this profession’s resurgence.

Music in the

While the reinstating and developing the People’s Republic of China and the Suona ensemble grew popular once again in all kinds of folk ceremonies, China underwent the arduous 193

decade of the Cultural Revolution. In fact, since 1958 C.E., the Chinese government had carried out the general line of socialist construction, which not only brought severe financial difficulties to

Chinese, but also damaged the construction of Party, which laid the seeds for the outbreak of the

Cultural Revolution.

During the Cultural Revolution, folk customs, folk religious beliefs, and folk etiquette were totally wiped out by leader ’s administration; the Guchui ensemble confronted the challenge of surviving with no activities to service. As mentioned in Chapter V, the people of villages attached importance to the funeral ceremony and did not spare expense to invite Suona bands to serve these rituals, considered by Mao Zedong as the harmful tradition of respecting

Confucius [Zunkong Yidu, 尊孔遗毒]58 and forbidden as a feudal, superstitious activity [Fenjian

Mixin Huodong, 封建迷信活动].59

The common marriage celebration accompanied by Suona ensemble was also replaced by a new wedding style,60 especially the activities of folk beliefs and performances of Suona ensemble, principally prohibited practices. No matter the kind of folk beliefs, of natural deities, ghosts, Heaven, gods, or Buddha, people were forbidden their worship and sacrifices. The Red Guards assaulted

58 The harmful traditional of respecting Confucius [Zunkong Yidu, 尊孔遗毒]: in the period of the Cultural Revolution, Confucius was considered no real abilities, was an idiot full of straws in the belly, and the slave of the ruler. In 1971 C.E., “Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius: campaign was launched so the traditional custom of weddings and funerals were reformed. 59 The feudal superstitious activity [Fengjian Mixin Huodong, 封建迷信活动], a proper noun to indicate people who believe in astrology, divination, witch doctors, Fengshui [风水], , and ghosts. These had appeared in the primitive society and became prevalent in the feudal society, thus called feudal indicating behaviors and actions influenced by the superstitious ideas. 60 The new wedding style refers to the formal implementation of the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China [《中华人民共和国婚姻法》] enacted May 1, 1950. Since then, the “organization [Zuzhi, 组织] began to affect Chinese marriages. If people wanted to marry, they first had to apply for proof of a work organization, obtaining the signature of a direct boss. The prominent feature of the simplified wedding reflected the new ideology and cut off many traditional customs. For their wedding celebration the couple simply showed the marriage certificate, to demonstrate the legitimacy of the wedding, and indicated they would work hard and assist each other in constructing the motherland after their marriage. In the 1960s, because of the hardships of the economy, the wedding became more and more simple. Undergoing the campaign of the Four Olds and establishing the new styles of life, the revolutionary wedding had to be a revolutionary type. After the approval of the working unit, the new couple took a photo holding the Red Book [Hongbaoshu, 红宝书], facing the sun, and declaring that they will marry. 194

monasteries, temples, destroyed the statues of gods and stone tablets, as well as enforced monks and nuns to resume secular life. Consequently, the Guchui ensembles had few or no opportunities to perform.

The Cultural Revolution changed the professional Suona, continually developing mainly because of the Red Guards, who boycotted classes, posted big-character posters and slogans, assaulted temples, destroyed cultural relics, burned books and , and attacked academic authorities. A large number of scholars and intellectuals were beaten up, humiliated, or called the

Stinking Old Ninth [Choulaojiu, 臭老九];61 schools could not hold classes. Therefore, the relationship between students and instructors suffered; students did not respect teachers and paid no attention to their teachings, not in the mood to learn from them.

During the Cultural Revolution city youths were called by the nation to move to villages, to accept re-education from peasants and workers in fields and factories. Except for those serving in the army, all young people enlisted in the Up to the Mountains and Down to the Countryside

Movement [Shangshan Xiaxiang, 上山下乡],62 which dismantled the educational system and methods formed at the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Consequently, all youths had to

61 Stinking Old Ninth [Choulaojiu, 臭老九] originated during the Yuan Dynasty where the Mongol conquerors identified ten ‘castes’ of Chinese: bureaucrats, officials, Buddhist monks, Taoist priests, physicians, workers, hunters, prostitutes, Confucian scholars (the ninth rank), and finally beggars, only beggars at the status below the intellectuals. In the mid-1960s, this term was widely used. Because of the intellectuals were ranked after the landlords, rich peasants, counter-revolutionaries, “bad” people, rightists, traitors, secret agents, capitalist roaders, were called the Stinking Old Ninth. When this term was spread to the folk, it was used to ridicule all intellectuals. During the Cultural Revolution, intellectuals were criticized, denounced, and even killed. Until the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (December 18–, 1978), most intellectuals dubbed the Old Ninth were restored to their reputation and re-embarked on new jobs. 62 Up to the Mountains and Down to the Countryside Movement [Shangshan Xiaxiang, 上山下乡]: this term was first seen in the document of the National Agricultural Development Program from 1956 C.E. to 1967 C.E. [《1956 年 到 1967 年全国农业发展纲要》], published on October 25, 1956 by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. In this document, the concept was first mentioned, marking the beginning of the movement. In November 1955 C.E., Mao Zedong called the countryside a vast world, where learned knowledge could be had. This movement was promoted in the 1950s, developed in the 1960s, and ended in the 1970s. For these young people, the movement supposedly eliminated the differences among workers and peasants, rural areas and urban, manual, and mental labors. Unfortunately, this movement forced many people into a destiny they were ill-prepared for. 195

leave campus and settle in rural areas to attend to farm labor. Suona students who had enrolled in professional musical institutions were forced to discontinue studies during this period.

Some composers and Suona musicians who had become professors, resisted the Stinking

Old Ninth appellation, continued their writing, composition, and research, hoping to resume the jobs of educating and performing on Suona once this arduous period passed. The social environment gave almost no opportunities to develop Suona music, and although no new Suona players could enroll to study and work, some high level Suona works were composed and appreciated by future generations:

1) Happy to See the Warehouse Full of Grain [Xikan Gongshe Liangmancan,《喜看公社

粮满仓》],by Gu Wuxiang [顾武祥] in 1973 C.E. The music uses cheerful tunes to express the flourishing of the new countryside and the buoyant mood of peoples viewing the abundant harvest of their crops. This piece of music begins with an enthusiastic prelude, outlining a lively and cheerful theme. In the exposition, the solo and accompaniment act in cooperation, an extended melody with staccato tunes alternates to form the comparison of the musical arrangement of ideas and emotional changes. The middle section uses singing melodies to depict praise of a happy life.

The recapitulation speeds up a little, with variations of dynamics, pauses, and transition in rhythm, before the ending, with music written in upper registers to raise the mood to heights depicting a celebratory scene.

2) Xi Kailiang [《喜开镰》], published in 1974 C.E., originated from .

Liao Guixiong [廖桂雄] composed this piece of Suona music and Guo Yazhi [郭雅志] notated the work, based on the theme of the same name in Guangdong music. The melody is cheerful, smooth, 196

and the rhythm is lively, describing the scene of the sickle used to harvest the crops and expressing the joyous mood of individuals at hard work and reaping the harvest.

3) The Tractor Drives into Mountain Area [Tieniu Kaijin Shanqulai, 《铁牛开进山区来》], composed by Chen Jiaqi. “Ploughing without oxen, lighting without lamps,” a proverb and the earnest wishes of peasants since ancient times, also reflects the progress and development of , the mechanization (tractors) not only gradually disseminating into the plains area, but also into the mountains. This work depicts the tractor [Tieniu, 铁牛] used in remote regions of western Sichuan Province, and assisting peasants to achieve their dream of “ploughing without oxen.” In 1966 C.E., when Chen Jiaqi wrote this music, while participating in the “social education” of the Cultural Revolution, he saw the historical alteration of the isolated rural life. He used elements of Sichuan folk tunes in the work’s three sections: the first section is an enthusiastic prelude with sounds imitating hail as accompaniment, which also describes the cheer of those in remote villages when the tractors arrived. The musical theme is happy and lively, based on the idea of developing phrases and call-and-response, free and unconstrained melody. The second section uses a warm, bright, and clear melody to eulogize the happy life. The third part recapitulates the opening, signifying encouragement of the people to make a larger effort once advanced techniques support their work.

4) Celebrating the Harvest [Qing Fengshou,《庆丰收》] (the Guchui version), created by the Liu Bingchen[刘炳辰] and Liu Wanling [刘万羚], recorded by Chen Jiaqi in 1972 C.E. This work is written for Guchui ensemble, with Suona leading.

5) The New Salesclerk Comes to the Village [Shencun Laile Shouhuoyuan《山村来了售货, 197

员》], written by Zhang Xiaofeng [张晓峰] in 1972 C.E. This Suona piece is based on folk tunes of . This music tells a story about a salesclerk assisting in the construction of the agriculture movement and facilitating the life of the masses, sending the daily necessities to the village and serving the people wholeheartedly, even while crossing mountains and rivers. This music is relaxed and humorous. The subheadings of sections are: 1) Hurry on the road [Ganlu, 赶

路], 2) Shout out the goods for sale [Yaohe, 吆喝], 3) Active in the mountainous villages [Shancun

Huoyue, 山村活跃], 4) Selective purchasing [Xuangou, 选购], 5) Say goodbye to the villagers

[Gaobie, 告别], 6) Continue to move forward [Jixuqianjin, 继续前进]. The piece is quite vivid throughout.

6) Fishers Weaving Fishing Net and Singing of Harvest [Yujia Zhiwang Changfengshou,

《渔家织网唱丰收》], composed by Chen Jiaqi in 1973 C.E., depicts a happy scene of fishers singing while they weave fishing nets after the harvest.

7) Yanbian Wuqu [《延边63舞曲》], compiled by the Jilin Province Music and Dance

Troupe. In the 1970s, composers wrote this piece of Suona uing the Korean folk tunes and dance.

The beginning and ending sections are buoyant and cheerful, and the middle section is warm, showing the Korean ardent love of life.

Other representative works composed during this period were: Hongqiqushang

Hongqiyang [《红旗渠上红旗扬》] (composed by Hu Haiquan [胡海泉]), Praise the People’s

Commune [Kua Gongshe《夸公社》] (composed by Chen Mingtian [陈明田], Liu Bingchen [刘炳

辰], Liu Wanling [刘万羚], and Zhu Jianmin [朱建民]), Dazhai Tianli Jia Tieniu [《大寨田里加铁

63 Yanbian indicates the Korean , located in eastern Jilin Province. The Korean people are said to be industrious, intelligent, and good at singing and dancing. 198

牛》] (composed by Zhe Yuantian [翟渊田], Hao Yuqi [郝玉岐]), Nizhui Wogan Xue Dazhai [《你

追我赶学大寨》] (composed by Wang Gaolin [王高林]64), Caoyuanshangde Hongweibing Mao

Zedong (reorganized by Hao Yuqi).

In this period, Suona music consisted primarily of solo works. Although the Suona masters had no students, they devoted themselves to compiling books on Suona performance practice and pedagogy, which opened the way to Suona theorization of educating and research. The

Suona theoretical books of this period include:

1) The Suona Basic Tutorial [Suona Jichu Jiaocheng, 《唢呐基础教程》], edited by Chen

Jiaqi of the Sichuan Conservatory of Music.

2) The Suona Tutorial [Suona Jiaocheng,《唢呐教程》] and Suona Practicing Selections

[Suona Lianxi Quxuan,《唢呐练习曲选》], compiled by Fan Guozhong of the Tianjin Conservatory of Music.

3) The Suona Playing Art [Suona Yanzou Yishu,《唢呐演奏艺术》], compiled by Hu

Haiquan and Cao Jianguo [曹建国].

4) The Suona Playing Method [Suona Yanzoufa,《唢呐演奏法》] and Hao Yuqi Suona

Music Selections [Hao Yuqu Suona Quxuanji,《郝玉岐唢呐曲选集》], by Hao Yuqi.

In summary, almost fifty new Suona works were created during the Cultural Revolution.

From the titles of works, we see a consistency of contents, which promote the idea of a happy life in villages and new life of hard work. These musical outputs were known as the product of the

64 Wang Gaolin [王高林] was born in Xinzhou [忻州] of Shanxi Province in May, 1951. When he was fourteen, his musical talent was discovered by his mentor Hu Jinquan [胡金泉], who brought him to the Shanxi Province Music and Dance Troupe, where he began his Suona performance career. His solo Suona compositions are Shanxiangqing [《山乡 情》], Huangtu Qingge [《黄土情歌》], Liyuan Qingsi [《梨园情思》], Huangheshui Qingshen [《黄河水情深》], Caoyuan Liange [《草原恋歌》], Xiqing Fengshounian [《喜庆丰收年》], Siqin [《思亲》], and Xijiuge [《喜酒歌》]. 199

particular era; many scholars considered these works of this period as having intense political colors.

However, the works demonstrate music as a mirror of life; the reality was that people were forced into lives of working in factories or on farmlands, and these works were composed to promote the actual content of such lives.

From another perspective, aside from their titles––analyzing these works purely on a musical basis––the composers’ techniques and exquisite structural designs demonstrate a far more advanced knowledge than in earlier periods, even as most were glad to favor audience appeal until now. Besides, these compositions displayed particular characteristics of the Suona, its loud sound and ease in producing or expressing joyful music for lively occasions, as well as demonstrating the virtuosity of Suona players. Therefore, these works remain attractive pieces for Suona performers even now. Moreover, in this unique historical moment, composers used titles to cater the political need to draw more spaces or funds for writing this music; they sought to do their best in ensuring the legacy of Suona art, including the knowledge and historical importance of the instrument.

More importantly, student strikes, punishing instructors with names (Stinking Old Ninth), criticizing or denouncing them, meant that large numbers of teachers remained idle, left to stay home and ponder their misdeeds. On the other hand, this social situation gave scholars free time to research playing skills and teaching methods with greater concentration. Thus, the first round of

Suona performance and education books were edited and published at this time, paving the way for

Suona teaching and research in the future, a healthy outcome of their professional misfortune.

The lessons of the Cultural Revolution were bitter, but also had a positive effect because of this educational significance. In time national leaders, officials, and ordinary people recovered 200

after the significant frustrations and devastations of this period. The Chinese as a society became aware and realized that carrying out any ideological struggle, and political movement needed deep thought in launching a cultural war, because of its degree of destruction and long-term impact as much as the war of military force. Since that time, the Chinese leadership began to lead the people as a whole state to emancipate the mind and seek truth from facts in establishing a socialist society.

Economic Reform and Opening

Since the conference of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China was held in Beijing, in December 1978, China entered a new period of economic reform. The central point of the meeting was to shift the focal point of the Party to establish socialist modernization and officially open socialist economic reform.65 Since then, the government has used this reform for internal and external changes of policy, altering the primary centralized planned financial system into one of the socialist .

Along with economic reform, Chinese began reforming the political system, including initial steps of developing a democracy, strengthening the legal system, achieving separation of government and enterprises, simplifying institutions, improving the democratic supervision system, and maintaining stability and unity. Presently, China maintains the core idea of reform and opening-up in establishing a particularly Chinese society.

The internal reform and opening up included the Household-responsibility system (also known as the contract responsibility system) in the countryside, where every family was given a

65 and Opening Up, (literally), was the policy of internal and external opening that started to apply since the Third Plenary Session of the Committee. The internal reform of China began in the rural areas. For instance, in November 1978, Xiaogangcun [小岗村] of the Anhui Province, Fengyang County [凤阳村]. 201

field to work, assuming the sole responsibility for profits or losses. With the implementation of this contract system, personal work and subsequent income were linked, encouraging Chinese peasants and liberating the agricultural productivity of villages. The farm economy was developed and created the second golden age of the Chinese agricultural history. With the economic conditions were better and better and the agricultural system was opening up so that the folk activities and the art life resuscitated in the countryside.

Thus, from 1956 C.E. to 1966 C.E., the generations of Suona families were able to practice their repertoire again and lead Guchui ensembles, accepting jobs for various folk activities.

Additionally, members of these bands earn salaries, but also bonuses for their performances, especially when the Suona is the lead instrument; Suona players steadily gained more allocations, which attracted more young people to learn the instrument.

In cities, the policy of economic reform and opening boosted cultural activity and interchange. In 1977 C.E., college entrance examinations were restored, demonstrating the new government’s respect for knowledge and rising esteem for qualified citizenry. The resumption of college entrance examinations signaled the recovery of the Chinese educational system, and the process of cultivating competent people to administer it. Consequently, professional music institutions recruited students once again. Suona exponents and educators resumed (or continued openly) to research the performance of Suona playing skills, evaluated historical performances, and composed new Suona works, resumed teaching Suona students, ushering Suona compositions into a relatively prosperous period. New works of this period included:

1) Xiqing Shengli [《喜庆胜利》], composed by Liu Wanling and Liu Bingchen in 1977 202

C.E. This piece is divided into three sections: the first, opening in an enthusiastic and cheerful mood; the melodic middle section distinctively contrasting the first; the third a recapitulation with repeated sound-type, a pause and transition in rhythmic pattern, and simulated sounds of laughing at the end to produce an intensity of emotion. This work expresses the mood of victory, perhaps the people’s triumph over the .

2) Xiangyin [《乡音》], composed by Wu Houyuan [吴厚元]66 and notated by Chen Jiaqi.

Written at the end of the 1970s, rules of rhyming were unique, this solo work was praised highly by professional Suona players. Wu Houyuan used elements of Hokkien folk music for this work in three parts: Introduction, Lento, and Allegro.

3) Tianfuhao 《天府好》[ ], by Chen Jiaqi in 1970s. This music expresses praise and love of hometown since the founding of the country, especially extolling the flourishing of business and thriving development, but also eulogizing the Sichuan people’s gratifying achievement from their hard work. This work displays the pride of the writer himself, who is Sichuan.

4) Paiziqu [《二人转牌子曲》], edited by Li Qiukui [李秋奎] and notated by

Yang Xiusheng [杨修生]. This work was composed in 1980 C.E. and the content shows the northeastern Chinese people making efforts to work together, engaging in socialist construction under policies of economic reform and opening, and the subsequent enrichment of Party people. In

1981 C.E., the first performance by Li Qiukui was a success in the Fourth Changchun Music

Festival. This Suona music comprised a prelude and four sections, using the musical materials from

66 Wu Houyuan [吴厚元], born in the Wuhan City of Hubei Province, was a professor at the Central Conservatory of Music, engaged in Pipa performance, and then focused on composing. He is well known in China as composer and national musical educator. 203

the tunes of Errenzhuan [二人转]67 throughout. This work has a distinctive local style and flavor of the region.

5) Jingjiaoxing [《京郊行》], by Wu Houyuan. This piece originated as solo music of

Jinghu [京胡],68 written in 1982 C.E. In 1984 C.E., the music was reorganized as a solo for Suona.

The style of this work resembles the fresh, lively, and rich feeling of , and depicts the emotions of the composer when he traveled to the suburbs of Beijing in the 1980s.

6) Happy Peasant Family [Huanlede Nongjia《欢乐的农家》, ], composed by Chen Jiaqi in

1982 C.E. This Suona music is enthusiastic with a thoroughly delightful melody and lively and active rhythms, depicting the happiness of life and joyful emotions of peasants.

7) Yuxi Erbaban [《豫西二八板》], revised by Liu Wenjin [刘文金],69 extended from two to four minutes, and adapted from the soprano to the alto Suona in 1983 C.E., by Hao Yuqi, who recreated this work.

In the more stable educational system following the Cultural Revolution, Suona professionals and students resumed the development of the Suona as a discipline. The new generation of Suona musicians appearing during this time were: Wang Binlin [王彬林],70 Zhang

67 Errenzhuan [二人转] also known as bengbeng, which is one kind of local opera in the northeast of China. It rooted in the northeast folk culture, belongs to the Chinese singing class of Quyi, popular in Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia. 68 [京胡] also known as Huqin, is the traditional Chinese stringed instrument. During the late eighteenth century, with the formation of traditional Chinese Peking opera, Jinghu was restructured on the basis of Huqin and became the master accompaniment of Chinese Peking opera. 69 Liu Wenjin [刘文金] (1973 C.E.—2013 C.E.), a composer of the Tangshan people of Hebei Province, and the ancestral home of Anyang. He graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in 1961 C.E. and served as the artistic director of the Central National Orchestra, and the dean of the Chinese Opera and Dance Theater. In 2001 C.E., he was hired as professor at the National University of Korea. 70 Wang Binlin [王彬林], is a renowned Suona player and a First-Class national performer. He was born in Laiwu [莱芜] of Shandong Province in October 1959 and enrolled in music at the Shandong Academy of Art in 1980 C.E. In 1982 C.E., he gained the performance award of the Folk Instrumental Performance, held by the Ministry of Culture, and has repeatedly visited countries of Asia, African, Europe, the United States, and Australia. In 1984 C.E., he was assigned to the Shandong Youth Experimental Orchestra after graduation, and then transferred to the Shandong Music and Dance Theater, in 1985 C.E. In 1982 C.E., he published four for the Shanghai Record Company, Chinese Audio and Video Publishing Company, Chinese Peace Audio and Video Publishing House, and Shandong Qilu Audio and Video Publishing House, respectively. 204

Fusen [张富森],71 Liu Ying [刘英],72 and Jiao Jie [焦杰].73

The emergence of passionate Suona new works and more professional Suona performers were the results of a free cultural environment in China. These achievements began with the economic reform and opening period, beginning in 1982 C.E. With the deepening of the Chinese economic reform, Suona music emerged and developed in various directions. Since the 1980s the economic reform also significantly impacted the influx of popular music and foreign music. In fact, the emergence of the Chinese popular music traces back to the 1930s and 1940s in Shanghai. During that time, in Shanghai music styles of foreign countries appeared; the most typical music styles of them jazz, Broadway, and film music and dance from the United States.

At the same time, the Chinese began to produce their own films and popular music, or the latter was accompanied by the development of the Chinese film industry. In an early phase,74 movie

71 Zhang Fusen [张富森], associate professor of Shandong Normal University, Zhang Fusen graduated from the Tianjin Conservatory of Music. He teaches Suona, Sheng, and Dizi, and has for many years engaged in performance and educational works. He published the Suona recording of Baihuatang [《拜花堂》] and the treatise The Playing Methods of Suona [Suona Jichu Yanzoufa,《唢呐基础演奏法》]. He has visited countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, many of these trips academic exchanges. 72 Liu Ying [刘英] began learning to play Suona, Sheng, Guan, Di, and other musical instruments early in life. In 1978 C.E., he attended in the High School of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music and then attended the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. During his secondary schooling and university education, he was also the Shanghai representative musician, visiting countries of Eastern European and praised highly and welcomed by international players. His playing skills show very efficient, full expression, and a pursuit of Suona art that breaks away from old conventions. Liu Ying has had the courage to innovate, thus forging an independent school. In the second session of the Chinese Art Festival, he played the Tianyue [《天乐》], written by Zhu Jianer [朱践耳], directed by Chen Xie [陈燮], and which earned the Outstanding Achievement Award. In January 1991, he performed Tianyue with the in a concert of the Hong Kong Arts Festival, invited by the Hong Kong Government. In 1994 C.E., he was appraised as one of the top ten outstanding young performers of Shanghai. In 1995 C.E., he was awarded for excellence in young teachers of Shanghai. The companies of Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other domestic companies have recorded albums and laser discs (LDs) of his performances. In 1995 C.E., Liu Ying followed with the Shanghai Mayor [徐匡迪] interchange with musicians of the United States. In 1997 C.E., he was included in the Chinese senior technical talent pool. In 1999 C.E., he followed vice-president Li Lanqing [李岚清] to perform in France. From 2000 C.E. to 2001 C.E., he did 100 performances, going the rounds of Japanese Osaka and was welcomed by the people of Japan. In July 2003 C.E., he won the gold medal at the Zurich Goddess International Music Competition in . 73 Jiao Jie [焦杰] is a Suona associate professor in the folk music department of Xi’an Conservatory of Music. From 1973 C.E. to 2014 C.E., he was engaged in Suona education and research there. He wrote the Suona Basic Tutorial [Suona Jichu Jiaocheng,《唢呐基础教程》] and Suona Quji, [《唢呐曲集》]. In 1985 C.E., he organized rehearsals for Chang’an Guyue [《长安古乐》], recorded as a videotape and published by Shaanxi Province Audio-visual Publishing House, and also recorded the LD, published by Shanghai Audio-visual. From May to June 1991, in academic exchanges he visited Germany, France, the , Belgium, and Switzerland by invitation of the German European International Folk Art Association. 74 The Chinese film industry originated in the early twentieth century. In 1905 C.E., Beijing Fengtai Photot Studio [北京丰泰照相馆] filmed the Ding Junshan [《定军山》] with actor Tan Xingpei [谭鑫培], the first film produced 205

music had become popular throughout the country, such as 1) Tianya Genv [《天涯歌女》], Songs of

Four Seasons [Sijige,《四季歌》] (music by He Lvting, lyrics by Tian Han [田汉], with singer Zhou

Xuan [周璇] performing the interlude of the movie Malu Tianshi [《马路天使》] in 1937 C.E.); 2)

Spring Wind and Grass [Chunfeng Yecao,《春风野草》] (music by Chen Gexin [陈歌辛], lyrics by

Wu Cun [吴村], singing by Gong Qiuxia [龚秋霞], the interlude of the film Songs Rescues the

Mother [Geer Jiumu Ji,《歌儿救母记》in 1938 C.E.]; 3) Rose, Rose, I Love You [Meigui Meigui

Woaini,《玫瑰玫瑰我爱你》], Cherish The Memory of the Autumn [Qiude Huainian,《秋的怀念》]

(music by Chen Gexin, lyrics by Wu Cun, singing by Yao Li [姚莉], the interlude of the film Tianya

Genv [《天涯歌女》] in 1940 C.E.); 4) Yelaixiang [《夜来香》] (music and lyrics by Li Jinguang [黎

锦光], singing by Li Xianglan [李香兰], the interlude of the movie Chunjiang Yihen [《春江遗恨》] in 1944 C.E.); 5) Xinagge Lila [《香格里拉》] (music by Li Jinhui, lyrics by Chen Dieyi [陈蝶衣], singing by Feiying [欧阳飞莺], the interlude of the film Yingfei Renjian [《莺飞人间》] in

1946 C.E.); 6) Xingxin Xiangyin [《星心相印》] (music and lyrics by Li Jinhui, singing by Zhou

Xuan [周璇], the interlude of the movie Changxiangsi [《长相思》] in 1947 C.E.).75

by the Chinese. From 1925 to 1927, Shanghai set up 140 small and medium film companies; Guangzhou, Beijing, and Tianjin also started to make their movies. In 1933 C.E., the Communist Party of China established a film group to produce the films of Kuangliu 《狂流》[ ], The Morning of the City [Duhui de Zaochen《都会的早晨》, ], Chunchan 《春蚕》[ ], Sisters [Zimeihua,《姊妹花》], The Surviving of Nationality [Minzu Shengcun,《民族生存》], Three Modern Female [Sange Modeng Nuxing,《三个摩登女性》], and Gadget [Xiaowanyi,《小玩意》]. 75 Lin Jinguang [黎锦光] (1907 C.E.—1993 C.E.) was born in the Xiangtan [湘潭] of Hunan Province, the seventh of the Eight Outstanding youths of Li’s Family [Lishi Bajie, 黎氏八杰]. He and his brothers were the famous people and the pioneers and laymen of the Chinese popular music in the Chinese modern times. Li Xianglan original singing his movie song Yelaixiang was appreciated by the Japanese composer Fubu Liangyi [服部良一] and translated it into a Japanese popular music. Li Jiguang almost created the popular songs for all the Shanghai outstanding representative popular singers like , [ 白光], Li Xianglan, Bai Hong [白虹], Li Xianglan. Chen Gexin [陈歌辛] formerly known as Chen Changshou [陈昌寿], was born in Nanhui (now Shanghai ) of Shanghai, a famous composer. His masterpieces are Rose, Rose, I Love You [Meigui, Meigui, Woaini《玫瑰玫瑰我爱你》, ], Fenghui Yufei 《凤[ 凰于飞》], Gongxi Gongxi [《恭喜恭喜》], and Yeshanghai [《夜上海》]. Yaomin [姚敏] was born in Shanghai in 1917 C.E. and moved to the Hong Kong in 1950 C.E. He was the famous composer from the 1930s to the 1940s and the twin brother of Yao Li [姚莉], who was the representative popular singer of Shanghai at that period. His masterpieces are Tears of Lovers [Qingren de Yanlei,《情人的眼泪》], Tebie Kuaiche [《特别快车》], Zhanzai Gaogangshang [《站在高岗上》], Qingwei Chuchukai [《蔷薇处处开》]. Zhou Lanping [周蓝萍] (1925 C.E.—1971 C.E.) was born in Xiangxiang [湘乡] of Hunan Province. He wrote the Serenade of Green Island [Lvdao Xiaoyequ,《绿岛小夜曲》].Gong Qiuxia [龚秋霞] formerly known as Gong Shasha and Gong Qiuxiang, was born in Chongming [崇明] of Jiangsu Province. From 1938 C.E. 206

The and contribution of these composers, writers, and musicians made

Shanghai central to the genesis of Chinese popular music. However, because of the unstable

political situation, these first-generation composers and performers of popular music moved to Hong

Kong, where they paved the way for the development of Hong Kong and Taiwan popular music.

Once they moved to Hong Kong, the period in which China had ended the and

established a new state, the government separated popular and foreign music into serious music and

strictly controlled the creep of popular and international music into the country, especially during

the Cultural Revolution, when these were both prohibited.

During the Cultural Revolution, Chinese leaders and society had viewed music as divided

into two categories: serious or orthodox music76 and Tongsu music [通俗音乐]77 (popular music).

Popular music was considered a large area, and relative to serious music, also defined as a

commodity with creative purposes, for enjoyment as well as profit. This genre roughly included

parlor music, operetta, dance music, and styles of popular music popular earliest in the United States:

jazz, , rock-and-roll, disco, and . In 2008 C.E., Chinese began to use the

definition of popular music to replace the delimiting of Tongsu music. These types of music had

to 1942 C.E., she acted the music work of He Lvting Qingshui Yiren [《秋水伊人》] and acted the film Qiangwei Chuchukai [《蔷薇处处开》]. Zhou Xuan [周璇] was born in Jiangsu Province in 1920 C.E., Chinese movie actress, and singer. In 1937 C.E., she sang the interludes Tianya Genv [《天涯歌女》] and Sijige [《四季歌》]of movie Malu Tianshi 《马路天使》[ ], which spread the region of Chinese. In 1946 C.E., she moved to Hong Kong and acted movie Changxiangsi [《长相思》] and sang the interlude Yeshanghai [《夜上海》] of this film in 1947 C.E. Yao Li [姚莉] was born in Shanghai in 1922 C.E. Her representative work is Rose, Rose, I Love You [Meigui, Meigui, Woaini《玫瑰玫瑰我爱你》, ], which was prevalent all over the world. She moved to Hong Kong in 1950 C.E. Li Xianglan [李香兰] was born in Dengta City [灯塔 市] of Liaoning Province. Her original family was Japanese Saga County of Kishima Distract [Zuohexian, 佐贺县] and her Japanese name is Yoshiko Yamaguchi. In 1944 C.E., she cooperated with Li Jinguang to sing the song Yelaixiang 《夜[ 来香》] and became the famous singer. Wu Yingyin [吴莺音] formerly known as Wu Jianqiu [吴剑秋] was born in Shanghai in 1922 C.E. She sang the Dadi Huichun [《大地回春》] and widely circulated overseas. Her songs of Woyou Yiduanqing [《我有一段情》], Jiangnanzhiye [《江南之夜》], and Minjiang Yequ [《岷江夜曲》] are still singing by the Hong Kong and Taiwan singers. Gong Qiuxia, Li Xianglan, Zhou Xuan, Yao Li, Bai Hong, Bai Guang, and Wu Yingyin were seven singing queens of Shanghai. They laid the foundation of Shanghai popular music. They almost entirely moved to the Hong Kong and promoted the development of the popular music in the Hong Kong and Taiwan regions. 76 Chinese society recognizes that Tongsu music occupies a lower level than learned or serious music and that these two kinds of music differ in the subconscious as well. 77 Tongsu music [通俗音乐] refers to easy to understand and accessible by the public. 207

been prohibited before the 1980s, when only serious music was allowed; thus, the door of Chinese popular and foreign musics poured into the Chinese market again until the implementation of

Economic Reform and Opening in 1982 C.E.

Contemporary National Music and New National Music

Once popular music reappeared in the Chinese mainland, beginning among young people who listened to tapes of songs such as Teresa [Deng Lijun, 邓丽君].78 After this turning point, the Taiwan songs, Olive Tree [Ganlanshu,《橄榄树》]79 and Bluet [Lanhuaca, 《兰花草》],80 were disseminated in the Chinese mainland, and imitated by other artists.

However, this music was disseminated mainly among the young, and somewhat prevalent in the underground market, but not recognized officially. Until 1984 C.E., the government accepted the concept of Tongsu music and set up a venue for teaching the singing method of Tongsu in the

Second Session of the Central Television Youth Singer Great Prix Competition [Zhongyang

Dianshitai Qingnian Geshou Dajiangsai, 中央电视台青年歌手大奖赛]. The Chinese mainlanders accepted this new style, and Tongsu music was sung by families in cities, villages, counties, onstage,

78 Teresa Teng [Deng Lijun, 邓丽君] was born in Taiwan, China, in 1953 C.E., a singer of the type performing during the Japanese Shōwas period, whose original family home was Handan City of Hebei Province. In 1967 C.E., she launched her first solo album and thus began her career. In the early 1970s, she depended on her songs of Qingyan Wanyu [《千言万语》] and Haiyun [《海韵》] to open the doors to the Hong Kong popular musical market and the musical market of the Southeast Asian. In 1974 C.E., she sang the Japanese song Konggang [《空港》], winning the New Singer Award for Japanese Record Awards, and laid the foundation for her performing arts career in Japan. From 1937 C.E. to 1993 C.E., she launched more than thirty Japanese albums in succession, among them Konggang [《空港》] (1974 C.E.), Paying Back [Changhuan,《偿还》] (1984 C.E.), Lover [Airen,《爱人》] (1985 C.E.), and Ren Shiguang Cong Shenpan Liushi [《任 时光从身畔流逝》] (1986 C.E.), which had a profound impact on Japanese music. During the same period, she also studied and performed in the United States, Hong Kong, Vietnam, and other places to improve her singing skills and to expand her audiences. Many singers of the Chinese mainland were covering her songs to get attention in the industry. She died in August 1995, of asthma in Chiang of . Many musicians of the Chinese mainland attended her memorial and acknowledged her as the one who brought popular music to the Chinese mainland. 79 Olive Tree [Ganlanshu《橄榄树》, ] sung by Taiwan singer Qi Yu [齐豫]; music composed by Li Taixiang [李 泰祥] and lyrics by San Mao[三毛]. This song was the title track of her album Olive Tree [Ganlanshu,《橄榄树》]. 80 Bluet [Lanhuacao,《兰花草》] was released as one song by Liu Wenzheng [刘文正] in 1978 C.E. 208

with some even participating in the competition. In 1986, music colleges established departments for

Tongsu music and introduced and formally recognized this style of popular music.

That same year, works of Xintianyou [《信天游》], Yiwusuoyou [《一无所有》], and

Huangtugaopo [《黄土高坡》] marked the ending of the period of imitation, and local popular music productions. The popular music was developed rapidly, primarily in the field of singing, but the introduction of this kind of music broke with the Chinese music system and with the appreciation only for traditional Chinese music. Gradually, not only Hong Kong and Taiwan popular songs spread into China, but a variety of popular forms of other foreign music81 were also introduced into the Chinese musical market, so that the influence spread to instrumental music. These genres of music exposed and attracted Chinese people to new instruments and sounds, for example, the synthesizer, electric bass, electric guitar, and drum set. The market of Chinese popular music had become barren at that time, relative to that of Hong Kong, Taiwan, Europe, and the United States, where such music had developed for decades. Consequently, the speed of popular music developing in China vastly increased, the extreme drought in its availability leading to an extreme absorption rate.

The reasons for this astonishing absorption rate included the strict control during the

Cultural Revolution. According to a proverb in China, “things will develop in the opposite direction when they become extreme,” thus the seemingly unlimited speed of absorption after the economic reform and opening.

The developing since the 1980s meant that technological progress––in

81 Among others, popular forms of foreign music included jazz, rumba, and tago before the War (1939-1945), as well as rock-and-roll, country music, blues, disco, soul, hip-hop after. 209

the recording industry,82 radio and television industry,83 and the Internet––all grew at an exploding speed, providing the essential power for popular and foreign music to expand their markets in China.

People listened to Taiwanese, Hong Kong, European, and American popular music on television and the Internet. To sum up several patterns: 1) popular music emphasized the independence of individuals, more conducive to expressing the audience’s personal feelings or the songwriter feelings of the time, and underlined an uncompromising spirit; 2) compared with serious music, popular and foreign music was produced for large audiences––even though the performers had little or no musical training––focusing on entertainment, and easy profits; 3) popular and foreign music, more commercial than serious Chinese music, set a low bar for appreciation, thus was easiest to consume.

Many subgenres of popular music afforded listeners ease of consumption in accord with their taste. This sort of freedom of choice made popular music more attractive to consumers. Thus, almost all of Chinese society became immersed in the consumption, appreciation, and even the composition of many subgenres of popular music. Accordingly, they rarely compelled themselves to enjoy serious music, or place it above pop music in terms of quality. This trend posed a serious challenge to Chinese musical practitioners, so that the “academics” [Xueyuanpai, 学院派],84 those

82 The Chinese recording industry appeared in the 1920s and 1930s. Pathé Records was the first delegated recording company, which accounted for 70% of the market. From the 1980s on, the recording industry entered its boom stage; with 294 audio and video publishing companies, 250 audio and video reproduction companies, nearly 1000 releasing companies, and more than 10,000 retailers. In 2001 C.E., China published 11.16 billion records, with popular music accounting for the primary location, the introduction of foreign music LD records accounting for 34% of the domestic market, and the video compact disc recording for 14%. Most of the domestic comprehensive recording companies focused on the record consumers market to decide their investment, so that popular music accounted for 95% of total investment, while only 5% for traditional and classical music. This proportion of expenditure to a large extent reflected the mainstream consumer direction of popular music; folk and classical music became smaller markets. 83 The new era of radio and television developed from 1977 C.E. to 1992 C.E. In 1982 C.E., the Chinese television coverage rate was 57.3%, the coverage rate rose to 87.6% in 1997. Until 2000, the coverage rate reached 92.5%. Until 1994 C.E., there were 982 radio stations, 1212 cable television stations, 941 educational stations, and a total of 3125. By 1997 C.E., the number of television stations had reached 2000. 84 Academics were those who 1) wrote theoretical compositions or participated in music performances with training from a formal, systematic, and rigorous system; 2) well known professors gathered in college music departments; 210

who had trained in serious music genres, needed to find ways to continue their performance and compositions.

In particular, practitioners engaged in the performance, education, research, and creation of Chinese national music ([Zhongguo Minzu Yinyue, 中国民族音乐]; also known as [国

乐], and defined in the broadest sense as any music composed for Chinese musical instruments85) were more affected by these conditions. After all, before 1982 C.E., Chinese national music had developed and changed within a relatively stable cultural system, even though impacted badly by wars and the influence of the Cultural Revolution. This new assault on national music by other musical cultures, from other cultural circles, meant more challenges for those practicing Chinese national music; suddenly various musical concepts brought by globalization and postmodernism had to be dealt with in order to survive.

Under these circumstances, practitioners of Chinese national music stumbled in choosing which way to go, and who to follow. Their music, now marginalized, occupied a sliver of the musical market, affected by the commercialization of the music industry, and the upheaval of popular music; how they could persuade audiences to return to appreciate their product, became a problem that needed to be solved urgently.

During this period, a group of composers educated in the Western European music system forged a new path, known as the New National [Xinchao Yuepai, 新潮乐派],86

3) compilers of music works or authors of theoretical research; and 4) had the same or similar aesthetic ideas and paid attention to artistry in music. 85 Chinese national music was also incorporated into traditional, folk music, or serious music; but lay on the opposite side of the spectrum from popular music. 86 The school of Contemporary National Music [Xinchao Yuepai, 新潮乐派] comprises composers who studied in music conservatories at the end of the Cultural Revolution. In the 1980s, their work found audiences when they became the leading group of new music works in China, after the Economic Reform and Opening. Their work drew on modern music in the world and absorbed creative techniques of contemporary music. The common characteristics of these composers became known as the school for Contemporary National Music. 211

among them Qu Xiaosong [瞿小松], Ye Xiaogang [叶小纲],87 [谭盾], Zhou Long [周龙],

Li Binyang [李滨扬],88 Chen Yi [陈怡], Chen Qigang [陈其钢],89 and Zhu Shirui [朱世瑞].90

1) Qu Xiaosong [瞿小松] was born in City [Guiyangshi, 贵阳市] of the

Guizhou Province. In 1977 C.E., he attended the Central Conservatory of Music (in Beijing), studying composition with composer Du Mingxin. In 1989 C.E., he visited Columbia University by the invitation of the Arts Exchange Center of the United States and China and stayed in America for ten years. He composed Music of Two Movements [Liangyuezhang Yinyue《两乐章音乐》, ], with the rhythmic pattern “Yuheba” [鱼合八]91 and the Chinese traditional instrument [排鼓],92

87 Ye Xiaogang [叶小纲] was born into a music family, in [year]. In 1978 C.E., he attended the Central Conservatory of Music, studying with professor Du Mingxin. In 1980 C.E., he took a short-term course of composition at Cambridge University in . In 1987, he won a scholarship to study at the Eastman School of Music. He wrote Concerto for Pipa [Pipa Xiezouqu《琵琶协奏曲》, ], integrating the Chinese traditional instrument with a Western orchestra and using Chinese classical music, along with Western compositional methods in a unique voice. 88 Li Binyang [李滨扬] graduated from the department of composition at the Central Conservatory of Music in the 1980s. In the 1990s, he traveled to the University of Louisiana, in the United States, to study composition. After earning his master’s degree, he moved to Los Angeles to develop his career. In 1986 C.E., he composed a concerto for Guanzi, entitled Shanshen 《山神》[ ], whose solo part is based on the tunes of Sichuanese opera. The orchestral sections are written according to the fixed pattern of the percussion in Sichuanese opera. 89 Chen Qigang [陈其钢] was born in Shanghai in 1951 C.E., and graduated from the composition department at the Central Conservatory of Music. In 1984 C.E., he traveled to France to study composition with the French composer, organist, and ornithologist Oliver Messiaen. (He obtained French citizenship in 1992 C.E.) He was commissioned by the Koussevitsky Foundation to compose the double concerto Dielianhua [《蝶恋花》] for Chinese chamber ensemble and Western orchestra. For this work he used the tunes of Song poems, where the poet expressed his view of women’s perspectives of the world. The piece contains nine movements and features Eastern themes, but his creative methods originate from Western music, alternatively using atonality, tonality, and the pentatonic scale. It is scored for three voices, three Chinese instruments (, Pipa, and Erhu), and two ensembles. The three female voices are Beijing opera soprano, traditional Chinese music soprano, and Western soprano. 90 Zhu Shirui [朱世瑞] (1954 C.E.—), graduated from the Sichuan Conservatory of Music in 1983 C.E. In 1986 C.E., he graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music, obtaining a master’s degree, and then took a position as instructor there. In 1991 C.E., he went to Germany to study and returned to China, this time to the position of professor of composition at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music, and advisor of doctor candidates. He wrote ‘Tianwen’ Zhiwen [《<天 问>之问》], using the long poem of Qu Yuan as the theme, performed by and Suona. He composed Niepan [《凤凰涅槃》], which features Chinese traditional music elements, and Chinese opera, Shuochang (a genre of popular entertainment consisting mainly of talking and singing), and instrumental music (especially music). 91 Yuheba [鱼合八], a kind of frame of rhythmic pattern where the sum of every sentence equals eight. The first sentence is 7+1 = 8, the second 5+3, the third 3+5, and the fourth 1+7. The structure of the first sentence is 七 (qi) 七 一 (yi) 七 一七 七 扎 (zha); the second sentence structure 内 (nei) 内 一内 内 扎扎 扎；the third is 同 () 同 同 扎扎 扎扎 扎; and fourth is 王 (wang) 扎扎 扎扎 扎扎 扎. The arrangement of sentences is 7 (七) + 1 (扎), 5 (内) + 3 (扎)， 3 (同) + 5 (扎), and 1 (王) + 7 (扎). 七, 内, 同, 王 or four kinds of combinations for the instrumental timbre. The circulated of the four kinds of instrumental ensembles of the whole piece is: the first paragraph 七, 内, 同, 王; second paragraph 内, 同, 王, 七; third paragraph 同, 王, 七, 内; and fourth paragraph 王, 七, 内, 同. 92 Paigu [排鼓], a relatively new kind of drum, appeared in the 1960s. The Paigu was made up of five different sizes of drums, all with different timbres. Each drum has a two-sided drum frame, the diameter of outside circle the same, but diameters of inside circles are different so that every drum can play two pitches. Thus with five drums the total is ten pitches. 212

combining techniques of Western music with Chinese elements, to form the musical work.

2) Tan Dun [谭盾] was born in the Hunan Province in 1957 C.E. and graduated from the

Central Conservatory of Music with a master’s degree, then earned a doctorate from Columbia

University. His compositions are based on Chinese traditional music elements and materials, integrating the core concept of ––Harmony of Heaven and People [Tianren Heyi,

天人合一]––to combine with modern technologies, multimedia, and creative methods of Western music, in works such as Shuangque [《双阙》], Heaven, Earth, Mankind (Symphony 1977)

[Jiaoxiangqu 1977: Tian·Di·Ren《交响曲, 1997：天 ·地·人》]. Analyzing his work Huoji: Composing for Huqin and Ensemble of Folk Instruments [Huoji: Wei Huqin he Minzuyuedui Erzuo,《火祭：为

胡琴和民族乐队而做》] as an example, he uses Chinese traditional and folk elements from beginning to end, and the Zhonghu [中胡], Erhu [二胡], and Gaohu [高胡], which play two themes, the wind orchestra (including a folk wind band of Suona, Sheng, and Muban [木板]) is used to invoke ancient ritual music. The vocal responses to themes and instrumental ensembles express the ideas of war, nation, imagination, and praying for peace.93

3) Zhou Long [周龙] graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in 1983 C.E. In

1985 C.E., he won a scholarship to Columbia University, obtaining a doctorate from there in 1993

C.E. He composed Konggu Liushui [《空谷流水》], for instrumental quartet of Dizi, Guanzi, Zheng, and percussion. He primarily uses Chinese folk musical instruments, binding Chinese musical culture to musical cultures of Western countries. The orchestra is a coalition of solo Chinese folk instruments with Western ensembles, displaying the core thinking of Eastern aesthetics.

93 Hou Taiyong, “Xiantiao and Secai de Youjijiehe-Minzu Qiuyuequ-Minzu Qiyuequ ‘Huoji’ Fengxi” [The Coalition of Melody and Timbre: The Analysis of Compositions of the National Instrumental Ensemble], Art of Music, no. 3 (March 2011), 97-107. 213

4) Chen Yi [陈怡] was born in Guangzhou in 1953 C.E. From 1983 C.E. to 1986 C.E., she studied composition at the Central Conservatory of Music, studying with Wu Zuqiang, and earning a bachelor’s degree––becoming the first woman to earn a master’s degree there. She composed As in a Dream [Rumengling Liangshou, 《如梦令两首》] in 1988 C.E., for soprano, , and violin.

These instruments are played to imitate Chinese plucked stringed instruments. The vocal part is composed to integrate the chants and melodies of the Chinese Beijing opera. Chen Yi also studied composition with Chou Wen-chung and Mario Davidovsky at Columbia University, earning a DMA with distinction. She married Zhou Long and, since 2006 C.E., both Chen Yi and Zhou Long have been professors of composition at the University of Missouri–Kansas City Conservatory of Music and Dance.

The characteristics of music by composers of the school of Contemporary National Music include:

1) Retaining the Chinese traditional aesthetic concepts and philosophical ideas, whether using Chinese national or Western instruments. Thus, compositions can be appreciated by audiences worldwide, but also express the intention of re-energizing appreciation for traditional Chinese instruments.

2) These pieces contain Chinese cultural connotations and Western music compositional techniques, blended in sophisticated arrangements of the composition process. In order to achieve these requirements, composers study compositional techniques intensely and maintain distinctive ideas to form the highest pursuit; thus non-Chinese audiences can recognize and appreciate Chinese music, and Chinese listeners can recognize Chinese flavors within or without Chinese traditional 214

instruments.

3) These works reflect the unique voices of their composers, and the postmodern concept of blending two or more music traditions or cultures in their creative ideas. Although they accept the methods of Western music, they compose works of Chinese music that express their own creative thinking. Therefore, their origins impel them to make a great contribution to the development of

Chinese national instruments, but also pave the new way for future national instrumental music.

Once these composers expressed their ideas of Chinese national instrumental music, other musicians and composers began exploring ways of performance and composition, known as the

New National Music [Xinminyua, 新民乐], which until then had unclear parameters. The primary feature of this music was in composers’ use of Chinese traditional playing skills or Chinese traditional and folk music material mixed into arrangements, orchestrations, styles of performance, and technology in multimedia (electronics, Western instruments) of modern and popular Western music. In short, the formula, so to speak, for New National Music combined Chinese national instruments with elements and instruments of Western popular music. Drawing support from the operation of the new Chinese market economy expanded the influence of this new kind of music.

The [Nvzi Shier Yuefang, 女子十二乐坊] demonstrates one of the successes of the formula. This band consists of thirteen people, and a “broker,” who fixes the position of the group in a visual style. The features of the music include: 1) players select folk songs or favorite songs to adapt to instrumental music (which attracted larger audiences); 2) musicians overturn the stereotype of Chinese traditional music considered as slow or stale, by mixing it with rhythmic patterns from jazz, latin, and rock-and-roll. These reorganizations make the traditional 215

music more up to date, spontaneous, and lively. For instance, their work “Freedom” uses two and two Yangqins, bringing together the timbre of and active rhythms; recordings were thus used for aerobics classes; 3) the stage design for the performance is elaborate, the dress and personal adornment of players fashionable, using guitar techniques on the Pipa, applying non-traditional methods to the Guzheng, and breaking the dullness of sitting in high state to hear serious music. The stage even moves up and down, with fireworks and unceasing alternation of lighting, bubbles floating through the air, all adding visual enhancement to the auditory senses; 4)

Twelve Girls Band performances focused more on commercial success than on artistry. Operating with commercialization and internationalization, the sales volume of albums reached 10,000 on their release date, then a breakthrough to a million in two months. In 2004, they performed twice in Hong

Kong, and the demand there required four more performances. Comparing their creative methods to

Contemporary National Music, they appear simpler, direct, and more commercial.

These two innovative genres appeared after 1982 C.E. These artists showed that by combining Chinese instruments with Western music and instruments they could contribute to the development of the Chinese traditional instruments and music. The media played a significant role in both Contemporary National Music and New National Music. For example, Tan Dun’s film music for the movies Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon [Wohu Canglong, 《卧虎藏龙》],

[Yingxiong, 《英雄》], and The Banquet [Yeyan《夜宴》, ] caught the attention of listeners worldwide, including those not belonging to musical circles, which led to further understanding of his works and his understanding of Chinese music in its contemporary expression. Not only the film music assists composers to popularize their works; the distributing and releasing of works on LD and DVD, 216

as well as through the Internet, has disseminated their compositions widely, to be enjoyed and bringing recognition and remuneration to artists.

New Works for Suona

Since 1982, several composers have also employed the innovative hybridizing of Chinese with Western instruments, or Western compositional styles in works for Suona:

1) Tianshang Renjian [《天上人间》], co-written by the Feng Xiaoquan [冯晓泉] and his wife Zeng Gege [曾格格].94 This work was included in the album of the same name, released in

2001 C.E., the first record featuring the New National Music.

2) Huangtuqing [《黄土情》], composed by Zhou Dongchao in 1992 C.E. The style of this piece for Suona is straightforward and uninhibited, unadorned, relaxed, and tunes and themes of local features and practices of , the spiritual outlook and folk life of its inhabitants.

3) Zhengyueshiwu Naoxuedeng [《正月十五闹雪灯》], composed by the well-known

Suona performer Liu Ying in 1984 C.E. This Suona concerto was selected for Chinese Suona

Famous Performers and Famous Works [Zhongguo Suona Mingjia Mingqu,《中国唢呐名家名曲》] and composed when Liu Ying was a student at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. The inspiration of this Suona piece came from the composer’s fieldwork with his class, who traveled to northeastern

China during . For his Suona concerto, Liu Ying expressed the exploding emotion of this festival atmosphere, according to the northeastern folk songs and musical materials of

94 Zeng Gege [曾格格] formerly known as Zeng Zhaobin [曾昭斌], was born in Beijing 1969 C.E. She is called the Plain Yellow Banner of Manju [满族]. In 1997, she started to vigorously promote and expand the development and innovation of New National Music. She ingeniously combines the Zhudi [竹笛], Dongxiao[洞箫], Wanguandi [弯管笛], [葫芦丝], Tibet Shudi [西藏竖笛], [巴乌], Chiba [尺八], [排箫], [口笛], Xun [埙], and Chi [篪] to the modern music. 217

Errenzhuan [二人转]. In the Prelude audiences enjoy the happy atmosphere of the festival. The

Allegro features powerful rhythms and the melodic style of northeastern folk music, reflecting the joyous scene of the Lantern Festival. The Lento middle section has the distinctive local features of northeastern China. The tunes are straightforward and high-pitched, expressing the love for their hometown. The last section returns to the Allegro; the rhythm uses the rules of rhyming, the melody enthusiastic and cheerful, both stimulating the spirit of people as they appreciate the festive lanterns and the lively occasion. This work also shows the people of northeastern people wishing for a good harvest for the following year.

4) Liangshan Suixiang 《梁山随想》[ ], a Suona concerto composed by Zhang Xiaofeng [张

晓峰]95 in 1987 C.E. This three-movement work is based on the Chinese classical literary work

Water [Shuihuzhuan,《水浒传》], which praises the heroic spirit, and sets out in concerto format the Suona solo against the orchestral response. The first movement “Lumangmang, 路茫茫,” features the grief and contempt in a prelude and the excited and complex Lento tells the story of the eunuchs’ power grab during the Emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty (1082 C.E.–1135 C.E.), while ordinary people lived on the edge of starvation. Consequently, the people were forced to resist and all heroes were compelled to Mount Liang. The second movement, “Fengyunpian, 风云篇,” is a light and accessible Allegretto and Allegro, depicting the beautiful scenery of Mount Liang, and the heroes in brilliant scenes of victory. The third movement, “Yinglingdian, 英灵奠,” marked Lento and Largo, describes the people’s admiration and love of the heroic spirit. To depict the

95 Zhang Xiaofeng [张晓峰] was born in 1931 C.E., in [太仓] of the Jiangsu Province. In 1948 C.E., he moved to Shanghai to engage in performance and studied classical literature. In the 1970s, he devoted more time to writing Chinese traditional instrumental music, such as Chuida music of Yingbinqu [《迎宾曲》], Suona music Shancun Liale Shouhuoyuan [《山村来了售货员》], and the Guzheng concerto Doueyuan [《窦娥冤》]. 218

geographical origins of this story, the composer selected elements of Shandong traditional and folk

Suona music Yizhihua [《一枝花》].

5) Hua Mulan 《花木兰》[ ], a Suona concerto by the Hong Kong composer Guan Naizhong

[关乃忠], considered one of the great concerti. The tunes are drawn from the Yu opera Hua Mulan.

This work, lasting some twenty-three minutes, and dividing the opera into six sections, played continuously, gives full scope to the characteristic of the Suona as imitating the human voice.

Section 1: “Mulan weaves in the cottage.” The orchestra plays the prelude, expressing power and grandeur, and then the Suona plays a gentle and lovely melody introducing the themes of

Section 1. The call and response depicts Hua Mulan as pleasingly affectionate and the affection between her and her parents, the beautiful scenery, and peace of her hometown.

Section 2: “The enemy makes people feel anxiety in the heart.” The opening plucked and low-pitched instruments play the robust and quick melody to display the invading enemy at the frontier. Mulan’s father is called up to the army. The Suona plays the distressed melody depicting

Mulan’s anxiety because her father has gotten ill just as he enlisted. At last, the Suona plays a forthright melody to depict Mulan deciding to replace her father and enter the service.

Section 3: “Who said that a woman is not as good as a man.” Suona and orchestra play a call and response, the Suona a confident melody to express Mulan telling the stories of heroes to persuade her parents to allow her to join the army. In the latter part of this section, the Suona plays a melody of deep love in the farewell lament as she leaves her family.

Section 4: “She defeats the enemy and wins honor at the frontier.” The orchestral music depicts the intense atmosphere of the battlefield. The Suona plays a majestic melody, imitating the 219

sound of horse hooves, and showing the bravery of Mulan on the battlefield. At the end of this section, the Suona part requires to perform.

Section 5: “Celebrating the victory and returning home.” The Suona and orchestra together perform the victorious and enthusiastic melody, expressing the triumph of war, and

Mulan’s jubilant return home.

Section 6: “Wearingfemale clothes again from now on.” The music becomes calm in this section, and the plucked instruments and Banhu produce a peaceful atmosphere. Then, the orchestra and Suona parts form a call and response, with a graceful melody, depicting Mulan’s return home, refusing recognition and awards for her bravery and , instead wearing female clothing, retiring to her hometown in peacetime. At the end of this section, the music is lively and cheerful, reflecting the story of Hua Mulan spread from generation to generation.

6) Tianyue 《天乐》[ ], a Suona concerto written for the Suona master Liu Ying in 1988 C.E. by the renown Chinese composer Zhu Jianer [朱践耳].96 In 1989 C.E., this work was first performed at the Shanghai Culture and Arts Festival [Shanghai Wenhua Yishu Jie, 上海文化艺术

节] and won the Outstanding Achievement Award. The composer had absorbed a wide variety of musical materials, from Chuida music, folk song, tunes of grand operas, and those of local opera–– merging these with Suona styles, and playing techniques and practices of both northern and southern schools. The composer thus blended compositional techniques, twelve-tone and Aleatoric music of

96 Zhu Jianer [朱践耳] was born in Tianjin in 1922 C.E. and grew up in Shanghai. In the 1930s, he studied with Qian Renkang [钱仁康] to learn harmony. In 1947 C.E., he became director of the East of China Military Region Art Troupe. In 1949 C.E., he was the composer of Shanghai Film Studio, Beijing Film Studio, Central News Record Film Studio, Shanghai Opera House, and Shanghai Symphony Orchestra. In 1955 C.E., he went to the Tchaikovsky Institute of Music to study composition. In 1960 C.E., he graduated and returned China, becoming the composer of the Shanghai Experimental Opera House. In 1975 C.E., he transferred to the Shanghai Symphony Orchestra. His works are based on Chinese traditions and draw on Western compositional techniques. 220

the Western musical system with Chinese traditional instrumental music to achieve his original idea of “National music becomes Symphony, Symphony music becomes nationalized [民族音乐交响化,

交响音乐民族化.]”97

7) Huanfeng [《唤凤》], a Suona concerto composed by Qin Wenchen [秦文琛]98 in 1991

C.E. This piece is based on the ancient legend of the beautiful as a symbol that invokes a

Chinese national inspiration and temperament. After viewing a group of oil paintings of the Phoenix in Fire [《火中的凤凰》], Qin Wenchen wrote this work, depicting the Phoenix born in the dark, his growth after the baptism of fire to maturity, and ultimately flying into the sun. The work is divided into five sections:

Section 1: Using free rhythms, the Suona solo leads instrumental and percussion ensembles. The music centers on the note D and Suona plays a variety of beautiful melodies around this center.

Section 2: The rhythm stabilizes in 4/4, with the orchestra responding music of Section 1.

Section 3: The most flexible part, musically, bridging to connect Sections 1 and 2 to

Sections 4 and 5.

Section 4: Concludes the work with the Allegro movement, which responds to Sections 1 and 5, which frame the work. This section uses the alternation between ensemble playing and Suona solo. The meter of the Suona part is in 4/4, the plucked instruments in 3/4. The tempo is relaxed, and

97 This sentence came from an interview of Zhu Jianer in January 2007 C.E. 98 Qin Wenchen [秦文琛] was born in Inner Mongolia Erdos in 1966 C.E. In 1987 C.E., he enrolled in the Department of composition at the Shanghai Conservatory of music and studied with Zhu Jianer and Xu Shuya [许舒亚]. In 1991 C.E., he graduated and became an instructor at the Central Conservatory of Music. From 1998 C.E. to 2001 C.E., he went to Germany on an academic exchange with the financial aid of the German Academic Exchange Center, studying composition with Nic. A. Huber. He has composed for chamber music, symphony, in folk music, and film and television genres. 221

the plucked instrumental parts are in compact, and the pattern fixed, which contrasts ideas of freedom and regularity.

Section 5: A Lento movement, expressing an internal monologue.

8) Farewell, My Concubine [Bawang Bieji,《霸王别姬》] by Zhu Yi [朱毅] in 1989 C.E.

This work is a Suona concerto, lasting seventeenth minutes. The Suona players use two kinds of timbres, one is straightforward and uninhibited, the other soft and judicious, to describe the two lead characters, the Hegemon-King Bids [项羽] and his Concubine Yu Ji [虞姬] of the story, taken from the 1924 C.E. Peking opera of the same title.

9) White, Red, Blue-Suona, Percussion, and Voice [Bai, Hong, -Suona, Dajiyue, He

Rensheng,《白、红、蓝——唢呐，打击乐与人声》, composed by Shi Song [石松]99 and performed by Liu Ying. The three sections of this work are called White, Red, and Blue. For the White section, the composer makes full use of the glide or glissando technique of the Suona, resembling the human voice in a sigh, yell, or the weeping of deep grief. The composer uses voice and percussion to accompany the Suona in producing a desolate, mournful atmosphere. For Red, the composer uses random notes, and an unstable tonality to express the peaceful nature of the wedding, but this atmosphere seems to wrap around a distressed feeling. In the Blue ending section, he depicts a depressed mood.

Suona musicians also explored a particular innovation that was to transform the morphology of the instrument (discussed in new morphologies of Suona in Chapter IV). Since the

99 Shi Song [石松], in 1976 C.E., enrolled in the Department of Beijing Opera of Jiangxi Provincial Arts School to study Jinghu, and then Dizi, Suona, and Sanxian. In 1985 C.E., he enrolled in the Department of the composition of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music and studying with Chen Gang. His compositions follow a wide range of themes, such as those from the musical opera Chunzhen Niandai [《纯真年代》], Beijing opera Xinqiji [《辛弃疾》], and Dance Opera Yingshanhong [《映山红》], and Wuduo Jinhua [《五朵金花》]. 222

People’s Republic of China the country had incorporated the Western music system and instrumentation of the Western orchestra, including the equal temperament to uniform orchestral pitches. Consequently, the Erhu, Guzheng, Pipa, and Dizi instruments had been improved, and included in the Chinese national orchestra. The Suona had also been enhanced by expanding its range of pitches.

However, as times changed, so did the appreciative habits of audiences, who began to prefer indoor music concerts; thus because of its loud volume, an advantage for the Suona outdoors, had made the instrument unpopular for indoor concerts. Suona musicians thus adapted the shape of the instrument to cater to the new trend. The Suona master Zuo Jicheng [左继承] invented the multi-functional Suona, good for indoor performances and for achieving a balance of volume with other instruments in the orchestra. This invention thoroughly changed the characteristics of the

Suona as an outdoor instrument.

Zuo Jicheng composed several pieces for the new, multi-functional Suona, employing the influence of the new shape and generating a new type of Suona music during this era. His representative Suona works include: Saussurea Involucrata [Xuelianhua《雪莲花》, ], Musical Sound from Heart [Xinxin Yueyu, 《心新乐语》], Grand Canyon in Dream [Mengxiang Daxiagu, 《梦

幻大峡谷》], Distressed Canary [Youshangde Jinsiniao,《忧伤的金丝鸟》], Faraway Mountain

[Yuanshan《远山》, ], Leaves Have Turned Red [Fengye Hongle《枫叶红了》, ], Waving Flame

[Wudong de Huoyan,《舞动的火焰》], and The Flourishing Age of China [Shengshi Zhongguo,《盛

世中国》].

Alongside the prosperity of the new Suona performance practices and works of this period, 223

Chinese professional musical institutions cultivated a new generation of Suona players. These Suona masters collaborated with the earlier composers with similar creative ideas and philosophies, exploiting their superior Suona playing skills for new Suona works on Chinese and even international stages. These Suona performers also composed Suona works to perform themselves.

By their hard work the Suona repertoire came into a new era with outstanding contemporary Suona performers: Shi Haibin [石海彬] (1975 C.E.—),100 Feng Xiaoquan [冯晓泉] (1968 C.E.—),101 Zuo

Jicheng [左继承] (1960 C.E.—),102 Guo Yazhi [郭雅志] (1966 C.E.—),103 Zhang Zhike [张志可]

100 Shi Haibin [石海彬], born in 1975 C.E., a contemporary music Suona performer and master of literature. In 1989 C.E., he attended in the Shanxi Province Opera School to learn Jin opera and Suona playing. In 1994 C.E., he attended the Department of the National music of the Central Conservatory of Music and studied Suona with Chen Jiaqi. While there he also played under conductors and performers and Suona educators: Ren Tongxiang, Liu Bingchen, Wang Gaolin, and Guo Yazhi. In 1998, he graduated and became an instructor at the Central Conservatory. He recorded albums of Farewell, My Concubine: The Suona Solo Album of Shi Haibin 《[ 霸王别姬——石海彬唢呐独奏专辑》] and a DVD of Waking Up: The Suona Solo Concert of Shi Haibin [《唤醒——石海彬唢呐独奏音乐会》]. Shi Haibin also edited and published books, including Instrumental Test: The Repertoire and Detailed Annotation of the Suona [《器乐考级——唢呐 主要曲目及详解》], a professional teaching repertoire, The Tutorial of Suona Player: Music to Learn [《唢呐必学教程》], academic theses, The Aesthetic Pursuit of Suona Timbre [《试论对唢呐音色的审美追求》], The Analysis of Suona Music Yizhihua [《唢呐名曲一枝花》], The Problems of “Breath” and “Musical Sound” in Suona Performance [《关于唢呐演 奏中“气”和“韵”的问题》], and recorded the DVDs and LDs of teaching by demonstration: The Practical Course of Suona [《唢呐实用教程》], Becoming a Suona Master Fast [《唢呐演奏速成》], and The Tutorial of Suona Self-study and Improvement [《唢呐自学入门与提高》]. Shi Haiban has been invited to perform throughout Europe and Asia as a Suona soloist. 101 Feng Xiaoquan [冯晓泉], born in 1968, in the Haerbin, a musician, singer, and performer of New National Music, Feng Xiaoquan also has been named a State First-Class Artist of the China National Traditional Orchestra. 102 Zuo Jicheng [左继承] is a performer of Suona and Guanzi, composer, educator, professor of , and advisor of masters students. In 1978 C.E., he attended the Tōkyō University of the Arts, studying with Tuozhi Yuanyi [柘直元一] to learn musicology. In 1991 C.E., he received his master degree in art. While he studied in Japan, he composed and recorded music for television and radio stations, and was invited to give lectures on Chinese music by the Tōkyō University of the Arts, Waseda University, and other institutions. In recent years, he has published dozens of academic articles in domestic and foreign journals, such as “The Connection of the Japanese Bili Music Score and Chinese Gongche Notation: The New Exploration of the Derivation of the Chinese Gongche Notation [《日本筚篥谱 与中国工尺谱的关连——新探工尺谱谱字之起源》]” in Japanese《东洋音乐研究》; “A Comparative Study of Chinese Seventeen Pipes and Japanese Sheng: The Analysis of the Evolution of the Chinese Harmony [《中国十七簧笙与日本笙 的比较——探中国音乐的和声演变》]” in Music Research; “A Comparative Study of Xi’an Guyue Notation and Japanese Yayue Notation: The Exploration of the Genesis of Xi’an Guyue Notation [《西安鼓乐谱与日本雅乐谱之比较 ——探西安鼓乐谱之源流》]” in Chinese Musicology; and “The Notation of Chinese Xun [《棠湖埙谱》]” in Chinese Music. As Chinese musicologist, he has participated many times in the International Symposium on Comparative Studies of Japanese Music. 103 Guo Yazhi [郭雅志] was born in 1966 C.E., and is a well known performer of woodwind music. He studied at the Central Conservatory of Music with professors Chen Jiaqi, Hu Haiquan, Ren Tongxiang, Wang Gaolin, Liu Bingchen, Song Lichun [宋立春], Hu Zhihou [胡志厚], and Yin Erwen [尹二文] to learn Suona and Guanzi. He is proficient in playing almost thirty kinds of aerophones, including Suona, Guanzi, Xiao, Xun, Dizi, Bawu, Hulusi, and Saxophone. His performance footprints reached Germany, the Netherlands, , Japan, , Australia, Singapore, , Hong Kong, , and regions of China. He has held solo concerts in New York, Boston, and Los Angeles. In 1987 C.E., he recorded his first album Suona Songs [《唢呐歌曲》] and, in 1988 C.E., published his second collection of Suona repertoire, Suona Opera [《唢呐戏曲》]. In 1993 C.E., he invented the “telescopic brass mouthpipe” (discussed in Chapter IV) thus winning second prize in the Science and Technology Progress Award, from the Ministry of Culture. The mouthpiece meant that the Suona could now execute the chromatic scale, in equal temperament, thus 224

(1964 C.E.—),104 and Zhou Dongchao [周东朝] (1960 C.E.—).105

Along with works by the Contemporary National Music composers, Suona performance opportunities developed that depended on the help of the media: television, film, LD, DVD, and CD.

The new compositions for Chinese Suona during this period after 1982 C.E. have gone well beyond traditional methods of writing for the instrument. No longer was it necessary to reference folk and ethnic Chinese music; instead composers felt free to adopt Western compositional techniques and orchestral accompaniments for Suona solos, using sophisticated designs to express the Chinese traditional aesthetics and thought, to achieve new sounds in the new era of Suona music.

Hence, Suona music of this period lost many of its functions in folklore, folk rituals, wedding celebrations, funeral ceremonies, agricultural production, but now had enhanced features as a purely instrumental music, performed for the stage and for appreciation alone. These works have brought more recognition to the instrument and its performers and composers throughout the world, assisted by modern technology and media that have widely increased their commercial demand.

Once the urban musical scene had undergone such enormous changes, how did this impact rural China? The impact of China’s economic reform in 1982 C.E. gradually stretched to the enriching the capabilities of the instrument. In 1998 C.E., he was sent as a delegate of the Ministry of Culture to participate in the competition of Prix International Pro Musicis, in New York, winning an opportunity for a world performance tour. (The Overseas Newspaper [Qiaobao,《侨报》] reported that “[H]e took a significant step for the Chinese woodwind instrument in the global arena.”) That same year, he demonstrated Chinese traditional music on the saxophone, Erquanyingyue [《二泉映月》] and with his telescopic brass mouthpipe performed American composer Joni Mitchell’s Chelsea Morning on the Suona for President Bill Clinton, an exciting program for the White House event because of the blended performances of Chinese and American culture. In 2012 C.E., he attended the Berklee College of Music to take up advanced studies in Jazz. He has become the most renowned Suona player all over the world, his album hitting the top of recording charts. He is also well known for his collaborations with symphony orchestras in famous concert halls worldwide. 104 Zhang Zhike [张志可], born in 1964 C.E., graduated from the Shanghai Conservatory of Music and became associated professor of the Wuhan Conservatory of Music. He has published articles including, “The Analysis of Improvisation of the Chinese Folk Suona Music, Bainiao Chaofeng” and “The Psychological Adjustment and Control While Playing Suona.” 105 Zhou Dongchao [周东朝] was born in Jinan City of the Shandong province in 1960 C.E. His original family home was in Yongnian County [永年县] of Hebei Province. Since childhood, he studied Suona with his father and first performed onstage at age nine. In 1975 C.E., he participated in the Chinese National Singing and Playing Contest and became the youngest winner. He then joined the Broadcasting Chinese Orchestra. In 1978 C.E., he recorded his first Suona solo, Happy of Harvest [Fenshou de Xiyue,《丰收的喜悦》] for China National Radio. 225

countryside. The new policies provided opportunities for developing the rural economy, and also offered a new market for Suona ensemble performances. The quantity of Guchui ensemble performances gradually increased, out from under its prohibited status during the Cultural

Revolution. The popularity of television and computers in rural areas attracted those in the countryside to learning and playing musical instruments, preferring to study them through these new forms of communication. Folklore musicians on the one side maintained the oral teaching tradition while new converts preferred learning modern repertoire from audio, video, or Internet formats.

Moreover, because their audiences and players alike could access music from various resources (from radio and television to personal websites), Suona bands not only learned about the history of their instruments, but also about modern international trends, both historical and current, as did urbanites. Thus, Suona ensemble performances grew from those featuring traditional instruments to ones featuring Western musics and instruments, for example, electronic keyboard, drum set, saxophone, trumpet, trombone, clarinet.

With the addition of electronic technologies, sound systems, and such, the Suona bands could perform traditional and modern repertoires together within one concert or event, accompanied by either Eastern or Western instruments, with the more fashionable electronic technologies helping to make their bands more attractive to young listeners. More and more Suona ensemble leaders realized that these modern elements gave them more opportunities, and jumped on board the new mode of the Suona ensemble. These new types of Suona bands, however, threatened the survival of traditional Suona bands, more concerned with preserving and performing traditional folk repertoires. 226

With the rapid development of the economy, China implemented the policy of Rural

Urbanization [Nongcunchengzhenhua, 农村城镇化]106 in the countryside, put forward, in 2005

C.E., by the Fifth Plenary Session of the Sixteenth Central Committee of the Communist Party of

China, with the goal of transforming traditional rural regions into civilized modern cities. In this process, high buildings and large mansions were built more and more in rural areas, which thus began to resemble cities, and peasants to live like urban dwellers, as more and more cultivated lands were built by county, and the number of farmers speedily decreased. Fewer peasants engaged in agricultural production and instead worked in the new industrial buildings.

The lifestyle of the peasants changed, as did the corresponding habits and customs; the youths of countryside moved to cities to look for work in factories, in the catering industry, as builders for example. The lifestyle of the rural young generation completely changed from the older generations, the young, for the most part, accepting a new urban way of life. Chinese society retained the funeral rituals, wedding ceremonies, and folk activities during the People’s Republic of

China, but the activities surrounding them were becoming streamlined, or the process simplified, even discarded. Thus Suona ensemble services declined, adjoined others, or almost disappeared.

Even though several Suona bands survive today, they have become difficult to maintain or have changed their services to earn enough income to survive.

Fortunately, as this kind of folk art form confronted a survival crisis, the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) formed a treaty for the Convention for

106 Rural Urbanization included the following [Nongcunchengzhenhua, 农村城镇化]: 1) clearing a lot of cultivated land and full use of Chinese land resources; 2) avoiding the congenital vulnerability and risk of agricultural producing; 3) changing the concept of farming to form the new technicalization, collectivization, and integration of planting industry, breeding industry, a processing industry, , and service industry; and 4) promoting the transfer of agriculture to non-agricultural industries and create more opportunities for the non-agricultural . 227

the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage [《保护非物质文化遗产公约》] in October 2003

C.E., which was designed to protect traditions, oral presentations, festive etiquette, handmade skills, music, and dance. Subsequently, the State Council of the People’s Republic of China established a national list of intangible expressions and objects, promulgating their own Intangible Cultural

Heritage Law of the People’s Republic of China [Zhonghuarenmingongheguo Feiwuzhiwenhua

Yichanfa, 《中华人民共和国非物质文化遗产法》]. They also referred to the cultural heritage of people of all ethnic groups, traditional expressions, and material objects and places related to the traditional culture, regarded as part of their cultural heritage. In particular, the intangible cultural heritage included: 1) conventional oral literature; 2) traditional fine art, , music, dance, opera, Quyi (Chinese folk art forms), and acrobatics; 3) traditional skills, medicine, and calendars; 4) traditional rituals, festivals, and other folklore; 5) traditional sports and recreations; and 6) other intangible cultural heritage.107

China has formed four levels of a protected system defined as nation + province + city + county. Taking as an example the Suona of the Ping school of Zoucheng, in the Shandong province

Zaozhuang [山东枣庄邹城平派唢呐], its inclusion in the national intangible cultural heritage means that cultural authorities have responsibilities to create opportunities for its furtherance or

107 In 2006 C.E., the government approved the first round of the cultural heritage expressions and objects, which included the Suona tradition on the roster, classified as folk music and numbered 68 II-37. City [沁阳市] of the Henan province and Qingyang City [庆阳市] of Gansu province are commonly declared as primary areas for preserving the Suona tradition. In 2008 C.E., Huachui of Tangshan [唐山花吹], Chaozihui of Manju of Fengning [丰宁满族吵子 会], Guchui in the north of Shanxi province [晋北鼓吹], Bayinhui of Shangdang City [上党八音会], Yuehu Banshe of Shangdang City [上党乐户班社], Guyue of Dandong [丹东鼓乐], Guchui Yupeng of Yangxiaoban [杨小班鼓吹乐棚], Suona Gongpochui of Yudu City [于都唢呐公婆吹], Deshenggu of Wanzai [万载得胜鼓], Guchuiyue of the Ping School of Zoucheng [邹城平派鼓吹乐], Wuyin of Qushui [沮水呜音], Wuyin Laba [呜音喇叭], Yuan’an Mingyin [远安呜音], Suona of Qingshan [青山唢呐], Chuida of [永城吹打], and Suona of Suimi [绥米唢呐] were named in the second round of the national intangible cultural heritage list. In 2011 C.E., a variety of Suona arts were listed in the third round of the national intangible cultural heritage, which included Guchuiyue of Xuzhou [徐州鼓吹乐], Suona of Dangshan [砀山唢呐], and Changtinggong Machui [长汀公嫲吹]. In 2014 C.E., Da Suona of Lin County [临县大唢呐] and Bolin Laba of Lingbi [灵璧菠林喇叭] were added to the fourth round of the national intangible cultural heritage list. 228

preservation, such as participating in competitions, joining in national performances, developing publicity and academic exchanges, and doing cultural exchanges overseas.

The implementation of these policies has inspired ethnomusicologists and scholars to publish more articles discussing how to protect the Suona tradition. Some researchers argue that institutions of higher learning should play a significant role to protect the Suona tradition. They believe that Suona students need to do more fieldwork and enhance their awareness of the folk artists who are treasures of traditional Suona music. Yet other scholars believe the government should do more to protect folklore environments, where the survival of Suona music must be prioritized using the most efficient ways of preserving the forms of Suona artistry. Another idea is to protect the forms of Suona art by putting cultural artifacts into museums, thus keeping the performance practice, music arrangements, and repertoire of the Suona ensemble separate from their surviving environment.108

In short, the survival of the Suona, whether in cities or contemporary rural areas, has been earthshakingly transformed. All those engaged in professional Suona performance, or participating in the performance of any rituals descended from Chinese folklore, are therefore confronted with the problem of how to both preserve and develop the continuance of Suona traditions.

New Trends in Algaita and Suona Music

An analysis of new trends in Algaita music and Suona music, in their respective cultural contexts, shows many similarities and regular patterns between the music of these two instruments:

108 These discussions abound in music and academic journals, published by music conservatories such as People’s Music [Renmin Yinyue,《人民音乐》], Music Research [Yinyue Yanjiu,《音乐研究》], Journal of the Central Conservatory of Music, Art of Music, and Explorations in Music. 229

1) European countries colonizing the entire African continent, and Japan aggressing against China, changed the independent agricultural society models of both Africa and China. The alterations of social structures also led to large shifts in lifestyle and population proportions of urban and countryside subsistence. The modes of production largely moved from the agricultural cultivation to the industrial production. These shifts had great impact on Algaita and Suona music, which formerly depended on agricultural folk-custom activities. Other alterations of social patterns include:

a) European colonists introducing industrial production in Africa, and in

China brought wealth to a broader section of people. Although the incentives were different, the end result was that previous societal structures were destroyed and both West African and Chinese communities were largely urbanized. In the countryside folk activities remained, for example, in the traditional marriage celebration and funeral ceremonies; however, towns and suburbs were more likely to adapt to modern lifestyles. Therefore, the use of Algaita and Suona music gradually decreased in folk activities;

b) The introduction of the Western education system into the entire African continent and

China affected their own systems and educational patterns, and also changed the systems of inheritances of the traditions of the Algaita and Suona, ultimately separating them from their customary environments, one reason for the decrease of their functions in serving folklore;

c) The changes in education and medical models reduced the worship of gods and supernatural forces, and the preponderance of ritual activities, so that the function of the Algaita and

Suona in prayer virtually disappeared. Therefore, social functions of Algaita and Suona faced a 230

continued crisis, vanishing almost entirely in urban areas.

2) The colonization and aggression of European countries, on the one hand, caused the dissatisfaction and resistance of the people of the West Africa and China; on the other, the governing bodies and some of the population in these two areas realized that industrial models, educational methods, and medical technologies were profitable. Thus, by contact, understanding, acceptance, and applying these within their cultural environment, West African and Chinese societies proceeded in a process of acculturation of Western culture.

For traditional musics, the Western music system and other aspects of learning and acceptance applied to musical works and performances. Therefore, the European instruments appeared everywhere in the African continent and in China. Beyond the use of Western musical instruments alone, the use of Western musical theory constituted a complex and sophisticated process, so musicians of West African countries and China gradually learned, researched, and mastered these compositional techniques and used them in tandem with traditional music in their compositions. Thus, new Algaita and Suona music emerged demonstrating Western compositional skills along with scoring for the Western orchestra. These new works also demonstrated new instrumental features of Algaita and Suona music, appearing in purely instrumental music for the stage for enjoyment, entertainment, appreciation, and leisure.

3) Algaita and Suona works using a large number of Western music compositional techniques caused a debate between national music scholars and musicians who emphasized maintaining the characteristics of the traditional, or national music. These scholars considered this developing trend . The independence of West African countries and the 231

establishment of the People’s Republic of China inspired these peoples to restore their traditional music. In the appearance of postmodernist compositions that combine Western and Eastern influences, many composers and performers have been committed to reinstating or preserving traditional repertoires of the Algaita and Suona, and to protect the folk activities and rituals they supported.

4) While ethnic peoples advocated for the value of ethnic music, economic globalization led to and promoted hybridization. With globalization, musical works became commercialized, so the mode of performances on the stage and smaller areas of appreciation were transformed. Consequently, worldwide consumption of music, by the power of the media and the

Internet, flourished without restriction by the state, region, time, or social class. To some extent, the media assisted national musicians in promoting their musical works, also distributing European and

American music genres worldwide. Although players of Chinese national music have been the voice for their own ethnic subgenres, the music audiences and artists alike in both African and Chinese communities have preferred European and American popular musics and electro-acoustic instruments. Therefore, more musical bands have appeared that combine electronic instruments and traditional musical instruments, performing repertoire from fusions of jazz elements, and other popular and ethnic musical elements, to secure better sales on the market.

5) Cultural globalization has also led to the creolization of playing skills, including those of Algaita and Suona, a particular phenomenon where traditional culture is valued and practiced in another cultural field. For example, the American jazz musician Yusef Lateef used the Algaita in his work, thus spreading awareness of this instrument in America. Or the Chinese Suona performer Guo 232

Yazhi played works for saxophone on Suona, or performed Suona music on saxophone, while earning his saxophone performance degree in the United States; thus American musical arenas intersected with interest in the Suona and its music. 233

CHAPTER VIII

REFLECTIONS ON THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF ALGAITA AND SUONA MUSIC

Since the beginning of globalization, cultural products around the world have been mixed and matched; hybridization has appeared in food, fashion, film, literature, architecture, education, and the arts. This globalization occurs everywhere; it is not simply a unidirectional transportation of goods, cultural products, or ideas from economically and politically powerful nations to weaker ones.

However, the latter are more quickly and easily affected by the former. Because of the history of aggression and colonialism before the onset of globalization, less developed countries must consider the value and sometimes advanced development of cultures in powerful countries; but they in turn overcome those countries whose traditions remain strong to less market value and an unequal cultural voice, spontaneously weakening their original cultural products. This behavior itself has led to the weak culture growing weaker in terms of global influence. Some scholars believe that this dynamic destroys national cultural diversity in the global setting, and results in homogenization, a trend that most countries cannot escape.1

When economic globalization promotes commercialization of cultural products, which become commodities, these goods are sold for profits that become critical, so the market orientation determines the direction of creative works. Some scholars have argued that globalization is not the main reason for the homogenization of cultures, that because cultures have communicated with and mutually influenced each other even before globalization, why did this not cause homogeneity?

Because the Internet, the media, and the development of industrialization have privileged certain

1 Tyler Cowen. Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World’s Cultures (Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 11. 234

types of music and culture, those types not using language or cultural tropes known to the majority of users suffer.2 In the history, the communication of people of different cultures by contact, exchange, absorption, recognition, and then acculturated into their culture, did so through a long process. Now, however, music, movies and other cultural products are produced and then globally published, people worldwide can hear and see them at the same time, shortening by far the acceptance process. Although people still decide to accept or not to accept cultural products from other cultures, so many cultural products are produced as to at least infiltrate a few into other cultures. Therefore, globalization causes the fusion that inevitably becomes the phenomenon.

However, education is also developing quickly, so scholars and the well-educated have a comprehension of the cultural homogeneity in globalization, which caused the emergence of postmodernism. This idea goes against the consistent and authoritatively determined standards of dominant culture, and forms no center or standard, with a multi-value orientation and value relativism. The emergence of postmodernism caused the drift of consciousness away from strength or weakness of economy and polity, or the high or low of national cultures. However, no process of historical experience can erase its traces. Consequently, musical products in China and West Africa reflect the nationality with its various characteristics, but some musical elements are also influenced by European and American cultures, traced to their cultural products. The Algaita’s use in jazz, or the compositions of Contemporary National Music and New National Music are good examples.

The Contemporary National Music composers’ new works have been based on the changes in the Chinese educational system since the beginning of the Republic of China. As Chinese

2 Zhang Jing. “Tendencies of Cultural Homogeneity and Heterogeneity in the Course of Globalization,” Teaching and Research, vol. 5 (2002), pp. 56-61. 235

music (education was Westernized using Western compositional techniques to educate these

Chinese composers) the Chinese considered the Western system as advanced, and altered, for example, their instruments to adapt to Western equal temperament. Composers also used the compositional techniques of European music, and wrote more pieces for the Western orchestra.

These Western musical elements expanded this school of composition and its artists among

European countries, popularizing these Chinese composers’ musical products. Once these composers acculturated to Western education, the ideology of postmodernism taking hold emphasized their renewed awareness of their own national-cultural treasures. They not only led

China in appreciating their musical culture, but they also brought favor among Westerners. For

Suona music this composing style became a kind of strategy for marketing new musical products.

The extent of their popularity impacted more musicians, causing them to adopt such models in compositions.

The New National Music adapted more directly and quickly, becoming the typical product of globalization and postmodernism. Globalization brought the Chinese awareness of jazz, Latin music, rock, visual music,3 and synthesizer and midi techniques. Musical products in these genres, or using them alongside their traditional music, satisfied audiences who preferred popular music, but also saved Suona music from obscurity or oblivion, as it was quickly fading from public memory.

New National and Contemporary National Suona music, then, formed two possible directions for national (traditional) instrumental music––although both remain controversial, with an unknown future. An important difference between these schools concerns Contemporary National

3 Visual music is an area of audio-visual creation, which applies technological and imaginative to combine visual images and music. 236

Music’s retention of high standards of refinement, and under scrutiny is its current experimental exploration in musical technology. Its acceptance by audiences has so far not overly influenced composers’ creative directions and methods. Thus, this school of composition will continue, composers remain devoted to developing the national instrumental music. However, Contemporary

National music, with its deep study of Chinese and Western music culture and mastery, has not accumulated a large enough following or repertoire, so has not matched the rapid development of the market for such new works.

The study Contemporary National music mainly focused on 1) analysis of these works as suitable for the gamut of traditional Chinese instruments and performance skills, Chinese traditional aesthetic thinking, the Western orchestra, and atonality, polytonality, twelve-tone technique, improvisation, and other compositional techniques; 2) critique of this kind of exploration, in which some scholars have noted polytonality, atonality, and Aleatoric music as products of decadence, asking why should Chinese new music research rely on these skills?4 They believe that the development of traditional Chinese music must be built on the cultural in the new era, so new Chinese music maintains the national characteristics of Chinese culture; and 3) supportive attitudes of this kind of exploration by scholars, who believe that this school broke the state of stagnation in Chinese traditional music, that Chinese musicians were aware of but could or would not recognize a new creative direction.5

Thus this investigation of Contemporary National Music needs further study. This kind of exploration now has a deep foundation, no longer considered simply superimposing Chinese and

4 Tian Qing. “Zaitan Minzuyinyue de ‘Disanzhong Moshi,” [Talking About the ‘Third Model’ of National Music] Chinese Music, no. 3 (1997), pp. 8-11. 5 Zhang Yue. “ ‘Chilaide Zhongguo Xinminzu Yuepai’ de Huigu yu Huixiang,” [Retrospect and Think Back of ‘Chinese Contemporary National Music’] Chinese Art Newspaper, June 21, 2013. 237

Western music. These composers have carefully designed structures to their works and clearly work out of traditional Chinese aesthetics to express their ideas, adhering to traditional musical concepts.

Thus they have affected the continuation of Chinese traditional music considerably. Additionally, their works have developed the performance practices of Chinese instruments, particularly those of the Suona soloist; they have also broken with traditions of Chinese music in the single melodic line, by adding the Western orchestra to enhance the functions of harmony, a qualitative improvement.

As for New National Music, some scholars have strongly voiced criticism against it; controversy of this innovative exploration remains.6 Researchers consider the innovations of the

New National Music school as simply relying on the dislocation of rhythm, inversion of accent, stretched or shortened rhythms, adding jazz flavor or rebellious attitudes of rock, for example. They ask: Can this be called innovation?7 Some believe that this way of development damages the survival of traditional music and must be prohibited.8

We might argue that compositions using these hybridizing innovations have gradually commercialized in pursuit larger audiences or public attention, which might also lower creative standards, thus constitute wrong-headed attempts. But the searching attitude of the New National

Music has proved a very effective way to attract audience concern for national instrumental music once again. Such innovation reflects the need for music as a commodity of modern social culture. In fact, before music was commercialized, it still had to be consumed to be appreciated, and even musicians serving at activities and rituals in African countries and China needed payment. Therefore,

6 Liu Jin. “Yinyue Xiaofei: Yinminyue de Wenhua Pipan,” [Music Consumption: Cultural Criticism of New National Music] People’s Music, no. 9 (2006), pp. 62-65. 7 Ding Xianhhong. “ Xinminge, Xinminyue,” [Questioned New National Songs, New National Music], people’s Music, no. 8 (2002), p. 45. 8 Liu Jin, op. cit., p. 62. 238

all Chinese music was a commodity because it required consumption. The blind emphasis on orthodox or serious music as “purer” moves the opposite way in instilling appreciative habits of ordinary citizens. In actuality, if composers remain too idealistic in their compositions their music will disappear from the public view; thus musicians and scholars might better produce new music, for example, using ethnic materials to prevent only shoddy works capturing the market.

Some scholars have disagreed on both kinds of innovation, insisting that Suona art must be rooted in folk customs and ritual activities. But better would be to find ways of preserving environments where this art can survive. For example, performers and composers might lead the way in such preservation, calling more attention to the music for ritual customs and traditional roles of the instrument, or by continuing to use such material in their performances and works, while also finding ways of featuring traditional performance practices of the Suona. Scholars should not insist on suppressing innovations for the instrument; they should instead provide ideas for innovations that promote traditional music in new and healthy ways. Thus, even if they cannot entirely protect the traditions of the instrument, they can at least find excellent directions for it.

We can only hope that such efforts continue preserving the Suona tradition, but I am not optimistic. More and more rural areas have been urbanized, and television and Internet have mainstreamed the direction of development quickly. Folklore customs and ritual activities have therefore become simplified or almost disappeared. Even if occasionally Suona bands accompany a few activities, the whole process of ceremonies or celebrations, and the arrangement of Suona ensemble will continue to change, incorporating Western musical instruments and electronics.

The disappearance of the social function of the Suona is regrettable, but it also 239

demonstrates music as a mirror of the entire society, so if the social environment has changed, the music naturally follows. Therefore, the Suona becomes more and more a purist instrument, whose function centers on producing music for appreciation, thus becomes commodified and commercialized. Its traditional social functions will gradually fade away, the result of a developing modern society.

Especially, when people do not concentrate on Chinese Suona and see the development of

Algaita in West African countries, with its similar origins to the Suona, it is not difficult to find a pattern of these new trends that because not only the traditional social function of Suona was progressively fading away and the new trends appeared.

The traditional function of Algaita in West African, still preserved, has been to serve

Islamic Emirs, chiefs, and governors, to perform in a surrogate language to “speak” praise leaders.

The Algaita is still used in activities related to Islamic ritual ceremonies and folk celebrations.

However, Western musics and musical instruments have threatened the survival of the Algaita. With globalization, European and American popular music has overwhelmed African music, causing their musicians to put down traditional instruments. The West African musical ensembles have instead prominently featured keyboards, guitar, trumpet, tuba, trombone, and saxophone, using the synthesizer to mimic the sounds of the Algaita rather than the instrument itself. The Algaita’s survival is at stake here, and cannot evade the extraordinary influence of European and American popular musics, or the impact of commercialization. Confronted by this crisis, composers have used

Western compositional techniques to create new works for Algaita.

Traditionally, the aerophone in the African continent was not as commonly used as the 240

membranophone or ; musicians have thus not made as much effort for the continuation of

Algaita music, nor do they currently, so although we see a few jazz pieces using Algaita, it still faces a difficult road in survival.

Algaita and Suona have faced difficult challenges in modern times because they have not found clear directions to follow. Now, audiences worldwide are under the influence of popular music and globalization. Many traditional musicians struggle for the revival of ethnic musics and refuse Westernization, but new works of music featuring traditional instruments or repertoire also must add elements of popular music and Western musical techniques to survive. What is more, some composers exploit their ethnic music (national music) simply as a strategy of selling, of no benefit for the development of this music. Any ethnic group should preserve their ethnic musical values, especially those that reflect the wisdom of the music for listeners. However, in order to develop benefit from artistic products, musicians cannot calm down only focus on composing. If intending to use more materials for better sales on the market, professional musicians must also shorten their time for writing pieces. These all dilute the creative power for composing excellent musical works.

241

CHAPTER IX

CONCLUSIONS

This thesis explored the earliest origins of the double-reed instrument, demonstrating how the double-reed aerophone evolved from the double-reed, double-pipe woodwind to the double-reed, single-pipe instrument. The thesis shows that the Algaita, used in West Africa, and the Suona, used in China, have the same genesis. The dissemination of one double-reed, single-pipe aerophone by

Muslims, during the expansion of the Arab World, moved on the one hand from the Middle East to

West Africa, where it eventually became known as the Algaita. The double-reed, single-pipe instrument was also introduced to China from the Middle East by the commercial trade on the Silk

Road and the expansion of the Mongol Empire, where it eventually became known as the Suona.

The thesis describes the respective function contexts and uses of the Algaita and Suona in the

African continent and in China, from the Middle Ages through Modernity. The thesis explored why these two instruments have different names on two continents and their etymologies. It showed the similar and distinct morphological structure of the Algaita and Suona, as well as new derived shapes of these instruments.

In terms of their functions in religious rituals and secular activities in West Africa and

China, I analyzed the relationships between Algaita and the Islamic rituals and traditional West

African religious ceremonies. I also examined the role of the Suona in Buddhist and Taoist religious services in China. Likewise, once in their new cultural contexts these two instruments also played different social functions in secular activities. By analysis, this thesis illustrated that although

Algaita and Suona are homologous instruments, their assimilation into new cultural contexts––after 242

a process of contact, understanding, and acceptance, and over a period of centuries––integrated them into wholly different and various aspects of their respective cultural contexts. Because of differences in West African and Chinese cultures, the instruments also had, and currently have, distinct social functions in their respective contexts.

Since the eighteenth century, the social models of West Africa and China have undergone tremendous changes. As the reflection of the overall social change, the functions of the Algaita and

Suona have moved from the various functions of social activities, usually outdoors, into instruments, appreciated for artistry and entertainment, primarily played for indoor concerts and recordings. Thus, the Algaita and Suona have developed through the politics and economics of cultural globalization, placing them squarely in our era of commercialization. During this period, due to the impact of popular music in Europe and America, the functions of the Algaita and Suona that formed before the eighteenth century confronted a crisis of survival. For the instruments to find solid footing in the future, performers and composers who use the Suona and Algaita must work diligently in continuing to find new directions for these instruments.

243

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