Guidelines for Interpretation of the Biological Effects of Selected Constituents in Biota, Water, and Sediment
November 1998
NIATIONAL RRIGATION WQATER UALITY P ROGRAM INFORMATION REPORT No. 3
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2UYLVLWWKH1,:43ZHEVLWHDW KWWS ZZZXVEUJRYQLZTS Introduction
The guidelines, criteria, and other information in The Limitations of This Volume this volume were originally compiled for use by personnel conducting studies for the It is important to note five limitations on the Department of the Interior's National Irrigation material presented here: Water Quality Program (NIWQP). The purpose of these studies is to identify and address (1) Out of the hundreds of substances known irrigation-induced water quality and to affect wetlands and water bodies, this contamination problems associated with any of volume focuses on only nine constituents or the Department's water projects in the Western properties commonly identified during States. When NIWQP scientists submit NIWQP studies in the Western United samples of water, soil, sediment, eggs, or animal States—salinity, DDT, and the trace tissue for chemical analysis, they face a elements arsenic, boron, copper, mercury, challenge in determining the sig-nificance of the molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. Financial analytical results. How much of a given and time restraints do not allow chemical constituent is “normal” in the tested consideration of other contaminants at this medium? How much is unusually high? What time. adverse effects—if any—may result from the reported concentration? Studies that address (2) For the most part, these are only guide- these questions are myriad: they are widely lines, merely reports of toxic effects that scattered in the literature, they use many were noted for certain concentrations in different approaches and testing protocols, and particular circumstances. Individual they yield greatly varying—and sometimes constituents may be more or less toxic at contradictory— results. The chapters in this other sites or for other species, depending volume are intended to: (1) identify the most on many factors. Some of these com- important, most relevant studies for several plicating factors are described in the “constituents of concern” that are commonly following section on data interpretation, encountered in environments affected by which readers are urged to review before irrigation drainage; (2) present a sampling of attempting to apply these guidelines. notable results from these studies in tables organized according to tested medium; (3) (3) Caution is particularly appropriate in using explain further, in the accompanying text, the the summary tables (the first numbered significance of these results; and (4) give full table in each of the chapters). These are and accurate references to the original studies, designed to give only a general indication of for those who desire more detailed information. concentrations that may be troublesome in various types of media. In some cases the Although this volume is targeted for scientific “no effect” and “threshold” values for a specialists, it may also be of interest to class of organisms have been distilled from government officials, farmers, ranchers, hundreds of individual studies of the conservationists, reporters, and anyone else diverse species that make up the class. In interested in the environmental health of other cases, we have had to rely on only a freshwater ecosystems. These readers may find handful of studies to set tentative values the glossary in Appendix II especially helpful. for the entire class. Readers should make no final, formal decisions regarding the toxicity of
1 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines
a particular compound to a particular individual constituents to be more or less toxic species without consulting the more at other sites or for other species. This section detailed information presented later in each describes some of the better known factors that chapter and, when possible, the original may complicate the interpretation of toxicity studies. data.
(4) Results from many recent studies could not be included here. Most of the research for Unnatural Laboratory Settings these chapters was completed by mid-1996, and only the literature pub-lished prior to Most laboratory studies test toxicity under that time was system-atically surveyed. completely unnatural conditions: they test the During subsequent review and preparation effect of a single compound on a single species, of this volume, more recent results that delivered by only one pathway under carefully came to our attention were added controlled conditions. In the wild, organisms opportunistically, not systematically. are exposed to many different chemical and physical agents simultaneously. (See (5) Legally enforceable standards are not “Interactions,” below.) presented here, with two exceptions. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has Generally, laboratory specimens in an established “maximum contaminant levels,” experimentally contaminated environment are applicable only to drinking water, for most given food from outside, uncontaminated of these constituents, and the U.S. Food sources, whereas wild creatures must eat food and Drug Administration has “action levels that has grown in the same environment and for human consumption” for two of them that may have accumulated, through (DDT and mercury). These legal standards bioconcentration, lethal levels of whatever are noted near the end of each chapter, in toxins are present. Thus, for instance, fish or the section “Regulatory standards.” Note, waterfowl could end up dying in areas where however, that even in those sections, values waterborne toxin concentrations are at levels identified as “goals” or “criteria” do not that caused no harm to laboratory specimens. have the force of law. On the other hand, most laboratory specimens Individual States may set legal standards that are are taken from uncontaminated populations, stricter than those of the Federal Government, which have no previous history of exposure to and many have chosen to do the toxin being tested. In the wild, organisms so. State standards are too variable and living in a contaminated environment may have voluminous to be listed here; however, acclimated or adapted to the toxin, especially if Appendix I lists addresses and phone numbers the contamination developed gradually. In this for the offices responsible for water quality case, one might find fish and waterfowl thriving standards in each of the 17 Western States. in areas where waterborne concentrations are at levels experimentally determined to be lethal.
The Need for Caution in Laboratory specimens are rarely threatened by Interpreting Toxicological Data predators or challenged by others of their own kind in mating competitions, whereas their The contents of this report are described as undomesticated cousins deal with both conflicts. These conflicts can add to the overall stress on guidelines, rather than rules or standards, the organisms, making them more susceptible to because toxicological effects vary greatly in toxic effects. Conversely, the higher metabolic natural ecosystems. Many variables can cause
2 Introduction rates of creatures in conflict may help them In some cases, two substances that interact dispose of toxins more readily. antagonistically at first may eventually become synergistic with increasing concentrations. For These differences between natural and instance, some interactions may transform a laboratory environments mean that measure- toxic compound to a less toxic, but also less ments collected in natural settings are generally soluble, form. These low-solubility compounds preferable to laboratory measure-ments for may then accumulate in the liver, the kidneys, or predicting toxic effects in natural systems. In other bodily organs, eventually overtaxing the cases where natural studies are lacking, though, capacity of these storage sites. Physical damage the laboratory studies may provide the only may occur to organs storing too useful guidance to possible toxic effects. many solids. Moreover, only in controlled laboratory studies can the effects of individual variables be However, our understanding of biogeo-chemical studied, by holding all other factors constant. interactions is still rudimentary. The potential combinations of trace elements are essentially infinite, and research thus far has defined the Interactions additive, antagonistic, and synergistic effects of only a few simple com-binations. Some The toxicity of an element or compound may be compounds cause toxic effects by interfering in either reinforced or weakened through its essential chemical metabolic pathways, yet interaction with other substances. In toxi- different chemical species of the same two cology studies, such interactions are generally elements may interact on different metabolic classified as being adversely additive, syner- pathways and produce a completely different gistic (greater than additive), or antagonistic result. Under present conditions it takes years (less than additive or even acting as antidotes to of research—perhaps an entire career—to one another). For instance, various chapters in positively define just one or two complex this volume describe synergistic relationships metabolic chemical pathways. Many apparent between boron and selenium, between copper discrepancies appear in the literature. and zinc, and between DDE and Arochlor, meaning that when both agents are present, their toxic effect is greater than would be expected Temperature just from adding together their individual effects. Elsewhere, these chapters describe All organisms have optimal temperature ranges antagonistic relationships between arsenic and in which they function most efficiently. Outside selenium and between cadmium and copper: of these ranges they will be more susceptible to tests show these combinations of elements to be toxins. The DDT chapter, for instance, cites less toxic than either one would be by itself. In studies showing that both high and low the case of selenium and mercury, however, the temperatures increase the toxicity of DDT to selenium chapter cites a study (Heinz and the water flea Daphnia. Temperature Hoffman 1996) showing that these two fluctuations affect the rate of chemical reactions, elements are antagonistic to each other in their the solubility of chemical species, and the effect on adult mallards but synergistic in their metabolic rates of organisms. High effect on mallard reproduction. temperatures generally increase the chemical reaction rate and the solubility of most solid substances. Oxygen and other gases, however, are more soluble in cold water than in warm. The effect of temperature on metabolism depends on whether organisms are exothermic
3 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines
(“cold blooded”) or endo-thermic (“warm minerals, or proteins that play a role in blooded”). Among exo-therms, such as fish and detoxifying harmful compounds. invertebrates, higher temperatures cause metabolic rates to rise. Endotherms, such as birds and mammals, increase their metabolic Sampling Biases rate at lower temper-atures in order to maintain a constant body temperature. An elevated Interpretation of field data for plants and metabolism increases the intake of a toxin and animals can be confounded by a sampling bias distributes it more rapidly to sensitive organs that favors “survivors.” Most biological within the body. sampling techniques are designed to sample live biota. In contaminated environments, live biota represent “survivors” and, hence, these are likely Water Chemistry to be the organisms that either were less sensitive to the toxin or had less exposure to it. The effect of any toxin may be altered by Bird eggs are probably less affected by this bias variations in water hardness, pH (acidity/ than other media because they are sampled alkalinity), and dissolved oxygen content. Water without regard for the status of the embryo hardness, for instance, causes such great inside the egg. So long as the egg is intact, live variation in the toxicity of copper and zinc that and dead embryos have equal probabilities of the Environmental Protection Agency, rather being sampled. than setting fixed values as the freshwater criteria for these elements, has instead established formulas that make the criteria Off-Site Exposure relative to hardness. (See tables at end of copper and zinc chapters.) Some organisms travel considerable distances and may be exposed to toxins at places other than the site where they are collected. Many Disease birds, for example, may feed several kilo-meters away from their nesting sites. Hence, responses It seems likely that populations weakened by such as teratogenesis among their offspring may disease would be more susceptible to toxins and not be attributable to contami-nation in the vice versa. According to Sprague (1985), immediate vicinity. Although this complication though, the empirical evidence for this is obviously most pro-nounced in the case of relationship is scanty. At the very least, the birds, many mammals, fish, and even insects presence of disease in a population can also travel widely. complicate the task of interpreting which deaths and other adverse effects are attributable to toxins and which are due to Confusion About Measurements the disease. Chemical concentrations in plants, animals, soil, sediment, and water are measured in various Nutrition ways, and there is even greater variety in the ways these measurements are expressed. A species' susceptibility to toxins may be Although all contributors to this volume have affected not only by a shortage of food but also endeavored to clarify both the type of by variations in the quality of the food. measurement and the units of measure for every Organisms obliged to deviate from their value presented, some may remain unclear. customary diets may lack crucial vitamins, Concentrations in any solid medium (such as
4 Introduction organic tissues, sediment, or animal feed) may water may be measured in two different ways. be measured on either a dry-weight (dw) basis Under one method, water samples are filtered or a wet-weight (ww) basis. The resulting before analysis to remove all microorganisms values are markedly different, and the dw value and other suspended particles. The resulting is invariably higher. In fish and animal tissues, measurement is called a total dissolved concen- the dw concentration is generally in the range of tration. In the other method, no filtering is 3 to 5 times the ww value, but there is no set done, and the resulting measurement is a total conversion factor. The ratio between dw and recoverable concentration. The difference ww depends on the water content of the tissue, between these figures can be strongly influenced which varies between species and between by the overall biotic productivity organs, and even varies within individual organs of a water body. In highly productive waters, over time. Criteria based on wet-weight both nutrients and toxins are quickly taken up measurements should not be used to assess the by microorganisms, leaving only small amounts toxicity of dry-weight concentrations, and vice of these dissolved in the water column. Thus, a versa. measurement showing only dissolved constituents may miss significant amounts of “Fresh weight” describes a wet-weight toxins that are nonetheless present in the water measurement that is made either in the field or column and available through the food chain. within a few hours after collection. Media such Where productivity is low, the dissolved as eggs and animal tissue may begin losing water concentration will be very close to the total as soon as they are collected, which results in recoverable concentration. higher wet-weight concentrations of most other constituents if they are not analyzed promptly. Many reports give chemical concentrations in either parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion Many chemical elements have two or three (ppb). A few use the ambiguous abbreviation different valences or oxidation states that are “ppt,” which may stand for either parts per common in the environment, and the toxicity of thousand or parts per trillion. Obviously, in these varying forms can differ greatly. Arsenic reading such reports, it is important to know (III), for instance, is much more toxic than which meaning of “ppt” was intended. In arsenic (V), yet some tests do not differentiate accordance with principals of the International between these forms and report only “total System of Units, most concentrations in this arsenic.” A criterion established using arsenic volume are expressed in units of either weight (III) would be misleadingly low in most natural per weight (for solid media) or weight per settings, for arsenic (V) is usually more volume (for liquids). Here is a brief list of abundant. equivalents that clarify how these units relate to one another: Even where the valence state doesn't vary, the various compounds an element makes with Parts per thousand = g/kg or g/L other elements can greatly affect toxicity. (ppt or per mil or Dimethyl mercury (C2H6Hg), for instance, is far ‰) more poisonous than mercuric sulfide (HgS), even though both of them are based Parts per million = mg/kg or (ppm) mg/L on mercury (II). It is common for organic (carbon-based) compounds to be more toxic Parts per billion = µg/kg or than others because they are more readily taken (ppb) µg/L up in the metabolism of living organisms. Parts per trillion = ng/kg or (ppt) ng/L Concentrations of elements or compounds in
5 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines
The relationship shown here between weight/ Boron and molybdenum weight measurements and weight/volume Judy Sefchick-Edwards measurements comes about because 1 liter of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fergus Falls, water weighs almost exactly 1 kilogram. Minnesota
Mercury Acknowledgments Steve Schwarzbach U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sacramento, The material presented here was assembled California under the direction of Richard A. Engberg, NIWQP Manager, Department of the Interior. Selenium The effort began in December 1994 with the Joe Skorupa formation of an ad hoc NIWQP Committee on U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sacramento, Guidelines for Data Interpretation. The California committee determined the scope and format of the report and made early work assign-ments for The chapters were edited by Peter L. Martin of it. Committee members are: the Bureau of Reclamation, with guidance and advice from Denise E. Larsen. Martin and Jeff Lucero (Chairman) Larsen also reorganized the chapters to give Bureau of Reclamation them a consistent organization and added some supplementary material. Jan Hren (succeeded by Herman Feltz) U.S. Geological Survey The manuscript was greatly improved through technical reviews provided by the following Steve Smith (succeeded by Tim Hall) individuals and organizations: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service CH2M Hill Frank Khattat (succeeded by Lewis Fry) Harry Ohlendorf Bureau of Indian Affairs U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs James W. Yahnke Lewis Fry Bureau of Reclamation U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Joe Skorupa Michael Armbruster U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service N. John Harb Scott Irvine The nine chapters were prepared both by John Johnson NIWQP participants and by an outside Jerry Miller consultant, using the extensive library of the James Setmire University of California at Davis, California. Rodney TeKrony The principal individual responsible for each James Yahnke chapter is listed below: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arsenic, copper, DDT, salinity, and zinc Larry Gamble Harry Ohlendorf Tim Hall CH2M Hill, Sacramento, California Joel Lusk Joseph Skorupa
6 Introduction
U.S. Geological Survey Sprague, J.B. 1985. Factors that modify toxicity. Chapter Charles Demas 6 of: G.M. Rand and S.R. Petrocelli, eds. Herman Feltz Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology—Methods and applications. Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Steven Hamilton Washington. p. 124–163. Stephen B. Smith Doyle Stephens
References Cited
Heinz, G.H. and D.J. Hoffman. 1996. Combined effects of mercury and selenium on mallard reproduction. In: Abstracts for 17th Annual Meeting, Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Washington, DC, November 17–21, 1996. p. 58.
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Table 1.&Summary of comprehensive biotic effects of arsenic [See Appendix II for explanation of abbreviations and technical terms]
No Level of Toxicity Medium effect concern threshold Comments/Explanation
Water (µg/L) 48 48%190 190 48 µg/L is lowest chronic value for As (V) in aquatic plants; 190 µg/L is NAWQ chronic cri- terion for As (III). See Suter and Mabrey (1994).
Sediment (mg/kg dw) 8.2 8.2%70 70 "ERL" and "ERM" values of Long et al. 1995.
Plants (mg/kg dw) 1%1.7 2%5 5 Levels in plants (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1992) and invertebrates (see table 2) not well Invertebrates (mg/kg dw) 30 30%50 50 established, but at least some show no effects below these tissue concentrations.
Fish (mg/kg dw) 1.0 1%12 12 No-effect level is 85th percentile concentration from Schmitt and Brumbaugh (1990). Toxicity threshold from Sandhu (1977).
Bird eggs (mg/kg dw) 1.3 1.3%2.8 <2.8 J.P. Skorupa, unpub. data, 1996.
Amphibians/reptiles && ³ Diagnostic effect levels not available. Mammals, in particular are poor biomonitors for Mammals & ³ & As (Talmage and Walton 1991).
Note: Although diagnostic levels for biota concentrations are generally not well defined, arsenic concentrations in biota are usually <1 mg/kg fresh weight except near sources of arsenic pollution (Eisler 1988, 1994). (Dry-weight concentrations, such as those shown above, are generally several times higher than fresh-weight concentrations, although no reliable conversion factor can be defined.)
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See Appendix II for explanation of other abbreviations and technical terms] Concentration in water Species As compound (µg/L) Effects Reference Aquatic plants Algae, various As (V) 75 Decreased growth Eisler 1988 species Alga (Ankistrodesmus As (V) 260 14-day EC50; inhibited growth falcatus) Alga (Scenedesmus As (V) 48 14-day EC50; inhibited growth obliquus) Alga (Selenastrum As (V) 690 4-day EC50; inhibited growth capricornutum) Stoneworts (Chara Total As <10 As in biomass 340%400 mg/kg (dw) Tanner and corallina) Clayton 1990 Aquatic invertebrates Amphipod As (III) 88 28-day LC20 Eisler 1988 (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus) 1,000 Significant reduction in survival after Spehar et al. 7 days 1980 Disodium methyl- 85 28-day LC10 Eisler 1988 arsenate Sodium dimethyl- 850 28-day LC0 arsenate Cladoceran (Daphnia As (III) 600%1,320 MATC1 Eisler 1988 magna) 960 28-day LC5 As (V) 520 Reproductive impairment of 16% in Eisler 1988, 3 weeks (at pH 7.74) SJVDP 1990 930 28-day LC5. Maximum BCF of 219 Eisler 1988 Total As 1,000 18% decrease in body weight in Eisler 1988 3 weeks 1,400 50% reproductive impairment in 3 weeks 2,800 21-day LC50 Cladoceran (Daphnia As (III) 1,300 96-h LC50 Eisler 1988 pulex) Midge larvae As (III) 680 48-h LC50 Khangarot and (Chironomus tentans) Ray 1989 1,310 24-h LC50 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 2.&Biological effects of various waterborne arsenicals on selected species in aquatic environments&Continued Concentration in water Species As compound (µg/L) Effects Reference Aquatic invertebrates&Continued Snail (Helisoma As (III) 960 28-day LC10. As in biomass 80 mg/kg Eisler 1988, campanulata) dw. Maximum BCF 83 Spehar et al. 1980 As (V) 970 28-day LC0. Maximum BCF 99 Stonefly (Pteronarcys As (III) 960 28-day LC0 Eisler 1988 california) Stonefly (Pteronarcys Total As 1,000 No effect. As in biomass 29%44 mg/kg Spehar et al. dorsata) (dw); BCF 33%45 in 28 d 1980 As (V) 89 No effect. As in biomass 12 mg/kg (dw); BCF 131 in 28 d Zooplankton As (III) 400 No effect Eisler 1988 Fish Arctic grayling As (III) 13,700 96-h LC50 for juvenile Buhl and (Thymallus arcticus) Hamilton 1991 27,700 96-h LC50 for alevin Black crappie Total As 22,400%114,800 As 0.14%2.04 mg/kg (ww) Foley et al. 1978 (Pomoxis (mean=49,000) 2.9%41.6 bioaccumulation ratio nigromaculatus) Brown bullhead Total As <10 As = 0.9 mg/kg (ww) in flesh Tanner and (Ameiurus nebulosus) Clayton 1990 Chinook salmon fry As (III) 21,400 96-h LC50. Mean weight 1.99 g Hamilton and (Oncorhynchus Buhl 1990 tshawytscha) 25,100 96-h LC50. Mean weight 0.5 g 56,500 24-h LC50. Mean weight 1.99 g 59,600 24-h LC50. Mean weight 0.5 g As (V) 66,500 96-h LC50. Mean weight 1.99 g 78,000 24-h LC50. Mean weight 1.99 g 90,000 96-h LC50. Mean weight 1.99 g 167,000 24-h LC50. Mean weight 0.5 g Midas cichlid (Cich- Total As 10%30 No effect. As in fish muscle Lacayo et al. lasoma citrinellum) <0.01%0.37 mg/kg (ww) 1992 Jaguar guapote No effect. As in fish muscle (Cichlasoma <0.01%0.24 mg/kg (ww) managuense) Coho salmon As (III) 18,500 96-h LC50 for juveniles Buhl and (Oncorhynchus Hamilton 1991 kisutch) 49,400 96-h LC50 for alevins Eel (Angulia australis) Total As <10 As = 0.4 mg/kg (ww) in flesh Tanner and Clayton 1990 $UVHQLF Table 2.&Biological effects of various waterborne arsenicals on selected species in aquatic environments&Continued Concentration in water Species As compound (µg/L) Effects Reference Fish&Continued Pallas (Notopterus As (III) 30,930 96-h LC50 Gosh and notopterus) Chakrabarti 40,000 50% mortality in 43 h 1990 Perch (Perca Total As <10 As = 0.3%0.5 in flesh; 0.2 in scales Tanner and fluviatilis) (mg/kg, ww) Clayton 1990 Rainbow trout As (III) 960 28-day LC0; no bioaccumulation Buhl and (Oncorhynchus Hamilton 1991, mykiss) 16,000 96-h LC50 for juveniles Spehar et al. 1980 91,000 96-h LC50 for alevins Sodium arsenate 18,000 8% mortality, whole-body McGeachy and As 2%3 mg/kg ww after 11 weeks at Dixon 1990 15EC 36,000 34% mortality, whole-body As 2%3 mg/kg ww after 11 weeks at 5EC Rainbow trout larvae As (III) 42 1% mortality (in moderately hard water SJVDP 1990 of pH 6.9%7.8) Rudd (Scardinius Total As <10 As (mg/kg, ww) <0.2 in flesh; 0.3 in Tanner and erythrophthalmus) scales; 5.5 in gut contents Clayton 1990 Birds Shag (Phalacrocorax Total As <10 As <0.2 mg/kg (ww) in flesh, liver, and Tanner and sp.) brain Clayton 1990 Amphibians Frog (Rana As (III) 249 96-h LC50 Conditions: 15EC, SJVDP 1990 hexadactyla) tadpoles pH 6.1, hardness 270 48-h LC50 20 mg/kg (as CaCO3) 368 24-h LC50 1 Maximum acceptable toxicant concentration. Lower value in the range shown indicates highest concentration tested producing no measurable effect on growth, survival, reproduction, or metabolism during chronic exposure; higher value indicates lowest concentration tested producing a measurable effect. 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 3.&Biological effects of concentrations of various arsenicals in sediment [Concentrations in milligrams per kilogram; dw, dry weight; ww, wet weight] As Concentration Concentration in biomass Species compound in sediment and other effects Reference Plants Mixed submerged macrophytes Total As 3.6%5.0 (ww) 2.3%26 (ww) Tanner and Clayton % % 19 38 (ww) 5.7 7.9 (ww) 1990 20%105 (ww) 66%80 (ww) Stoneworts (Nitella hookeri) Total As 100%780 (dw) 2,400%1,128 (dw) Stoneworts (Chara corallina) <0.01 (dw) 200%240 (dw) 100%780 (dw) 235%300 (dw) Mixed submerged macrophytes Total As 40%3,500 (ww) 250%920 (ww) (contaminated by mine and industrial effluent) 6.3%3,300 (ww) 150%3,700 (ww) Spinach plants (Spinacia oleracea) As (V) 10 (in soil) 40% growth reduction Woolson 1973 Fish Midas cichlid (Cichlasoma Total As 5.37%8.65 (dw) <0.01%0.37 (ww) in muscle. Lacayo et citrinellum) No effect al. 1992 Jaguar guapote (Cichlasoma <0.01%0.12 (ww) in muscle. managuense) No effect Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) Total As 100%780 (dw) <0.2 in flesh; 0.3 in scales; Tanner and 5.5 in gut contents (ww) Clayton 1990 Perch (Perca fluviatilis) 0.3%0.5 in flesh; 0.2 in scales (ww) Catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus) 0.9 in flesh (ww) Eel (Angulia australis) 0.4 in flesh (ww) Birds Shag (Phalacrocorax sp.) Total As 100%780 (dw) <0.2 in flesh; <0.2 in liver; Tanner and <0.2 in brain (ww) Clayton 1990 $UVHQLF Table 4.&Biological effects of arsenicals in the diet on selected species [LC50, median lethal concentration&50% mortality after a stated time interval. Similarly, LC100 denotes 100% mortality; dw, dry weight] Concentration As in diet Species compound (mg/kg dw) As concentration in biomass and other effects Reference Fish Rainbow As (V) 10 No effect Eisler 1988 trout (Oncorhyn- 90 Some adaptation to dietary As observed, as initial chus mykiss) negative growth gave way to slow positive growth over time Sodium 30 Reduced weight gains after 8 weeks SJVDP 1990 arsenite Birds Brown- Copper 11 1.7 mg/kg dw (maximum whole-body concentration). All Eisler 1988 headed aceto- survived after 6 months cowbird arsenite (Molothrus 33 6.6 mg/kg dw (whole body). All survived after 6 months ater) 99.8 11-day LC50 100 3-month LC100. Brain 6.1 mg/kg dw; liver 40.6 mg/kg dw Mallards Sodium 25 Adult liver 0.49, duckling liver 0.65 mg/kg dw. No Stanley et al. (Anas arsenate significant differences in body weight or growth rate in 1994 platyrhyn- ducklings, compared to controls fed 0.26 mg/kg dw chos) 100 Adult liver 2.4, duckling liver 4.5 mg/kg dw. Reduced Stanley et al. body weight and lower growth rate at 14 days in ducklings 1994 from parents fed As. Antagonistic interactions observed between As and Se 200 Duckling liver 5.1 mg/kg ww. Increased mortality, Hoffman et al. decreased growth, and liver histopathology in ducklings 1992 fed a low-protein (7%) diet. As reduced effects of Se when fed together in a diet with adequate protein (22%) 400 Adult liver 6.6, duckling liver 33 mg/kg dw. Arsenic Stanley et al. accumulated in adult liver and egg, reduced adult weight 1994 gain and liver weight, delayed onset of egg laying, decreased whole egg weight, and caused eggshell thinning. Reduced body weight, growth, and liver weight in ducklings. Antagonistic interactions observed between As and Se One-day-old As (V) 300 Brain 0.8 mg/kg dw; liver 1.3 mg/kg dw. Reduced growth Camardese mallard rate, and standing and bathing time; increased resting et al. 1990 ducklings time over 10 weeks (female) 30 Reduced growth rate over 10 weeks; no significant bioaccumulation in brain or liver when compared to controls 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 4.&Biological effects of arsenicals in the diet on selected species&Continued Concentration As in diet Species compound (mg/kg) Concentration in biomass and other effects Reference Birds&Continued Chicken Arsanilic 180 1.3 mg/kg in eggs; embryo viability normal Libby et al. acid 1953 >1,000 Depressed growth Abbott et al. 1959 2,000 Mortality increased 33% 2,250 Mortality increased 40% Mammals Domestic Total As 58 No outwardly visible effect. Tissue As increased after Eisler 1988 sheep 3-week exposure, then declined rapidly after return to low-As diet Mice As (III) 0.46 No significant difference in growth and survival Schroeder and Balassa 1967 Rats As (III)+(V) 5 No significant differences in growth and survival Sharpless and Metzger 1940 20 Growth decreased by 50% Table 5.&U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards and criteria for arsenic [See Appendix II for explanation of terms. 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able 6.&Predicted boron effect levels Level of Toxicity Medium No effect concern threshold Explanation Water (mg/L) 0.5 0.5%10 10 For crops and aquatic plants (Perry et al. 1994) 6 6%13 13 For aquatic invertebrates (NOAEL and LOAEL for Daphnia magna) 55%25 25 For fish (viz., catfish and trout embryos; Birge and Black 1977; Perry et al. 1994) <200 For amphibians (LC100 for leopard frog embryos) Bird eggs (mg/kg fw) 13 13%20 20 Smith and Anders (1989), Stanley et al. 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Source: EPA 1995] .GOPCVSHFLHVDUHRXWVWDQGLQJERURQ Status Listed for regulation; ELRDFFXPXODWRUV3URILFLHQF\LQERURQVWULSSLQJ carcinogenicity unknown FRXSOHGZLWKDKLJKJURZWKUDWHGLVWLQJXLVKHV .GOPCOKPQTDVDQLPSRUWDQWVSHFLHVZLWK Drinking water Not established UHVSHFWWRERURQF\FOLQJLQDIUHVKZDWHU MCL PDFURSK\WHFRPPXQLW\7KHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRI WKLVVSHFLHVLQFRQVXPLQJERURQPD\EHD Drinking water 1-day HA: 4 mg/L SRWHQWIRUFHLQORZHULQJWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRI health advisories 10-day HA: 0.9 mg/L WKLVHVVHQWLDOHOHPHQWLQDTXDWLFV\VWHPV for 10-kg child Long-term HA: 0.9 mg/L *ODQGRQDQG0F1DEE )ULFN Drinking water Reference dose: 0.09 mg/kg/d GHWHUPLQHGWKDWS+DIIHFWHGWKH health advisories Long-term HA: 3 mg/L ELRDFFXPXODWLRQRIERURQLQ.GOPCOKPQT for 70-kg adult Lifetime HA: 0.6 mg/L LQGLFDWLQJWKDWFKHPLFDOVSHFLDWLRQRIERURQPD\ DWEL: 3 mg/L DIIHFWELRDFFXPXODWLRQDQGWR[LFLW\ )RUVWDQGDUGVDQGFULWHULDVHWE\6WDWHDJHQFLHV FRQWDFWWKRVHDJHQFLHVGLUHFWO\6HH$SSHQGL[, ,QWHUDFWLRQV IRUDOLVWLQJRIZDWHUTXDOLW\RIILFLDOVLQWKH :HVWHUQ6WDWHV +RIIPDQHWDO H[DPLQHGERURQVHOHQLXP LQWHUDFWLRQHIIHFWVLQPDOODUG %RURQ Table 7.&Summary of literature for boron ecotoxicology [LC50, median lethal concentration; LD50, median lethal dose; both indicate 50 percent mortality after a stated time interval. Similarly, LC100 denotes 100 percent mortality. dw, dry weight; bw, body weight; conc., concentration] Boron Species compound Concentration Test conditions Effect Reference Plants Blue-green Boric acid 75%100 mg B/L 72 hours Photosynthetic pigments Martinez et al. algae depleted 1986; Mateo (Anacystis et al. 1987 nidulans) Duckweed Boric acid 100 mg B/L pH 5.0 Growth inhibited Frick 1985 (Lemna minor) 20 mg B/L pH 7.0 Growth inhibited Waterweed Boric acid 1 mg B/L 28 d Reduced photosynthesis Perry et al. (Elodea 1994 canadensis) Invertebrates Mosquito Boric acid 700%2,797 mg Freshly hatched to LC100 (48 hr) EPA 1975 larvae (3 spp.) B/L pupae stages Midge Borax 1,376 mg B/L Fourth instar LC50 (48 hr) Maier and (Chironomus Knight 1991 decorus) 20 mg B/L Decrease in growth Significant decrease in (96 hr) growth rate Water flea Boric acid 420 mg/L Neonates LC100 (48 hr) Lewis and (Daphnia Valentine 1981; 115-246 mg/L LC50 (48 hr) LC50 (48 hr) magna) Gersich 1984 13%53 mg/L Hard water LC50 (21 d); reduced mean brood size and body length 13.6 mg/L 21 d LOAEL, reproductive effects 6.4 mg/L 21 d NOAEL Fish Bluegill Boron 15,000 mg B/L LC50 (24 hr) Birge and Black (Lepomis trifluoride 1977 macrochirus) Chinook Boric acid >1,000 mg/L Eyed eggs, alevins LC50 (24 hr) Hamilton and salmon and fry; soft water Buhl 1990 566%725 mg/L Fry; very hard and soft LC50 (96 hr) fresh water Chinook and Boric acid >1,000 mg/L Fry; very hard fresh LC50 (24 hr) Coho salmon and brackish water Coho salmon Boric acid 447 mg/L Very hard fresh water LC50 (96 hr) 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 7.&Summary of literature for boron ecotoxicology&Continued Boron Species compound Concentration Test conditions Effect Reference Fish&Continued Channel Borax and 155 mg/L Embryos and fry LC50 (9 d) Birge and Black catfish boric acid 1977 Goldfish Boric acid 75 mg/L Embryos and fry; hard LC50 (7 d) Birge and Black water 1977 Borax 59 mg/L Minnows Boric acid 18,000%19,000 Distilled water Minimum lethal dose EPA 1986 mg/L 19,000%19,500 Hard water mg/L Borax 19,000%19,500 Distilled and hard Minimum lethal dose Sprague 1972 mg/L water Anhydrous 3,000%7,000 borax mg/L Boric acid 1,600%3,700 mg/L Mosquitofish Boric acid 979 mg B/L Adults LC50 (96 hr) Birge and Black (Gambusia 1977 affinis) Rainbow trout 339 mg/L Adults LC50 (48 hr) Sprague 1972; Birge and Black 1977; Lewis and Valentine 1981 Amphibians Toad (Bufo Boric acid 874 mg B/L Embryos, 24-hr Edema, microcephalia, EPA 1975 vulgaris) exposure short tail, suppressed forebrain development Fowler's toad Boric acid 145 mg/L Embryos and LC50 (7.5 d) Birge and Black tadpoles; soft water 1977 25%123 mg/L Embryos and tadpoles; hard and soft water Leopard frog Boric acid 130 mg/L Embryos and LC50 (7.5 d) Birge and Black tadpoles; soft water 1977 Borax 47%54 mg/L Embryos and tadpoles; hard and soft water %RURQ Table 7.&Summary of literature for boron ecotoxicology&Continued Boron Species compound Concentration Other conditions Effect Reference Birds Domestic Boric acid 875 mg B/kg Adult; 6-day exposure Egg production ceased Birge and Black chicken (in food) 1977 Mallard duck Boric acid 1,600 mg/kg dw Ducklings; 10-week Reduced growth; increased Hoffman et al. (Anas platy- (in food) exposure resting time; duckling brain 1990; Stanley rhynchos) 51 mg/kg; liver 29 mg/kg dw et al. 1996 400 mg/kg dw Delayed and reduced rate of growth among females; increased resting time in ducklings; adult brain 5 mg/ kg dw, liver 3 mg/kg dw 100 mg/kg dw Delayed and reduced rate of growth among females; reduced bathing time in ducklings; adult brain, 4 mg/ kg dw, liver, 3 mg/kg dw 1,000 mg/kg dw Hen dosed beginning 48% reduction in hatching Smith and 3 weeks prior to success; reduced weight Anders 1989 mating; ducklings and survival of ducklings. dosed for 21 days Resulting B conc. (mg/kg after hatching dw): adult brain 41, liver 33; egg 49; duckling brain 66, liver 51 300 mg/kg dw Reduced weight gain rate in ducklings. Resulting B conc. (mg/kg dw): adult brain 14, liver 15; egg 13; duckling brain 19, liver 17 30 mg/kg dw Reduced weight and weight gain in ducklings through 21 days; egg, 3 mg/kg dw; duckling brain, 4 mg/kg dw Mallard duck Boric acid 900 mg/kg dw Reduced hen weight gain; Stanley et al. (Anas platy- (in food) reduced egg size, weight, 1996 rhynchos) and hatching success (by ~50% compared to controls) 450 mg/kg dw Reduced egg hatching success (~10% compared to controls) 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 7.&Summary of literature for boron ecotoxicology&Continued Boron Species compound Concentration Test conditions Effect Reference Mammals Dog (Canis 1,170 mg B/kg 38 weeks exposure Testicular degeneration; Nielsen 1986; familiaris) spermatogenesis cessation Weir and Fisher 1972 Rabbit (Oryc- Borates (in 800%1,000 4-day exposure Growth retardation Anonymous tolagus sp.) food) mg/kg bw 1983 Rat (Rattus Boric acid 1,750 mg B/kg 25 days exposure 50% reduction in growth Seal and Weeth sp.) (in food) rate 1980 Boric acid 1,170 mg B/kg 2 years exposure Sterility in males and Sprague 1972; (in food) females Weir and Fisher 1972 Sodium 1,060 mg/kg Chronic exposure Growth retardation; Anonymous borate (in testicular atrophy 1983 food) Boric acid 710%550 mg Oral, single dose LD50 Weir and Fisher B/kg bw 1972; EPA 1975; Dani et al. 1971 Boric acid 0.05 mg B/ kg Daily for 6 months Decreased spermatozoid Krasovskii et al. 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(See Suter and Mabrey 1994.) Sensitive species may be affected in the "level of concern" range (depending partly on effects of pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen). Sediment (mg/kg, dw) 34 34%270 270 "ERL" and "ERM" values of Long et al. (1995). However, sulfides in the sediment may reduce copper toxicity (see text). Plants (mg/kg dw) 3%30 & >20 Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). Toxicity threshold varies depending on species of Cu present. Invertebrates && &Diagnostic levels not established because Cu generally is homeostatically regulated. Some invertebrates (e.g., crustaceans and mollusks) require Cu for hemocyanin and may normally have higher levels than other species (Furness and Rainbow 1990). Fish, whole body 9.8 9.8%13.3 13.3 Diagnostic levels not established because Cu (mg/kg, dw) generally is homeostatically regulated. After 9-week dietary exposure, rainbow trout showed decreased weight gain at 13.3 mg/kg but no significant effects at 9.8 (Julshamn et al. 1988). Birds, liver (mg/kg dw) <60 25%300 >540 Data for ducks from Puls (1988); toxic concentra- tions in waterfowl diets are >200 mg/kg dw. Eggs (mg/kg dw) 5.5 & & Egg data from J.P. Skorupa (unpub. data, 1996). Amphibians/reptiles && &Diagnostic levels not established; even at uncontaminated sites, some amphibian tissues have 800%2,000 mg/kg dw (Hall and Mulhern 1984). Mammals && &Diagnostic levels for wild mammals not established; for sheep, liver concentrations >250 mg/kg dw may be toxic (Puls 1988). 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Lowered growth rate. 34 Liver 0.21, muscle 0.25 Top soil of Lake Nekik, Manitoba, Canada Harrison and 49 Liver 0.01, muscle 0.28 Top soil of Lake Naosap Mud, Manitoba, Canada Klaverkamp 1990 76 Liver 0.01, muscle 0.28 Top soil of Lake Kotyk, Manitoba, Canada 2,775 Liver 13.4, muscle 0.16 Top soil of Lake Hamell, Flin Flon, Canada 2,858 Liver 24.3, muscle 0.25 Top soil of Lake Meridian, Flin Flon, Canada 5,950 Liver 19.8, muscle 0.24 Top soil of Lake Cliff, Flin Flon, Canada 6,988 Liver 14.3, muscle 0.26 Top soil of Lake Phantom, Flin Flon, Canada 12,625 Liver 29.2, muscle 0.18 Top soil of Lake Douglas, Flin Flon, Canada Northern pike 34 Liver 15.2, muscle 0.11 Top soil of Lake Nekik, Manitoba, Canada Harrison (Esox lucius) and 49 Liver 11.2, muscle 0.12 Top soil of Lake Naosap Mud, Manitoba, Canada Klaverkamp 1990 76 Liver 16.8, muscle 0.11 Top soil of Lake Kotyk, Manitoba, Canada 198 Liver 11.2, muscle 0.2 Top soil of Lake Cleaver, Manitoba, Canada 2,775 Liver 19.5, muscle 0.17 Top soil of Lake Hamell, Flin Flon, Canada 2,858 Liver 17.1, muscle 0.16 Top soil of Lake Meridian, Flin Flon, Canada 5,950 Liver 11.9, muscle 0.18 Top soil of Lake Cliff, Flin Flon, Canada 6,988 Liver 7.6, muscle 0.13 Top soil of Lake Phantom, Flin Flon, Canada 12,625 Liver 28.5, muscle 0.14 Top soil of Lake Douglas, Flin Flon, Canada 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV 7KHVWUHQJWKRIFRSSHUVRUSWLRQE\VRLOFRQVWL FRSSHUFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQLQYHUWHEUDWHVDQG WXHQWVRFFXUVLQWKHIROORZLQJUHODWLYHRUGHU ZDWHUFRQFHQWUDWLRQVEXWREVHUYHGQRVXFK PDQJDQHVHR[LGHV RUJDQLFPDWWHU LURQ UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKVHGLPHQWFRQFHQWUDWLRQV R[LGHV FOD\PLQHUDOV2WKHUVRLOFRPSRQHQWV WKDWPD\SOD\DOHVVVLJQLILFDQWUROHLQFRSSHU 6HGLPHQWVLQWKH8SSHU&ODUN)RUN5LYHUDQG VRUSWLRQLQFOXGHIUHHSKRVSKDWHVLURQVDOWVDQG 0LOOWRZQ5HVHUYRLULQ0RQWDQDKDYHEHHQ FOD\VL]HDOXPLQRVLOLFDWHPLQHUDOV&RSSHU FRQWDPLQDWHGZLWKPLQHUHODWHGZDVWHV $V&G UHWHQWLRQLQVRLOVLQFUHDVHVZLWKLQFUHDVLQJVRLO &X3E0QDQG=Q ,QVRIWVHGLPHQW S+7KHODFNRIDGVRUSWLRQRIFRSSHUDWORZ GHSRVLWLRQDODUHDVWD[DRI2OLJRFKDHWDDQG S+PD\EHGXHWRFRPSHWLWLRQIRUVRUSWLRQVLWHV &KLURQRPLGDHJHQHUDOO\DFFRXQWHGIRUPRUH IURPRWKHUVRLOFDWLRQV 0Q)H+DQG WKDQ SHUFHQWRIWKHEHQWKLFLQYHUWHEUDWH $O %URZQHWDO FRPPXQLWLHV&DQILHOGHWDO REVHUYHG KLJKHUQXPEHUVRI&KLURQRPLGDHJHQHUDLQ DUHDVZKHUHVHGLPHQWVKDGEHHQLGHQWLILHGDV %LRWLF(IIHFWV WR[LFXVLQJGD\ODERUDWRU\WHVWVZLWKWKH DPSKLSRG*[CNGNNCC\VGEC)UHTXHQF\RI 3ODQWV &KLURQRPLGDHPRXWKSDUWGHIRUPLWLHVDQGWRWDO DEXQGDQFHRIRUJDQLVPVGLGQRWFRUUHVSRQGWR &RSSHUVXOIDWHKDVEHHQXVHGIRUPRUHWKDQ FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIPHWDOVLQVHGLPHQW,QDUHDV \HDUVDVDQDOJLFLGHW\SLFDOO\DWDFRQFHQ ZKHUHEHQWKLFFRPPXQLWLHVZHUHDIIHFWHG WUDWLRQRIPJ/IRUWKHXSSHUPHWHURI VHGLPHQWDQGVXUIDFH ZDWHU 0DFNHQWKXQDQG,QJUDP ,QWKH ZDWHU&XFRQFHQWUDWLRQVUDQJHGIURPWR VRLOFRSSHULVWR[LFWRVHQVLWLYHSODQWVDW PLFURJUDPVSHUJUDPDQGWR FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIWRPJNJ 'HPD\RHW J/UHVSHFWLYHO\ DO &HUHDOVOHJXPHVVSLQDFKFLWUXV VHHGOLQJVDQGJODGLROXVDUHNQRZQWREHPRVW 6RPHDTXDWLFRUJDQLVPVFDQWROHUDWHUHODWLYHO\ VHQVLWLYHWRFRSSHU7KHJHQHUDOV\PSWRPVRI KLJKOHYHOVRIFRSSHULQWKHLUGLHWV+DWDNH\DPD FRSSHUWR[LFLW\WRSODQWVDUHGDUNJUHHQOHDYHV FRPSDUHGWKHWR[LFLW\ IROORZHGE\LQGXFHGLURQFKORURVLV \HOORZLQJ RIFRSSHUWKURXJKZDWHUDQGGLHWVLQPD\IO\ WKLFNVKRUWRUEDUEHGZLUH ODUYDHDQGFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKHKLJKPRUWDOLW\DW URRWV DQGGHSUHVVHGWLOOHULQJ .DEDWD3HQGLDV J/ WDEOH ZDVSULQFLSDOO\DWWULEXWDEOH DQG3HQGLDV WRFRSSHULQWKHZDWHUEHFDXVH DWWKLVOHYHODOJDHELRDFFXPXODWHGRQO\ PJNJ GZ DQGWKDWPXFKFRSSHULQWKH 0DFURLQYHUWHEUDWHV GLHWZDVQRWHQRXJKWRNLOOPD\IO\ODUYDH WDEOH 0RVWDTXDWLFRUJDQLVPVDUHUHODWLYHO\VHQVLWLYH WRFRSSHUHYHQDWORZFRQFHQWUDWLRQV7KH HIIHFWVRIORZFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIFRSSHURQ )LVK YDULRXVLQYHUWHEUDWHVDUHQRWHGLQWDEOH,QD ILHOGVWXG\0XQNLWWULFNHWDO REVHUYHG 0LOOHUHWDO H[WHQVLYHO\VWXGLHGWKH FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRI J&X/DQGJ UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIFRSSHU =Q/LQ0DQLWRXZDGJH/DNH2QWDULR&DQDGD DQG]LQFLQZDWHUVHGLPHQWLQYHUWHEUDWHVDQG 8QGHUWKHVHFRQGLWLRQVWKH\QRWHGWKH ILVK)RUERWKFRSSHUDQG]LQFWKHZDWHU FRPSOHWHDEVHQFHRI8QLRQLGDHDQGVHYHUDO FRQFHQWUDWLRQZDVDEHWWHULQGLFDWRURIPHWDO IDPLOLHVRIDUWKURSRGV WDEOH 0LOOHUHWDO FRQFHQWUDWLRQLQILVKWLVVXHWKDQWKHVHGLPHQWRU IRXQGDFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQ LQYHUWHEUDWHFRQFHQWUDWLRQV,QDGGLWLRQWKH\ IRXQGNLGQH\DQGOLYHUFRQFHQWUDWLRQVWREH EHWWHULQGLFDWRUVRIFKURQLFFRSSHUDQG]LQF &RSSHU Table 10.&Biological effects of copper on aquatic species Cu concen- tration in water Species (µg/L) Effect Comments Reference Invertebrates Cladoceran (Daphnia 10,000 Significant effect in 46-h exposure; eggs more Bodar et al. magna) egg development tolerant than adult 1989 22 16% reproduction Chronic exposure Nriagu 1979 impairment 44 3 week LC50 Cladocerans (Daphnia 60 Significant drop in Chronic exposure Nriagu 1979 ambigua, D. parvula, instantaneous rate of D. pulex) population growth Amphipod (Gammarus 4.6 No effect Chronic exposure Nriagu 1979 pseudolimnaeus) 8 Second-generation growth affected, but no effect in first generation Crayfish (Orconectes 15 15% growth retarded Chronic exposure Nriagu 1979 rusticus) Mayfly larvae (Epeorus 5%10 No significant effect in Temp. 12.5EC Hatakeyama latifolium) growth rate 1989 15 Growth rate decreased dur- ing first 3 weeks but restored gradually after 4 weeks 20%25 Growth rate <7% of the control. 100% mortality by 10 weeks 100 83% mortality in 1 week Temp. 11.5EC Midge larvae (Chironomus 327 48-h EC50; immobilization Temp. 14EC; pH 6.3 Khangarot tentans) and Ray 1989 Invertebrates, general 9.7 Complete absence of Manitouwadge Lake, Ontario, Munkittrick Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Canada. et al. 1991 Odonata, Trichoptera, Zn concentration 232 µg/L Amphipoda, and Unionidae Fish Brown bullhead (Ameiurus 19 Increased mortality, reduced Water hardness 187 and Nriagu 1979 nebulosus) growth 38 mg/L 27 Cu in biomass (mg/kg dw): 20-month exposure gill 6.9, liver 11, kidney 10 Cu in biomass (ppm dw): 30-d exposure; pH 7.2%8.2, gill 9.4, liver 33, kidney 10 Brook trout (Salvelinus 5 Reduced growth Water hardness 38 mg/L Nriagu 1979 fontinalis) 8 Reduced growth Water hardness 187 mg/L 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 10.&Biological effects of copper on aquatic species&Continued Cu concen- tration in water Species (µg/L) Effect Comments Reference Fish&Continued Bluegill (Lepomis 400 96-h LC50 (if Zn present) pH 6.8%7.5; temp. 22°± 1EC; Thompson macrochirus) Zn = 1400 µg/L et al. 1980 1,000 96-h LC50 (if Zn absent) pH 6.8%7.5; temp. 16.5°% 23EC; Zn = 0 Chinook salmon fry 54 96-h LC50 In fresh water. Mean weight Hamilton (Oncorhynchus 0.87 g and Buhl tshawytscha) 58 96-h LC50 In fresh water. Mean weight 1990 0.66 g 60 96-h LC50 In brackish water. Mean weight 1.6 g 78 24-h LC50 In fresh water. Mean weight 1.60 g 81 24-h LC50 In brackish water. Mean weight 0.87 g 145 24-h LC50 In brackish water. Mean weight 0.66 g Chinook salmon 26 28-d LC10s, based on Zn = dissolved Cu Finlayson (Oncorhynchus 29various mixed solutions of Zn = 6× dissolved Cu and Verrue tshawytscha) Cu and Zn 1980 eggs (to hatching) 40 Zn = 3× dissolved Cu 49 Zn = 11× total Cu 50 Zn = 6× total Cu 70 Zn = 3× total Cu Chinook salmon 14 28-d LC50s, based on Zn = 11× dissolved Cu Finlayson (Oncorhynchus 20various mixed solutions of Zn = 6× dissolved Cu and Verrue tshawytscha) hatchlings to Cu and Zn 1980 swim-up fry 27 Zn = 11× total Cu 32 Zn = 3× dissolved Cu 37 Zn = 6× total Cu 56 Zn = 3× total Cu Coho salmon 60 96-h LC50 Smolts in May; temp. 10% Lorz and (Oncorhynchus kisutch) 12EC; hardness 68%78 or McPherson % 89 99 mg/L (as CaCO3) 1976 74 96-h LC50 Yearlings in November; other conditions as above Fathead minnow 18 Reduced spawning and egg Water hardness 31 mg/L Nriagu 1979 (Pimephales promelas) production, increased mortality 33 Reduced egg production Water hardness 198 mg/L 37 Reduced egg production Water hardness 200 mg/L &RSSHU Table 10.&Biological effects of copper on aquatic species&Continued Cu concen- tration in water Species (µg/L) Effect Comments Reference Fish&Continued Neomacheilus barbatulus 760 Cu in biomass (mg/kg dw): 64-d exposure; pH 8.6 Nriagu 1979 gill 164, liver 115, muscle 8.5 Rainbow trout 19 Reduced percent hatch and Water hardness: 100 mg/L Nriagu 1979 (Oncorhynchus mykiss) increased mortality Steelhead trout <10 60-d LC10s, based on Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, dissolved Finlayson (Oncorhynchus mykiss) various mixed solutions of copper and eggs (to hatching) Cu, Zn, and Al Ashuckian 19 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, total 1979 copper 19 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, dissolved copper 43 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, total copper Steelhead trout <10 60-d LC10s, based on Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, for both Finlayson (Oncorhynchus mykiss) various mixed solutions of total and dissolved copper and hatchlings to swim-up fry Cu, Zn, and Al Ashuckian 14 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, dissolved 1979 copper 36 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, total copper White sucker (Catostomus 2.1 Control group; Cu in Loken Lake, Ontario, Canada; Munkittrick commersoni) biomass (mg/kg dw): liver Zn conc. 10 µg/L et al. 1991 50, muscle 7, stomach contents 7 9.7 Lowered growth rate; Cu in Manitouwadge Lake, Ontario, biomass (mg/kg dw): liver Canada; Zn conc. 232 µg/L 83, muscle 6, stomach contents 155 Amphibians Narrow-mouthed toad 40 17-d LC50 Adult Birge and (Gastrophryne Black 1979 carolinensis) 50 3-d LC50 Tadpole Southern gray tree frog 40 9-d LC50 Adult Birge and (Hyla chrysoscelis) Black 1979 60 3-d LC50 Tadpole Leopard frog (Rana 40 8-d LC50 Adult Birge and pipiens) Black 1979 60 4-d LC50 Tadpole Marbled salamander 70 8-d LC50 Adult Birge and (Ambystoma opacum) Black 1979 359 4-d LC50 Tadpole Birds Mallard (Anas 10,000 No adverse effect Juveniles Foster and platyrhynchos) Ramsdell 1997 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 11.&Summary of exposure-response or exposure-bioaccumulation of copper Cu concentration Cu concentration in in diet Exposure biomass Species (mg/kg dw) duration (mg/kg ww) Effects Reference Food chain Woodlouse 200,000 No effect on survival Beyer et al. (Porcellio scaber) 1984 Mayfly (Epeorus <590 (in algae) 8 weeks No change in mortality or Hatakeyama latifolium) adult growth rate 1989 Mayfly larvae 1,140 (in algae) 1 week 50% decrease in growth rate. Slight increase in mortality. Fish Rainbow trout 3.5 9 weeks Whole fish 1.8; liver Julshamn et (Oncorhynchus 7.9 al. 1988 mykiss) 102 Whole fish 3.0; liver 18 194 Whole fish 4.7; liver 35 405 Whole fish 6.2; liver 35 603 Whole fish 7.8; liver 91 810 Whole fish 9.8; Slight increase in mortality liver 112 rate 990 Whole fish 13.3; Significant decrease in liver 149 weight gain; significant increase in mortality 178 20 weeks Liver 159 No effect. (Diet also had Knox et al. 683 mg Zn/kg dw) 1982 Birds Chicken >500 Growth retardation Melring et al. 1959 Turkey >50 Purified diet; reduced Waibel et al. growth and survival 1963 >800 Natural diet; no effects Mammals Rat 500 4 weeks Reduced growth Boyden et al. 1937 Domestic sheep 30%60 10 weeks Decreased food Zervas et al. (Ovis aries) consumption, weight loss, 1990 hemolytic crisis, increased mortality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able 12.&Accumulation of copper in small mammals compared to copper concentrations in soils [Data from Hunter and Johnson (1982)] Copper concentration (mg/kg, dry weight) Uncontaminate Copper refinery Medium d site site Soil 9.3 2,480 Wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) 10.8 11.9 Kidney 13.4 23.7 Liver 6.5 14.7 Hair 8.5 6.9 Muscle Field Vole (Microtus agrestis) Kidney 10.8 22.6 Liver 13.4 13.5 Hair 6.5 24.2 Muscle 8.5 9.3 Shrew (Sorex araneus) Kidney 22.8 38.5 Liver 31.1 56.1 Muscle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able 13.&U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards and criteria for copper (See Appendix II for explanation of terms. Source: EPA, 1985, 1995) Status EPA priority pollutant; carcinogencity unknown Drinking water MCL 1,300 µg/L (may vary with treatment technique) Freshwater criteria (hardness dependent)1 At hardness of 50 mg/L CaCO3 9.2 µg/L for acute exposure 6.5 µg/L for chronic exposure At hardness of 100 mg/L CaCO3 18 µg/L for acute exposure 12 µg/L for chronic exposure At hardness of 200 mg/L CaCO3 34 µg/L for acute exposure 21 µg/L for chronic exposure 1 Official criteria are given as hardness-dependent equations; values listed here are examples that result from these equations at the stated hardness levels. 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endpoints are not reported in available literature; dw = dry weight; ww = wet weight; bw, body weight. See Appendix II for explanation of other abbreviations and technical terms] No Level of Toxicity Medium Compound effect concern threshold Explanation Water (µg/L) Total DDT && 0.013 For freshwater organisms (EPA 1996, ecotoxicity threshold). <0.3 0.3%800,000 & For aquatic plants (ORNL 1996, lowest chronic value; EPA 1980, reduced growth). DDT & 0.016 0.36 For Daphnia (see table 15). DDD & 1.69%3.99 & For fish (see table 15).1 DDE && 4,400 DDT & 0.008%0.2 0.2 Sediment (µg/kg dw) DDD & 8%110 6,000 Persaud et al. (1993), lowest (8) and severe (6,000) effect levels; ORNL 1996 screening criterion (110). DDE & 2.2%27 19,000 Long et al. (1995) ERLs and ERMs; Persaud et al. (1993) severe effect Total DDT & 1.5%46 12,000 levels. Soil (mg/kg dw) DDE & 1.5 & Toxic to Lumbricus (Cathey 1982). Terrestrial inverte- Total DDT & 32 & Minimum hazardous level for birds brates (mg/kg dw) (Beyer and Gish 1980). Reptiles/amphibians && & & Terrestrial birds, diet DDT & 5%25 311 White-throated sparrow delayed (mg/kg dw) development; LC50 for ring-necked pheasant (table 16). DDE & 4 825 Bengalese finch impaired fledging; bobwhite quail LC 50 (table 16) Raptor eggs DDE & 3%16 & Bald eagle eggshell thinning, reduced (mg/kg ww) productivity (table 16). Waterfowl diet DDT && 200 Mallard 95%100% lethality (Davison (mg/kg dw, and Sell, 1974). insectivores) DDE & 10%30 3,572 Black duck eggshell thinning; mallard LC50 (table 16). Waterfowl eggs DDE & 46%144 & Black duck eggshell thinning (mg/kg ww, (Longcore et al. 1971). insectivores) Waterfowl eggs DDE & 0.25%20 & White-face ibis eggshell thinning (mg/kg ww, (table 16). omnivores) Waterfowl eggs DDE & 0.62%66 & Eggshell thinning, hooded merganser (mg/kg ww, and brown pelican (table 16). piscivores) Mammals, diet DDT & 0.26%32.5 & Mouse LOAELs (table 17). 1 (mg/kg bw/day) && 40 Bat LD50 (Clark and Stafford 1981) 40 40%83 & Hamster NOAEL & LOAEL (table 17) 16 16%80 & Dog NOAEL & LOAEL (Lehman 1965) DDD 107 &&Mouse NOAEL (NCI 1978). Mammals, tissue DDT && 210 LC50 for shrews (Blus 1978). (mg/kg dw) 1 Fish and mammalian effect levels vary widely depending on the endpoint and species. 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organisms [See Appendix II for explanation of abbreviations and technical terms] Concentration (µg/L in surface water, Species Chemical except as noted) Effects Reference Aquatic plants Mixed macrophytes DDT 0.3 Lowest chronic value ORNL 1996 Aquatic invertebrates Daphnia pulex DDT 0.36 48-h LC50 EPA 1975 p,p'-DDT 1.1 48-h EC50 - immobilized Smith et. al. 1988 Daphnia magna DDT 4.4 48-h LC50 EPA 1975 DDT-tech 1.1 48-h LC50 Randall et al. 1979 Daphnia sp. DDT 0.016 Estimated lowest chronic value ORNL 1996 Bosmina longirostris p,p'-DDD 1 Acute LC50 EPA 1984 Marine crustacean p,p'-DDE 159,000 24-h LC50 (1-day-old larvae) Sanchez-Fortun Artemia salina 116,000 24-h LC50 (2-day-old larvae) et al. 1995 (DDE and DDT 94,270 24-h LC50 (3-day-old larvae) test solutions p,p'-DDT 43,010 24-h LC50 (1-day-old larvae) prepared by dissolving in 17,040 24-h LC50 (2-day-old larvae) DMSO and diluting 16,400 24-h LC50 (3-day-old larvae) in water) Scud (Gammarus sp.) DDT 2.1 48-h LC50 EPA 1975 p,p'-DDE 0.68 Acute LC50 EPA 1984 Caddisfly DDT 3.4 48-h LC50 EPA 1975 Mayfly DDT 0.3 48-h LC50 EPA 1975 Oyster DDT 7 Reduced shell growth by 50% EPA 1975 Amphipod Hyalella azteca p,p'-DDD 0.19 10-d LC50 Phipps et al. 1995; p,p'-DDE 1.66 10-d LC50 Hoke et al. 1994 p,p'-DDT 0.07 10-d LC50 p,p'-DDD 1.08 in pore water 10-d LC50 Hoke et al. 1994 Total DDT 2,580 mg/kg C in sed.1 10-d LC50 Swartz et al. 1994 Amphipod Eohaustorius Total DDT 2,500 mg/kg C in sed.1 10-d LC50 Swartz et al. 1994 estuarius 300 mg/kg C in sed.1 Toxic threshold 100 mg/kg C in sed.1 Reduced abundance Amphipod Rhepoxynius Total DDT 1,040 mg/kg C in sed.1 10-d LC50 Swartz et al. 1994 abronius Midge Chironomus tentans p,p'-DDD 0.18 10-d LC50 Phipps et al. 1995 p,p'-DDE 3 p,p'-DDT 1.23 Oligochaete Lumbriculus p,p'-DDE >3.27 10-d LC50 Phipps et al. 1995 variegatus Planarian Polycellis felina p,p'-DDT 1,230 Acute LC50 EPA 1980 Flatworm p,p'-DDD 2,360 Acute LC50 EPA 1984 Nitocra spinipes p,p'-DDD 0.3 Chronic toxicity EPA 1984 1 Milligrams of DDT per kilogram of organic carbon in sediment. ''7 Table 15.&DDD, DDE, and DDT effects on aquatic organisms&Continued Concentration (µg/L in surface water, Species Chemical except as noted) Effects Reference Fish Mixed species DDD 1.69 Lowest chronic value ORNL 1996 3.99 Estimated EC20 0.61 Population EC20 DDT 0.73 Lowest chronic value 0.35 Estimated EC20 0.008 Sensitive species EC20 Bluegill sunfish DDT-tech 3.4 96-h LC50 Randall et al. 1979 (Lepomis macrochirus) DDT 0.2%1.0 96-h LC50 Ellgaard et al. 0.008 Increased locomotor activity 1977 DDT 5.8 96-h LC50 at 7EC Mayer and 1.6 96-h LC50 at 29EC Ellersieck 1988 Carp (Catla catla) DDT 6,800 96-h LC50 Kulshrestha et al. 3,000%3,500 MATC 1986 Carp (Cirrhinus mrigala) DDT 6,300 96-h LC50 Kulshrestha et al. 3,000%3,500 MATC 1986 Carp (Labeo rohita) DDT 6,400 96-h LC50 Kulshrestha et al. 3,000%3,500 MATC 1986 Catfish DDT-tech 500 Decrease in white blood cell count Mustafa and Heteropneustes fossilis 3,020 72-hr LC50 Murad 1984 (DDT dissolved in 2,950 96-hr LC50 acetone and 3,000 Erratic swimming, jerky movement diluted with water) 3,020 72-hr LC50 3,550 48-hr LC50 Cichlid - Tilapia DDT 80 96-hr LC50, Parkinson and Oreodhromis spilurus 190 72-hr LC50 Agius 1988 250 48-hr LC50 Fathead minnow p,p'-DDE 4,400 Acute LC50 EPA 1984 (Pimephales promelas) Total DDT 1.5 (water only) Chronic exposure LC50 Jarvinen et al. 0.9 (+46 µg/g in food) Chronic exposure LC50 1977 0.9 MATC (DDT in water only) 0.4 MATC (DDT in water and food) 2 Reduced embryo hatchability Flounder DDT 12.5 mg/kg bw in food Hyperactivity; 20-fold increase in Bengtsson and (Platichthys flesus) activity Larsson 1981 1 mg/kg (in brain) Hyperactivity Humpback salmon DDT 1.32 Increased enzymatic activity Andryushchenko (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and Khokhryakov 1982 Loach (Misgurnus DDT 350 24-hr LC50 Yang and Sun anguillicaudatus) 1977 Sarotherodon DDT 1 Change in thyroid follicle Shukla and mossambicus organization and structure Pandey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´%LRDFFXPXODWLRQµ JUDGH''75HVXOWVLQGLFDWHGWKDWDFFXPX ODWLRQIURPWUHDWHGOHDYHVZDVVLJQLILFDQWO\ KLJKHULQ.VGTTGUVTKUWKDQLQ#ECNKIKPQUC )LVK $FFXPXODWLRQIURPWUHDWHGOHDYHVZDVDOVROHVV WKDQWKDWIURPWUHDWHGVRLOIRUERWKVSHFLHV 7KHWR[LFLW\DQGDFFXPXODWLRQRI''7LQILVK 7KHGLIIHUHQFHVLQDFFXPXODWLRQEHWZHHQ. 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reduced Lincer 1992 pipping Bald eagle (Haliaeetus DDE 3.3 ww Egg 8.8% thinner than pre-1947 eggs Grubb et al. leucocephalus) from Southern CA and Baja 1990 3%5 ww Depressed productivity Wiemeyer et al. 5 ww 10% eggshell thinning 1984 15 ww No productivity 3.6%6.3 ww 50% reduction in productivity Wiemeyer et al. >6.3 ww 75% reduction in productivity 1993 16 ww 15% eggshell thinning Osprey DDE 4 ww Egg 15% eggshell thinning Noble and Elliot (Pandion haliaetus) 1990 2 ww 10% eggshell thinning Wiemeyer et al. 4.2 ww 15% eggshell thinning 1988 8.7 ww 20% eggshell thinning Peregrine falcon DDE 15 ww Egg Depressed productivity Peakall et al. (Falco peregrinus) 1975 Terrestrial birds Bengalese finch DDE 4 ww Diet Reduced fledging success Jeffries 1971 (Lonchrua striata) DDT 8 dw Bobwhite quai DDE 825 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1975 (Colinus virginianus) DDT 611 dw 5-d LC50 Total DDT 25%200 dw Diet 3.1 mg/kg in brain; no effect Hill et al. 1971 400 dw Weight loss 800 dw 7.5 mg/kg in brain; tail tremors, irregular head carriage 1,600 dw Stumbling gait, tail tremors, head bobbing, loss of equilibrium, death 1,170-1,610 dw 5-d LC50 ''7 Table 16.&DDD, DDE, and DDT impacts to birds&Continued Chemical Concentration Where Species species (mg/kg)1 measured Effects Reference Terrestrial birds&Continued Blue jay Total DDT 415 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1971 Cyanocitta cristata) DDT 611 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Heath et al. 1972 Brown-headed cowbird DDE 1,500 dw Diet 300%400 mg/kg in brain residue; Stickel et al. (Molothrus ater) increased likelihood of death 1984 California quail DDT 595 bw Oral dose LD50 (single dose) Hudson et al. (Callipepla californica) 1984 Cardinal Total DDT 535 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1971 (Richmondena cardinalis) Common grackle DDE 1,500 dw Diet 300%400 mg/kg in brain residue; Stickel et al. (Quiscalus quiscula) increased likelihood of death 1984 Coturnix quail DDE 1,355 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1975 (Coturnix japonica) DDT 416 dw 5-d LC50 Hill and Camardese 1986 568 dw 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1975; Heath et al. 1972 841 bw Oral dose LD50 (single dose) Hudson et al. 1984 House sparrow Total DDT 415 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1971 (Passer domesticus) Red-winged blackbird DDE 1,500 dw Diet 300%400 mg/kg in brain residue; Stickel et al. (Agelaius phoeniceus) increased likelihood of death 1984 Ring-necked pheasant DDE 829 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1975 (Phasianus colchicus) DDT 311 dw 5-d LC50 1,334 bw Oral dose LD50 (single dose) Hudson et al. 1984 Rock dove DDT >4,000 bw Oral dose LD50 (single dose) Hudson et al. (Columba livia) 1984 Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) DDE 1,500 dw Diet 300%400 mg/kg in brain residue; Stickel et al. increased likelihood of death 1984 White-throated sparrow DDE 5%25 ww Diet(?) Delayed development of migratory Mahoney 1975 (Zonotrichia albicollis) condition Waterfowl&Insectivores Black duck DDE 10 dw Diet Increased egg residues; 20% Longcore and (Anas rubripes) eggshell thinning (over 2 years) Stendell 1977 Egg residues 46.3 mg/kg; Longcore et al. 10% shell cracking 1971 30 dw Egg residues 144 mg/kg; 21% shell cracking 46.3 ww Egg Eggshell thinning of 18%29% 144 ww Eggshell thinning of 24%38% Clapper rail p,p'-DDT 1,612 dw Diet 5-d LC50 (male) Van Velzen and (Rallus longirostris) 1,896 dw 5-d LC50 (female) Kreitzer 1975 30 ww Brain Lower lethal limit diagnostic of DDT-related death 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 16.&DDD, DDE, and DDT impacts to birds&Continued Chemical Concentration Where Species species (mg/kg)1 measured Effects Reference Waterfowl&Insectivores&Continued Common goldeneye DDE 0.52 ww Egg Egg breakage; 15.4% eggshell Zicus et al. 1988 (Bucephala clangula) thinning Mallard DDT-tech 200 dw Diet 95% lethality; 20% eggshell Davison and Sell (Anas platyrhynchos) (12-week thinning 1974 p,p'-DDT 200 dwexposure) 100% lethality after 343 d p,p'-DDT 1,202 dw Diet 20-d LC50 (5-d-old ducklings) Friend and 1,622 dw 20-d LC50 (30-d-old ducklings) Trainer 1971 1,419 dw 20-d LC50 (adults) DDT >2,240 bw Oral dose LD50 (single dose) Hudson et al. 1984 DDT 1,869 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Hill et al. 1975 DDE 3,572 dw Diet 5-d LC50 Waterfowl&Omnivores Black-crowned night- DDE <1 ww Egg 6.5% eggshell thinning Findholt and heron (Nycticorax 1.01%4 ww 5.1% eggshell thinning Trost 1985 nycticorax) 4.01%8 ww 10.2% eggshell thinning >8 ww 15.6% eggshell thinning 8 ww Reduced clutch size, decreased Henny et al. productivity, egg breakage 1984, 1985 8.62 ww 8%13% thinner than pre-1947 eggs Ohlendorf and Marois 1990 11%12 ww 36%39% hatching success; Price 1977 14%17% eggshell thinning 8%12 ww 27%58% decrease in nesting Blus 1984 success 12 ww Critical level for reproductive success based on field studies 25%50 ww Total reproductive failure 36 ww 18% thinning based on regression analysis 54 ww 20% thinning; critical level for reproductive success based on regression analysis Great egret DDE 24 ww Egg 8%13% thinner than pre-1947 eggs Ohlendorf and (Casmerodius aalbus) Marois 1990 Green-backed heron DDE 5%10 ww Egg Reduced hatching success White et al. 1988 (Butorides striatus) Red-necked grebe DDE 6.68 ww Egg Low egg viability; 6.5% eggshell De Smet 1987 (Podiceps grisegena) thinning; reduced fledging success Sandhill crane DDT >1,200 bw Single oral LD50 Hudson et al. (Grus canadensis) dose 1984 Snowy egret DDE 5 ww Egg Reduced clutch size, decreased Henny et al. (Egretta thula) productivity, egg breakage 1985 ''7 Table 16.&DDD, DDE, and DDT impacts to birds&Continued Chemical Concentration Where Species species (mg/kg)1 measured Effects Reference Waterfowl&Omnivores&Continued Western grebe (Aech- DDE 1 ww Egg 1% thinning Boellstorff et al. mophorus occidentalis) 1985 5.4 ww 2.3% eggshell thinning; reduced Lindvall and Low productivity 1980 White-face ibis DDE 3 ww Egg Reduced clutch size, decreased Henny et al. (Plegadis chihi) productivity, egg breakage 1985 0.94 ww 3.2% eggshell thinning King et al. 1980 0.25 ww 4.5% eggshell thinning 4%8 ww 15% eggshell thinning 8%16 ww 17.4% eggshell thinning Henny and 16%20 ww 27.8% eggshell thinning Herron 1989 Waterfowl&Piscivores American white pelican DDE 2 ww Egg 10%15% thinning in eggs from CA Boellstorff et al. (Pelicanus erythrorhyn- 1985 chos) Black skimmer DDE 3.2 ww Egg Decreased hatching and fledging Custer and (Rhyncops niger) success Mitchell 1987 3.4 ww 5% thinning, but no adverse effect King et al. 1991 on reproductive success Brown pelican DDE 1 ww Egg 5%10% shell thinning (FL, SC) Blus et al. 1974, (Pelicanus occidentalis) 2 ww 11% eggshell thinning (FL) 1979 3 ww 16% eggshell thinning (SC) 5 ww 17% eggshell thinning (SC) 3 ww Reduced productivity King et al. 1985 3.2 ww 11% thinner than normal King et al. 1977 2.6%3.0 ww 29%40% decrease in nesting Blus 1984 success 3 ww Critical level for reproductive success based on field studies >3.7 ww Total reproductive failure 5 ww 18% thinning based on regression analysis 8 ww 20% eggshell thinning 3 ww 18% eggshell thinning (BC) Jehl 1973 8 ww 26% eggshell thinning (BC) 25 ww 47% eggshell thinning (BC) 66 ww 46% eggshell thinning (BC) 59 ww 44% eggshell thinning (CA) Risebrough 1972 Caspian tern DDE 9.3 ww Egg 22% hatching failure; 4.6% died in Ohlendorf et al. (Sterna caspia) hatching 1985 Common tern DDE 6.67 ww Egg 17% thinning; hatching failure; Fox 1976 (Sterna hirundo) embryo mortality Double crested cormorant DDE 10 ww Egg 20% eggshell thinning Pearce et al. 1979 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 16.&DDD, DDE, and DDT impacts to birds&Continued Chemical Concentration Where Species species (mg/kg)1 measured Effects Reference Waterfowl&Piscivores&Continued Elegant tern DDE 3.79 ww Egg Chick mortality during hatching Ohlendorf et al. (Sterna elegans) 1985 Forster's tern DDE 1.6 ww Egg 7% thinning, but no adverse effect King et al. 1991 on reproductive success Hooded merganser DDE 0.62 ww Egg 9.6% eggshell thinning; egg Zicus et al. 1988 (Lophodytes cucullatus) breakage Leach's storm petrel DDE 12 ww Egg 12% eggshell thinning Noble and Elliot 1990 Northern gannet DDE 18.5 ww Egg 17% eggshell thinning; low Elliott et al. 1988 (Sula bassanus) reproductive success 1 Weight basis: dw, dry weight; ww, wet weight; bw, dosage relative to body weight. 2 Falcons include: peregrine falcon and gyrfalcon. 3 Hawks include: Cooper's hawk, ferruginous hawk, northern goshawk, red-shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, rough-legged hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, and Swainson's hawk. 4 Owls include: burrowing owl, great grey owl, great horned owl, long-eared owl, short-eared owl, and snowy owl. 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able 17.&DDD, DDE, and DDT effects on mammals [See Appendix II for explanation of abbreviations and technical terms] Chemical Concentration Exposure Species species (mg/kg bw)1 duration Effects Reference Bat (Eptesicus sp) DDT 40 LD50 (oral dose) Clark and Stafford 1981 Bat (Myotis sp.) DDE 600 (in tissue) LC50 Dog DDT 16 160 weeks NOAEL Lehman 1965 80 LOAEL, liver alterations DDT-tech 1 2 generations NOAEL Ottoboni et al. 1977 5 LOAEL, premature puberty p,p'-DDT 12 14 months LOAEL, maternal and fetal Deichmann et al death 1971 Hamster DDT-tech 40 Lifetime NOAEL Cabral et al. 1982 41.5 128 weeks LOAEL, necrosis Rossi et al. 1983 83 LOAEL, tremors Mouse p,p'-DDD 107 78 weeks NOAEL NCI 1978 p,p'-DDT 0.26 Lifetime LOAEL, liver tumors Tomatis et al. 1972 6 78 weeks NOAEL NCI 1978 DDT-tech 6.5 Lifetime + 5 NOAEL Turusov et al. generations 1973 32.5 LOAEL, increase in preweening death Rat DDT 0.5 2 years LOAEL, liver lesions Fitzhugh and Nelson 1948 0.8 2 years NOAEL ORNL 1996 1 mg/kg diet & NOAEL Worthing 1987 p,p'-DDT 1 mg/kg diet 27 weeks NOAEL Laug et al. 1950 5 mg/kg diet LOAEL, hepatocellular hypertrophy DDT-tech 1 2 generations NOAEL Ottoboni 1969 10 LOAEL, increased constricting rings of the tail DDT-tech 12.5 Lifetime LOAEL, liver tumors Cabral et al. 1982 DDT 260 LD50 (oral dose) Gaines and Linder 1986 Rhesus monkey DDT 8 7.5 years NOAEL Durham et al. (Macaca mulatta) 1963 Shrew (Blarina sp.) total DDT 910 LC50 Blus 1978 210 (in tissue) LC50 1 Concentration is the daily dose, as milligrams per kilogram of body weight, unless stated otherwise. 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV /DERUDWRU\UDWVH[SRVHGWR''7LQWKHLUIHHG IRUZHHNVVKRZHGQRHIIHFWVRQJURZWKDW Total DDT, whole body GLHWDU\FRQFHQWUDWLRQVXSWRPJNJ /DXJHW (mg/kg) DO +RZHYHUDWGLHWDU\FRQFHQWUDWLRQV Nine RIPJNJDQGDERYHWKH\VKRZHGSDWKRORJLF Year of years FKDQJHVLQFOXGLQJLQFUHDVHGKHSDWRFHOOXODU Species application later K\SHUWURSK\DQGF\WRSODVPLFR[\SKLOLDDVZHOO DVSHULSKHUDOEDVRSKLOLFF\WRSODVPLFJUDQXOHV Shrews 15.6 1.18 Mice and voles 1.06 0.03 7KLVVWXG\HVWDEOLVKHGWKHPJNJGLHWDU\OHYHO Mink & 1.6 DVWKH/2$(/DQG Hares & 0.02 PJNJDVWKH12$(/)LW]KXJKDQG1HOVRQ VWXGLHGWKHORQJWHUPHIIHFWVRIUHODWLYHO\ 7KURXJKRXWWKHVWXG\UHVLGXHVLQVKUHZVZHUH KLJK''7FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRQUDWV7KH\ ²WLPHVWKRVHLQPLFHDQGYROHV6LPLODUO\ REVHUYHGOLYHUOHVLRQVLQUDWVH[SRVHGWR² PLQNFROOHFWHGIURPWKHVDPHDUHDFRQWDLQHG PJ''7NJLQWKHGLHWIRU\HDUVDQG UHVLGXHV²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esidue levels IRUHVWWKDWKDGEHHQWUHDWHGZLWKNJ''7 Species (mg/kg) SHUKHFWDUH 'LPRQGDQG6KHUEXUQH 7KH Bear 0.34 IROORZLQJUHVLGXHVZHUHPHDVXUHGGXULQJWKH Elk <0.06%29 ILUVWDQGODVW\HDUVRIWKHVWXG\ Moose 0.17 Mountain goats <0.09%0.9 Mule deer <1.35%43 Pronghorn antelope <0.17%0.23 White-tailed deer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able 18.&Bioconcentration factors for biota exposed to DDD, DDE, and DDT Uptake Bioconcen- Species from: Compound tration factor Study time Reference Aquatic Brook trout Diet DDT 0.6 120 days Macek and Korn 1970 Brown bullhead Water DDD 125,000 Not stated Hunt and Bischoff 1960 Fathead minnow Water Total DDT 100,000 266 days Jarvinen et al. 1977 (Pimephales promelas) Diet 1.2 Golden shiner (Notemigonus Water DDT 100,000 15 days Courtney and Reed 1972 crysoleucas) Goldfish (Carassius auratus) Diet DDT 0.8 Grzenda et al. 1970 Rainbow trout Water DDT 34,900%91,000 96 hours Muir et al. 1994 (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (depending on conditions) Terrestrial Black duck (Anas rubripes) Diet DDE 4.63%4.8 Reproductive Longcore et al. 1971 cycle Earthworm (Lumbricus Soil DDT 0.71 4 weeks Davis 1971 terrestris) Mixed earthworms Soil DDD 0.27 11 years Beyer and Gish 1980 DDE 6 p,p'-DDT 0.56 Total DDT 5.1 1.8%9.2 Not stated Ma 1985 Red-winged blackbird Sediment DDE 12.9%582.4 Not stated Bishop et al. 1995b (Agelaius phoeniceus) eggs Short-tailed shrew Prey DDT 1%2.5 Not stated Blus 1978 (Blarina brevicauda) Tree swallow (Tachycineta Sediment DDE 16.2%868.6 Not stated Bishop et al. 1995b bicolor) eggs Tree swallow (Tachycineta Sediment DDE 5%48.9 Not stated Bishop et al. 1995b bicolor) nestlings 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV (DUWKZRUPVFRPSRVHDODUJHSRUWLRQRIWKH ZHUHVLJQLILFDQWO\WKLFNHU SHUFHQW WKDQ GLHWVRIVRPHELUGVDQGUHSWLOHVLQFOXGLQJ FRQWUROV,QDGGLWLRQWKHUHZDVQRHJJEUHDNDJH ZRRGFRFN 2JKNQJGNCOKPQT URELQ 6WTFWU LQWKHQHVWVRIELUGVIHGHLWKHU''(RU$URFORU OKITCVQTKWU UHGEHOOLHGVQDNH 5VQTGTKC EXWWKRVHWKDWZHUHIHGDFRPELQDWLRQRI QEEKRKVQOCEWNCVC DQGHDVWHUQJDUWHUVQDNH 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,QWHUQDWLRQDO $URFORU PJNJ KDGHJJVZLWKVKHOOV WKDWZHUHVLJQLILFDQWO\WKLQQHUWKDQFRQWUROV 4XDOLW\VWDQGDUGVIRU''7KDYHEHHQ 7KHWKLQQLQJZDVSHUFHQWIRUELUGVIHG''( HVWDEOLVKHGLQWKH1HWKHUODQGVDQGLQ2QWDULR DORQHDQGSHUFHQWIRUELUGVIHGERWK''( &DQDGD7KH'XWFKTXDOLW\VWDQGDUGVIRUWRWDO DQG$URFORU8QH[SHFWHGO\ELUGVIHG $URFORUDORQHH[KLELWHGVKHOOVWKDW ''7 Table 19.&U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards and criteria for DDT, DDD, and DDE [See Appendix II for explanation of terms. Sources: EPA 1986, 1996; Federal Register 1980, 1982] Status Known carcinogen; EPA priority pollutant Drinking water MCL None established Freshwater AWQC (DDT) 1.1 µg/L for acute exposure 0.001 µg/L for chronic exposure Saltwater AWQC (DDT) 0.13 µg/L for acute exposure 0.001 µg/L for chronic exposure Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative (DDT) 0.013 µg/L for acute exposure Freshwater LOAEL (DDD) 0.6 µg/L for acute exposure Freshwater LOAEL (DDE) 1,050 µg/L for acute exposure 1/1,000,000 cancer risk (water and organisms DDT: 0.59 ng/L or organisms only) DDD: 0.83 ng/L DDE: 0.59 ng/L ''7LQFOXGHOLPLWVRIJNJGZLQVHGL $QGU\XVKFKHQNR99DQG.%.KRNKU\DNRY PHQWJNJGZLQVRLODQGJNJZZLQ (IIHFWRI''7DQGNHSRQHRQFRQWHQWDQG ZLOGOLIHIRRG +HQGULNVHWDO 7KH DFWLYLW\RIVRPHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHHQ]\PDWLF 2QWDULRVHGLPHQWTXDOLW\JXLGHOLQHV 3HUVDXGHW GHWR[LI\LQJV\VWHPLQKXPSEDFNVDOPRQOLYHU DO DUHDVIROORZV #SWCVKE6QZKEQNQI[CPF4CFKQGEQNQI[S² $QWKRQ\5*5:)UHQ]HO)%,VDDFVDQG Severe effect 0**DUUHWW 3UREDEOHFDXVHVRIQHVWLQJ Lowest effect level IDLOXUHVLQ2UHJRQ·VEDOGHDJOHSRSXODWLRQ9KNFN level (mg/kg organic 5QE$WNN ² Compound (mg/kg dw) carbon)1 p,p’-DDD 0.008 6 %HQJWVVRQ%(DQG$/DUVVRQ +\SHU p,p’-DDE 0.005 19 DFWLYLW\DQGFKDQJHGGLXUQDODFWLYLW\LQIORXQGHUV o,p’+p,p’-DDT 0.008 71 2NCVKEJVJ[UHNGUWUH[SRVHGWR''7/CTKPG2QNN Total DDT 0.007 12 $WNN ² 1 Multiply times the total organic carbon content of a sample to find the bulk-sediment severe effect level %HUQDUG5) 5VWFKGUQPVJGGHHGEVUQH&&6 for that sample. 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FRQFHQWUDWLRQVPD\VWLOOJHQHUDOO\EHUHOLHGXSRQ WRWDOPHUFXU\ ILYHRUGHUVRIPDJQLWXGHJUHDWHU 7KHUROHRIJOREDODWPRVSKHULFWUDQVSRUWXQWLO IRUILVKDQGRQHWRWZRRUGHUVRIPDJQLWXGH UHFHQWO\ZDVXQGHUHVWLPDWHGDQGWKHQHWIOX[RI JUHDWHUIRUEHQWKLFLQIDXQD&OHDUO\WKH PHUFXU\IURPYDULRXVDTXDWLFDQGVHGLPHQW SDUDPHWHUVDIIHFWLQJQHWPHWK\ODWLRQDUH FRPSDUWPHQWVZDVLQDFFXUDWHO\PHDVXUHGSULRU WRWKHPLG V 0HUFXU\ Table 20.&Summary table for predicted mercury effect levels [All matrix values expressed as total mercury (includes organic and inorganic forms). All criteria relate mercury risk to populations, not individuals.] No Level of Toxicity Matrix effect1 concern2 threshold3 Explanation Water (µg/L) ------>30 Sublethal effects to fish (Eisler 1987) Sediment (mg/kg dw) <0.065 >0.15 0.2 0.065, surficial materials background (Shacklette and Boerngen 1984); 0.15, ERL of Long et al. (1990); 0.2, threshold to protect clapper rail (Schwarzbach et al. 1993) 0.24 Toxic to guppies (Gillespie and Scott 1961) Fish, whole body (mg/kg ww): Warm-water sp. 0.11 ------Background in bluegill (table 23). Cold-water sp. ------1.0 FDA action level Birds, diet (mg/kg ------0.064 Effects in mallards (Heinz 1979) bw/day) Birds, diet (mg/kg ------0.3 Loon reproductive and behavioral effects (Barr 1986) ww) 0.1 Mallard reproductive and behavioral effects (Heinz 1979) Bird eggs (mg/kg 0.1 0.2%1.0 0.5%1.5 0.1, no effects in osprey; 0.5%1.5, low hatchability for fww) pheasant (table 24) 0.86 Mallard reproductive and behavioral effects (Heinz 1979) 5.0 Mallard brain lesions (Heinz 1975) Bird brain (mg/kg 0.13 0.13 = mean in controlled, nonexposed population (Finley ww) and Stendell 1978) % 0.13 1 1 Obvious signs of intoxication (Scheuhammer 1988) 4 Lethal in embryos (Finley and Stendell 1978) 15 Lethal in adults (Scheuhammer 1988) Bird feathers (mg/kg 55%40 40 Effects highly variable; sample other tissues. 5, upper dw) end of background range; 20, reflects >1 mg/kg in diet (Scheuhammer 1991). Reproduction impaired over range of 5%40 (Eisler 1987) Bird kidney (mg/kg <2 - - - 20 Varies depending on species, sex, form of Hg, and Hg:Se ww) ratio. Toxicity likely whenever kidney conc. > liver conc. See Littrel (1991), Heinz (1996). Bird liver (mg/kg ww) <1 1%231%2, behavioral effects (Zillioux et al. 1993); 3, reproductive harm (Barr 1986) 5 Threshold for adult waterbirds (Zililoux et al. 1993) 25 Kidney disease, gout in herons (Spalding et al. 1994) 1 Concentrations below this level are close to background and are not known to cause adverse effects. 2 Concentrations at this level are above background but rarely appear to cause any adverse effects. 3 Concentrations exceeding this level seem to cause some adverse effects, including reproductive impairment and sublethal impacts. 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 21.&Mercury bioaccumulation factors from sediment to oligochaetes, chironomids, and carp in Clear Lake, California [Compiled from data in Suchanek et al. 1993. ND, not determined] Hg in sediment (mg/kg dw) Hg bioaccumulation factors Oligochaetes Chironomids Carp Site Total Methyl Total Methyl Total Methyl Total Methyl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able 22.&Mercury concentrations in water and associated effects on wildlife Concentra- tion (µg/L)1 Species Comments/Effects Reference 0.00092% & Background in Great Lakes water (50 times Gill and Bruland 1990 0.0036 lower than pre-1980 measures) (4.6%18 pM) 0.0025 & Background concentration in freshwater lakes Sorensen et al. 1990 with atmospheric source of Hg only 0.012 Aquatic life EPA freshwater chronic criterion for aquatic life EPA 1986 protection (current) 0.18 Birds Great Lakes Initiative proposed criterion EPA 1993 0.77 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KD]DUGWRILVKEXWUDWKHUWKHKD]DUGWRKXPDQ VXUIDFHZDWHUERGLHVWKH(QYLURQPHQWDO FRQVXPSWLRQ7KHFULWHULRQUHJXODWHGWKDW 3URWHFWLRQ$JHQF\IRXQGWKDWILVKIURP FRQFHQWUDWLRQLQZDWHUZKLFKFDQEHH[SHFWHGWR SHUFHQWRIWKHZDWHUERGLHVKDGPHUFXU\ UHVXOWLQDFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIPJNJZZLQ FRQFHQWUDWLRQVDERYHWKHPJNJOHYHO (3$ ILVK³WKH)'$DFWLRQOHYHOIRU D Table 23.&Effects of mercury residues in fish and herptile tissues Hg concentra- tion Species (mg/kg ww) Tissue Effect or interpretation Reference Fish Redbreast sunfish 0.08 Skinless fillet Background mean Southworth et al. 1994 (Lepomis auritus) Bluegill (Lepomis 0.11 Skinless fillet Background mean Southworth et al. 1994 machrochirus) Brook trout 2.7 Whole body Mercury intoxication McKim et al. 1976 Rainbow trout 1%5 Whole body Chronic effects estimate Niimi and Kissoon 1994 (Oncorhyncus mykiss) 10%20 Whole body Lethal estimate 13 Based on 25 mg/kg in Minimata disease1 Southworth et al. 1994 diet for 189 d Amphibians/Reptiles Amphibian 0.04%0.49 Muscle "Uncontaminated" 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WLVVXHPHUFXU\ELQGVWRPHWDOORWKLRQHLQ1RW SUHGLFWLYHRIPHUFXU\ULVNWRDYLDQUHSURGXFWLRQ VXUSULVLQJO\WKHPDMRUWR[LFHIIHFWRILQRUJDQLF EXWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQWKHOLYHUKDYHDOVREHHQ PHUFXU\LVNLGQH\GDPDJH³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able 24.&Observed effects of mercury residues in bird eggs and tissues [dw, dry weight; ww, wet weight] Hg concentration Species (mg/kg) Tissue Effects Reference Black duck 4%6 dw Brain Eggs failed to hatch Finley and Stendell 1978 Black-footed 37.4 dw (tot. Hg) Kidney No adverse effect observed Kim et al. 1996 albatross 6.2 dw (MeHg) 306 dw (tot. Hg) Liver 20.4 dw (MeHg) Common >2. ww Brain Reduced egg laying; reduced nest-site and Barr 1986 loon territory fidelity 29.73 ww Liver Reduced nesting success Barr 1986 51.9 ww Reduced hatching success Fimreite 1974 Common 1.0 ww Egg Successful reproduction Fimreite 1974 tern 3.65 ww 27% hatching success; 10%12% fledging rate 1.06 ww Liver No effect Gochfeld 1980 2.22 ww Abnormal feather loss&juveniles 9.08 ww Successful nesting Fimreite 1974 20.7 ww 27% hatching success; 10%12% fledging rate 27.5 ww 10%12% fledge rate Gannet 97.7 dw Liver Death Parslow et al. 1973 Grackle 40.4 ww Kidney LD33 Finley et al. 1979 54.5 ww Liver Great white >6. ww Liver Correlated mortality from chronic disease Spalding et al. 1994 heron 7.2 ww Increased disease and emaciation Spalding and Forrester 1991 >25. ww Kidney disease, articular gout Spalding et al. 1994 Grebe 23.3 ww Liver Death Littrel 1991 Grey heron 58.4 dw Kidney Death Van der Molen et al. (11.7 ww) 1982 95.5 dw Liver Herring gull 2%16 ww Egg No decrease in hatchability Fimreite 1974 Mallard 0.86 ww Egg Aberrant nesting behavior Heinz 1979 Merlin 1%5 dw Egg Reduced productivity in ½ of populations Newton and Haas (0.2%1.0 ww) 1988 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 24.&Observed effects of mercury residues in bird eggs and tissues&Continued [dw, dry weight; ww, wet weight] Hg concentration Species (mg/kg) Tissue Effects Reference Osprey 0.05%0.11 ww Egg No adverse reproductive effects Audet et al. 1992 1.5%3.0 dw Egg Decrease in number of young fledged Odsjö 1982 (0.3%0.6 ww) 35. ww Liver Death Wiemeyer et al. 1987 Pheasant 0.5%1.5 ww Egg Decrease in hatchability Fimreite 1971 Red-winged 74.3 ww Kidney LD33 Finley et al. 1979 blackbird 126.5 ww Liver Starling 86.4 ww Kidney LD33 Finley et al. 1979 103.6 ww Liver Various 30. ww Liver Neurologic effects Scheuhammer 1991 species Water birds, 1.0%3.6 ww Egg Residue threshold for significant toxic effects Zillioux et al. 1993 generally 5. ww Liver Conservative residue threshold for major toxic effects White tailed 33. ww Liver Death Falandysz et al. 1988 eagle 56. ww Kidney Zebra finch 20. ww Brain 25% mortality Scheuhammer 1988 GHDG=LOOLRX[HWDO IRXQGLQWKHLUUHYLHZ GHWR[LILFDWLRQVWUDWHJ\7KHUHIRUH RIWKHOLWHUDWXUHWKDWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQWKHOLYHU FKDUDFWHUL]LQJWKHGLIIHUHQWIRUPVRIPHUFXU\LQ EHWZHHQDQGPJ+JNJZZPD\UHVXOWLQ WLVVXHVLVLQFUHDVLQJO\UHFRJQL]HGDVLPSRUWDQWWR EHKDYLRUDOHIIHFWVZKHUHDVOLYHUPHUFXU\ PHDQLQJIXOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIUHVLGXHGDWD FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIDERXWPJNJZZDQG DERYHOHDGWRKLJKHPEU\RDQGGXFNOLQJ ,QWKHPDMRULW\RIZLOGELUGVVDPSOHGOLYHU PRUWDOLW\DQGWREUDLQOHVLRQV6SDOGLQJDQG FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIPHUFXU\DUHKLJKHUWKDQ )RUUHVWHU VXJJHVWHGQHXURORJLFDOHIIHFWV NLGQH\FRQFHQWUDWLRQV+RZHYHULQVRPHFDVHV PD\EHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKOLYHUPHUFXU\OHYHOVLQ RIPHUFXU\SRLVRQLQJNLGQH\FRQFHQWUDWLRQV ELUGVDVORZDVPJNJZZ=LOOLRX[HWDO DUHIRXQGWREHQHDUO\WKHVDPHDVWKHOLYHU FRQFOXGHGWKDWDFRQVHUYDWLYHUHVLGXH FRQFHQWUDWLRQ /HZLVDQG)XUQHVV 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ERG\EXUGHQVWKDQ\RXQJHURQHV7KLVLV %LRDFFXPXODWLRQ SUREDEO\GXHWRDFRPELQDWLRQRIIDFWRUV LQFOXGLQJWKHOHQJWKRIWLPHWKHROGHUDQLPDOV 0HUFXU\VWURQJO\ELRDFFXPXODWHVDQGHYHQ KDYHKDGWRELRDFFXPXODWHPHUFXU\WKH\RXQJHU ELRPDJQLILHVWKURXJKWURSKLFOHYHOVLQDTXDWLF DQLPDOV·KLJKHUPHWDEROLFUDWHDQGWKHROGHU V\VWHPV%LRPDJQLILFDWLRQRIPHUFXU\KDVEHHQ DQLPDOV·VORZHUUDWHRIPHUFXU\H[FUHWLRQ GRFXPHQWHGLQELUGV )LPUHLWH ILVKDQG HYHQ]RRSODQNWRQFRPPXQLWLHV :DWUDVDQG ,QPDPPDOVWKHKLJKHVWPHUFXU\FRQFHQWUD %ORRP :LWKLQDTXDWLF WLRQVDUHJHQHUDOO\IRXQGLQKDLURULQOLYHURU NLGQH\WLVVXHGHSHQGLQJXSRQWKHVSHFLHV WDEOH 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 25.&Mammalian mercury exposures and associated effects Hg concentration Species (mg/kg dw) Tissue Effects Reference Cat (Felis domesticus) 121%392 (fw) Hair Death Jenkins 1980 Mink (Mustela vison)30%40 Liver Death; also suffering from cold Wren et al. 1987 stress 4%18 Brain 7.8 Muscle Nervous system pathology Burton et al. 1977 25.4 Liver Nervous system pathology Hallbrook et al. 1994 58.2 Liver Death Wobeser et al. 1976 34.9 Fur 31.9 Kidney 15.2 Muscle 13.4 Brain Monkeys 1.2%4 Blood Visual disturbance Suzuki 1979 6%9 Brain Visual disturbances Burton et al. 1977 Mountain lion 110 Liver Death Roelke 1990 River otter (Lutra 13.5 Muscle Death Hallbrook et al. 1994 canadensis) 30 Liver Death White-footed mouse 0.31 Hair No effect Burton et al. 1977 (Peromyscus maniculatus) 10.8 Normal appearance; poor performance under stress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WR[LFLW\RIVHOHQLXPWREHLQFUHDVHGUHGXFHGRU PHWK\OPHUFXU\DQGVHOHQRPHWKLRQLQH XQDIIHFWHGE\WKHSUHVHQFHRIPHUFXU\6HOHQLWH KDVEHHQVKRZQ 5HJXODWRU\6WDQGDUGV U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Standards and Criteria [See Appendix II for explanation of terms. 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V$YLDQOLWHUDWXUHFRQVLVWHG ²PJNJ %XGDYHUL DQGEDFNJURXQG H[FOXVLYHO\RISRXOWU\VWXGLHVSXEOLVKHGLQWKH FRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDUH² ODWH VWRHDUO\ V)RUDTXDWLFVSHFLHV J/IRUULYHUV J/IRUJURXQGZDWHU WKHOLWHUDWXUHZDVFRPSRVHGSULPDULO\RI ²PJNJGZIRUULYHUVHGLPHQWVDQG IUHVKZDWHUODERUDWRU\VWXGLHVDQGRIIHUHGOLWWOH ² PJNJGZIRUVRLOV )ULEHUJ LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWILVKLQYHUWHEUDWHVDPSKL HWDO &KDSSHOOHWDO 0RO\EGHQXP ELDQVRUUHSWLOHV7KHUHYLHZDGHTXDWHO\ FRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQDQLPDOWLVVXHVDUHJHQHUDOO\ DGGUHVVHGWKHIRUPDOO\SXEOLVKHGVFLHQWLILF KLJKHVWLQOLYHUIROORZHGE\NLGQH\VSOHHQOXQJ EUDLQDQGPXVFOH %HUPDQ 7RWDO 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 26.&Predicted molybdenum effect levels Level of Toxicity Media No effect concern threshold Explanation Water (mg/L) 0.02 0.02%0.12 0.12 For fish. 0.02, upper limit of natural background (Eisler 1989); 0.12, LC10 for larval trout (Birge et al. 1980) 0.02 0.02%0.96 0.96 For amphibians. 0.02, upper limit of natural background (Eisler 1989); 0.96, LC50 for larval toads (Birge 1978) ------>50 For plants. 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Chlorella vulgaris 1981 Invertebrates Amphipod, 2,650 Soft water 96-h LC50 Martin and Crangonyx Holdich 1986 pseudogracilis 3,618 48-h LC50 Hermit crab, Eupa- 222 Water 48-h LC50 Abbott 1977 gurua bernhardus Fish Chinook and coho >1,000 Fresh, brack- 96-h LC50 Hamilton and salmon (eyed eggs, ish and soft Buhl 1990 alevins, and fry) water Fathead minnow, 70 Soft water 96-h LC50 McConnell 1977 Pimephales promelas 360 Hard water Rainbow trout, Trace Water Mo in tissue 5%118 µg/kg ww Ward 1973 Oncorhynchus % mykiss 6 Mo in tissue 10 146 µg/kg ww 300 Mo in tissue 13%332 µg/kg ww 800 96-h LC50 (20-mm size class) McConnell 1977 1,320 96-h LC50 (55-mm size class) Rainbow trout 0.12 Moderately 28-d LC10 Birge et al. 1980 (fertilization through hard water 4 days post-hatch) 0.79 28-d LC50 Sheepshead minnow, 3,057 Water 96-h LC50 Knothe and Van Cyprindon variegatus Riper 1988 Amphibians Frogs 2,000 Water Zone of toxic action Venchikov and Kaprielov 1976 0RO\EGHQXP Table 27.&Effects of molybdenum on living organisms as reported in published studies&Continued Mo con- centration (mg/L or Where Species mg/kg) measured Effects Reference Birds Chicken 2,250 Mo Dietary; basal Body weight 37% that of control Miller and diet 0.25% chicks Denton 1959 sulfur, 3.3 ppm 2,250 Mo + Body weight 72% that of control Mo, and 13,200 sulfate chicks 13 ppm Cu 750 Mo + Decrease in Mo content in liver 2,200 sulfate tissues of chicks Chicken (chicks) 200 (sodium Diet Reduced growth after 56 d Arthur et al. 1958 molybdate) 300 (sodium Diet 25% reduced growth after 24 d Kratzer 1952 molybdate dihydrate) 500 (sodium High-sulfate Minimum toxic dose after 28 d; Davies et al. molybdate purified diet lowest concentration depressing 1960 dihydrate) growth Turkey (poults) 300 (sodium Diet 25% reduced growth after 24 d Kratzer 1952 molybdate dihydrate) Mammals Cattle, Bos spp. 60 Diet Low Cu in liver; intestinal distur- Penumarthy and bances; brittle bones prone to Oehme 1978 fracture Cattle (lactating 40 Mo, 6 Cu Diet 30% reduction in milk yield after Wittenberg and cows) 63 d; rapid decline in plasma Devlin 1987 copper; milk Mo levels 1.6 ppm; growth reduction in nursing calves Mouse (Mus sp.) 10 Drinking water Decrease in survival of 2d and 3d Earl and Vish generations 1979 Mule deer 2,500 (sodium Diet Weight loss after 27 d Ward and Nagy molybdate) 1976 5,000 (sodium Reduced feeding after 14 d molybdate) Rat 80 Cu-deficient Inhibited growth and reduced Underwood diet survival 1971, 1979 5000 Diet Lethal in 2 weeks Chappell et al. 1979; Friberg et al. 1975 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 27.&Effects of molybdenum on living organisms as reported in published studies&Continued Mo con- centration (mg/L or Where Species mg/kg) measured Effects Reference Mammals&Continued Rabbit (Oryctolagus 100 Diet Reduced growth, hair loss, Chappell et al. sp.) dermatosis, anemia, skeletal and 1979 joint deformities (lifetime exposure) 1000 Diet Weight and hair loss, leg deformi- Arrington and ties, dermatosis, anemia, death Davis 1953 (28 d) 2,000%4,000 Diet Many deaths of weanlings in 37 d, Friberg et al. adults in 53 d; survivors were 1975; Arrington anorexic, diarrhetic, anemic, and and Davis 1953 had front leg abnormalities Sheep, Ovis spp. -5.5%12.5 Grazing Lameness, connective tissue Pitt et al. 1980 pastures lesions in most sheep; Mo treated with concentrations (mg/kg fw): 420 g Mo/ha plasma 1.7, liver 6.0%6.4; kidney at start, 6.9%8.1 week 45, and week 72 Sheep (lambs) Cu:Mo < 0.4 Soil 15%39% swayback Friberg and Lener 1986 FRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIPJNJGZ ²PJ FKLFNHQV7KH\REVHUYHGQRUPDOHJJYLDELOLW\XS NJZZ KDYHEHHQFRUUHODWHGZLWKWR[LFHIIHFWV WRDERXWPJ0RNJLQWKHHJJ GU\ZHLJKW LQGRPHVWLFELUGV 3XOV :KHQFRSSHU EDVLV $WPJNJDERXW ZDVDGGHGWRWKHGLHWLQDGGLWLRQWRPRO\E SHUFHQWRIWKHHJJVZHUHLQYLDEOH LHWKH GHQXPDQGLQRUJDQLFVXOIDWHDIXUWKHUUHGXFWLRQ DSSUR[LPDWH(& 7KXVWKHWKUHVKROGIRU LQPRO\EGHQXPOLYHUWLVVXHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVZDV DYLDQHPEU\RWR[LFLW\RFFXUVEHWZHHQDQG REVHUYHG7KHVHVWXGLHVVKRZWKDWWKHDPRXQW PJ0RNJHJJ GU\ZHLJKWEDVLV 7KH(& RIPRO\EGHQXPVWRUHGE\WKHOLYHUWLVVXHVLV FRQFHQWUDWLRQZDVDSSUR[LPDWHO\ GHSHQGHQWXSRQWKHDPRXQWLQWKHGLHWDQG PJNJ%DVHGRQWUDQVIHUUDWHVRI XSRQWKHUDWLRVRIPRO\EGHQXPFRSSHUDQG PRO\EGHQXPIURPWKHPDWHUQDOGLHWWRWKHHJJV VXOIDWHLQWKHGLHW,QFUHDVLQJWKHPRO\EGHQXP DVGRFXPHQWHGE\/HSRUHDQG0LOOHU DQG FRQWHQWRIWKHGLHWLQFUHDVHGWKHFRSSHUVWRUDJH 0RW]RNHWDO WKHGLHWDU\WKUHVKROGIRU RIWKHOLYHU UHSURGXFWLYHLPSDLUPHQWOLHVVRPHZKHUH EHWZHHQDQGPJ0RNJ GU\IHHG $YLDQHJJVQRUPDOO\FRQWDLQ PJ0RNJ GU\ EDVLV 7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDWLQWKHDEVHQFHRI ZHLJKWEDVLV DYHUDJLQJDERXWPJ0RNJ VLJQLILFDQWLQWHUDFWLRQHIIHFWVPRO\EGHQXP 5RPDQRIIDQG5RPDQRII /HSRUHDQG LQGXFHGDYLDQHPEU\RWR[LFLW\LQWKHILHOGPD\EH 0LOOHU VWXGLHGWKHHIIHFWVRIPDWHUQDOO\ YHU\UDUH/\QFKHWDO UHSRUWHGWKDWHYHQ GHSRVLWHGPRO\EGHQXPFRQWHQWRQWKHYLDELOLW\ GRZQVWUHDPIURPVSLOOVRIPRO\EGHQXPPLOO LHKDWFKDELOLW\ RIHJJVODLGE\:KLWH5RFN WDLOLQJVLQWKH5HG5LYHURI1HZ0H[LFR 0RO\EGHQXP EHQWKLFLQYHUWHEUDWHVDYHUDJHGRQO\ PJ ²PJ0RNJGZ 8QGHUZRRG 0RNJ GU\ZHLJKWEDVLV (YDSRUDWLRQSRQGV 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV ,QWHUDFWLRQV 5HJXODWRU\6WDQGDUGV 0RO\EGHQXPWR[LFRORJLFDOSURSHUWLHVDUH U.S. Environmental Protection Agency JRYHUQHGWRDODUJHH[WHQWE\LQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK standards and criteria FRSSHUDQGVXOIXUEXWLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKRWKHU [See Appendix II for explanation of terms. PHWDOVDQGFRPSRXQGVPD\FRQIRXQGWKLV Source: EPA 1995] LQWHUUHODWLRQ)RUPRO\EGHQXPLQWHUDFWLRQVDUH Status Listed for regulation; VRGRPLQDQWWKDWDSDUWLFXODUOHYHORILQWDNHLQ carcinogenicity unknown. 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able 28.&Summary of comprehensive biotic effects of salinity [All values are aqueous concentrations in parts per thousand (=g/L)] Effect level (ppt) Affected No Level of Toxicity organisms effect concern threshold Reference/Explanation Plants Freshwater marsh &&10%12 Pezeshki et al. 1987 grass Clover, various && 0.9 Maas 1990, salt tolerance threshold, grasses 1.5 dS/m (=1,500 µS/cm) Invertebrates Amphipods && 22 Ingersoll et al. 1992, acute toxicity Daphnia magna & 0.3%66%10 Level of concern from Dwyer et al. 1992. 6-10 ppt is acute toxicity level from Ingersoll et al. 1992 Hyalella azteca & 8.0%11 16%19.5 Galat et al. 1988. After 100 days at 8%11 ppt, sample populations were 80%90% less than control group. 16 ppt = 96-h LC10; 19.5 ppt = 96-h LC50 Chironomus & 5.5%8.9 13.3 Galat et al. 1988. Cumulative mortality utahensis of 30%50% after 17 days at 5.5%8.9 ppt. 13.3 ppt = 96-h LC100 Heterocypris spp. & 9.0%11 13%18.6 Galat et al. 1988. Approximate 96-h mortality 5% at 9%11 ppt, 7% at 13 ppt, 50% at 18.6 ppt Fish Fathead minnow &&6%10 Ingersoll et al. 1992, acute toxicity Striped bass &&14%34 Ingersoll et al. 1992; Dwyer et al. 1992, acute toxicity Striped bass 2-day & 6 12 Winger and Lasier 1994. Mortality after larvae 6 days: 20% at 6 ppt, 36% at 12 ppt Birds Mottled duck &&9%18 Moorman et al. 1991. "Threshold level" 9 ppt; 100% mortality at 18 ppt Mallard 9%12 10%15 & Nystrom and Pehrsson 1988; Swanson et al. 1984 Black duck && 20 Swanson et al. 1984 Peking duck & 20 & Nystrom and Pehrsson 1988 Amphibians && && Mammals && && 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 29.&Salt tolerance thresholds of herbaceous crops [Data from Maas (1990)] Threshold Threshold Common name Botanical name (µS/cm) Common name Botanical name (µS/cm) Alfalfa Medicago sativa 2,000 Orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata 1,500 Barley (forage) Hordeum vulgare 6,000 Ryegrass, perennial Lolium perenne 5,600 Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon 6,900 Sesbania Sesbania exaltata 2,300 Clover, ladino Trifolium repens 1,500 Sphaerophysa Sphaerophysa 2,200 salsula Clover, Berseem Trifolium 1,500 Sudangrass Sorghum sudanense 2,800 alexandrinum Clover, alsike Trifolium hybridum 1,500 Trefoil, big Lotus uliginosus 2,300 Clover, red Trifolium pratense 1,500 Trefoil, narrowleaf Lotus corniculatus 5,000 birdsfoot tenuifolium Clover, strawberry Trifolium fragiferum 1,500 Vetch, common Vicia angustifolia 3,000 Corn (forage) Zea mays 1,800 Wheat (forage) Triticum aestivum 4,500 Cowpea (forage) Vigna unguiculata 2,500 Wheat, Durum Triticum turgidum 2,100 (forage) Fescue, tall Festuca elatior 3,900 Wheatgrass, fairway Agropyron cristatum 7,500 crested Foxtail, meadow Alopecurus pratensis 1,500 Wheatgrass, Agropyron sibiricum 3,500 standard crested Hardinggrass Phalaris tuberosa 4,600 Wheatgrass, tall Agropyron 7,500 elongatum Lovegrass Eragrostis sp. 2,000 Wildrye, beardless Elymus triticoides 2,700 /QTQPGUCZCVKNKU ,QWKHLUUHVXOWVWKH IDLUO\FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHVDOLQLW\WROHUDQFHVRI UHFRQVWLWXWHGZDWHUVDPSOHVIURP6:0$ZHUH RWKHUIUHVKZDWHUILVKHVHVSHFLDOO\WKRVHRIWKH DFXWHO\WR[LFWRVWULSHGEDVVDWDVDOLQLW\RI IDPLO\&\SULQLGDH PLQQRZVDQGFDUSV SSWDQGWRIDWKHDGPLQQRZVDWWR SSW'Z\HUHWDO·V UHVXOWVIRUVWULSHG $FFRUGLQJWR(3$$PELHQW:DWHU4XDOLW\ EDVVZHUHVLPLODU7KHVHFLWHGUHVXOWVGRQRW &ULWHULD WKHJROGILVK %CTCUUKWUCWTCVWU KRZHYHUDSSO\WRDOOVWULSHGEDVV/LNHVDOPRQ KDVD KRXU/&RISSWDQGWKHIDW VWULSHGEDVVKDYHERWKDQDGURPRXV VHDJRLQJ KHDGPLQQRZKDVD KRXU/&RI SSW DQGODQGORFNHGYDULHWLHV7KHPDULQHVWULSHG EDVVUHDGLO\WROHUDWHVDOLQLWLHVRI²SSW - ,QDVWXG\E\6DLNLHWDO MXYHQLOH 6DOLQLW\ Table 30.&Biological effects of various concentrations of salinity on selected species Salinity concentra- tion in water Species (ppt) Effects/Comments Reference Plants Freshwater marsh 10%12 Toxicity threshold Pezeshki et al. 1987 grass Ruppia maritima 46 No growth McMillan and Moseley 1967 Typha sp. 26 Growth ceased after 9 days McNaughton 1966 4.5%12.5 Reduction in height (salinity Shekov 1974 increased over time) 12 Stunted growth U.S.Department of Agriculture 1972 Invertebrates Amphipods 22 Acute toxicity Ingersoll et al. 1992 Daphnia magna 0.3%6 Level of concern Dwyer et al. 1992 6 - 10 Acute toxicity Dwyer et al. 1992; Ingersoll et al. 1992 Chironomid 89 LC50 Kokkinn 1986 13.25 100% mortality at 96h Galat et al. 1988 Hyalella azteca 19.5 LC50 Galat et al. 1988 Heterocypris sp. 18.57 LC50 Fish Striped bass 18 71% mortality at 72 h Winger and Lasier 1994 (Morone saxatilis) eggs 24 100% mortality at 72 h Striped bass 0 100% mortality at 6 d (Morone saxatilis) 6 20% mortality at 6 d 2-day-old larvae 12 36% mortality at 6 d 18 75% mortality at 6 d 24 100% mortality at 6 d Striped bass 14%34 Acute toxicity Ingersoll et al. 1992, Lal et al. 1977, Dwyer et al. 1992 15.6 100% mortality at 23 d Saiki et al. 1992 14.7 95% mortality at 28 d Fathead minnow 6%10 Acutely lethal Ingersoll et al. 1992, Adelman and Smith 1976 Chinook salmon 20.5 75% mortality at 28 d Saiki et al. 1992 14.3%20.5 Reduced growth at 28 d Birds Mallard -11 Reduced growth; fatal to Swanson et al. 1984 young ducklings 8.8%12 100 percent mortality Mitcham and Wobeser 1988b 9%12 No effect Nystrom and Pehrsson 1988, 10%15 Level of concern Swanson et al. 1984 15 100 percent mortality (7- Barnes and Nudds 1991 day-old ducklings) Mottled duck 9 Threshold level for adverse Moorman et al. 1991 effects 12 Reduced growth, 10% mortality 15 90% mortality 18 100% mortality Peking duck 20 Level of concern Nystrom and Pehrsson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able 31.&Effects of naturally saline drinking water on 1-day-old mallard ducklings [From Mitcham and Wobeser (1988b)] Salt concentrations (ppt) Water conductivity Length of (µS/cm) Sodium Magnesium exposure Effects 3,750%7,490 0.512%0.911 0.195%0.639 14 d No apparent effect 4,000 0.821 0.56 28 d Poor growth in last 2 weeks 7,720 1.98 0.062 14 d Poor growth 20,000 2.55 1.31 14 d 6 of 10 died. 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QRUPDODQGWR[LFGLHWDU\H[SRVXUHVVHOHQLXPLV PRUHSRLVRQRXVWKDQHLWKHUDUVHQLFRUPHUFXU\ 6RUHQVHQ +RZHYHUVHOHQLXPLVDOVRDQ Background HVVHQWLDOWUDFHQXWULHQWIRUDQLPDOVDQGLWVHUYHV (mg/kg dw, EHQHILFLDOPHWDEROLFIXQFWLRQV $UWKXUDQG except as %HFNHWW 7KXVVHOHQLXPGHILFLHQF\DVZHOO Medium noted) DVWR[LFLW\FDQFDXVHDGYHUVHHIIHFWVIRUILVKDQG ZLOGOLIH 2OGILHOG &$67 Freshwater 0.1%0.4 µg/L ,QWHUHVWLQJO\ERWKGHILFLHQF\DQGWR[LFLW\FDXVH Freshwater sediments 0.2%2.0 VLPLODUHIIHFWV HJUHSURGXFWLYHGHSUHVVLRQ DQHPLDZHLJKWORVVDQGLPPXQHG\VIXQFWLRQ Plants: .ROOHUDQG([RQ 7KHNQRZQHIIHFWVRI Freshwater algae 0.1%1.5 VHOHQLXPH[SRVXUHWRYDULRXVFODVVHVRI Freshwater macrophytes 0.1%2.0 RUJDQLVPVDUHVXPPDUL]HGLQWDEOH Terrestrial plants 0.01%0.6 Invertebrates: 2QHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWIHDWXUHVRIVHOHQLXP Aquatic 0.4%4.5 HFRWR[LFRORJ\LVWKHYHU\QDUURZPDUJLQ Terrestrial 0.1%2.5 EHWZHHQQXWULWLRQDOO\RSWLPDODQGSRWHQWLDOO\ WR[LFGLHWDU\H[SRVXUHVIRUYHUWHEUDWHDQLPDOV Fish: :LOEHU 15& 1XWULWLRQDOO\RSWLPDO Liver 2%8 GLHWDU\VHOHQLXPH[SRVXUHLVJHQHUDOO\UHSRUWHG % Other tissues 1 4 DV²PJNJ7KUHVKROGVIRUGLHWDU\ Reptiles/Amphibians: WR[LFLW\LQDQLPDOVDUHJHQHUDOO\UHSRUWHGDV² Liver 2.9%3.6 PJ6HNJ³RQO\ Other tissues 1%3 WRWLPHVWKHQXWULWLRQDOO\RSWLPDOOHYHOV *LUOLQJ 15& 6RUHQVHQ Birds: Whole body <2 (LVHQEHUJ 7KXVUHODWLYHO\VPDOO Muscle 1%3 SHUWXUEDWLRQVLQWKHGLHWDU\H[SRVXUHRI Eggs <5 YHUWHEUDWHDQLPDOVDUHSRWHQWLDOO\KDUPIXO Liver <10 $FFRUGLQJWR6SDOOKRO] H[WHQVLYHVWXGLHV Feathers 1%4 Whole blood 0.1%0.4 mg/L ZLWKUDWVKDYHIRXQGWKHWR[LFLW\WKUHVKROGIRU GLHWDU\VHOHQLWHWREHRQO\ Mammals: Whole body <1%4 WLPHVDERYHWKHQXWULWLRQDOO\RSWLPDOGRVH Muscle <1 +RZHYHURQO\WKHVWXGLHVRIUDWVKDYHLQFOXGHG Liver 1%10 FRQWUROOHGOLIHWLPHH[SRVXUHVDQGHYDOXDWHGVXFK Hair <1%3 VHQVLWLYHUHVSRQVHYDULDEOHV Milk <0.05 mg/L DVORQJHYLW\ Whole blood 0.1%0.5 mg/L 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 32.&Summary of comprehensive biotic effects of selenium No Level of Toxicity Medium effect1 concern2 threshold3 Comments/Explanation Water (µg/L, total recoverable <1 1%2 >2 Peterson and Nebeker (1992) Se)4 Sediment (mg/kg dw) <1 1%4 >4 Van Derveer and Canton (1997), SJVDP (1990), Lemly and Smith (1987) Diet (mg/kg, dw) <2 2%3 >3 Lemly (1996a) Waterbird eggs (mg/kg dw) <3 3%6 >6 No-effect level from Skorupa and Ohlendorf (1991). 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PJNJJUDQGPHDQ 6HOHQLXP Table 33.&Summary from field cases of minimum selenium contamination having adverse effects on natural fish and wildlife populations Minimum toxic Matrix concentrations Response variable Study site Water, µg/L 2%10 Avian reproduction Salton Sea, CA 2.0 Fish reproduction Sweden (five different lakes) 2.6%5 Fish population collapse Martin Lake, TX 2.6%18 Avian reproduction Tulare Basin, CA 3%4 Fish sublethal effects Belews Lake, NC, Hwy 158 Arm 7.5%17.5 Avian reproduction Chevron Marsh, CA Sediment, mg/kg dw 0.9 Avian reproduction Tulare Basin, CA 1%3 Avian reproduction Salton Sea, CA <3 Fish sublethal effects Belews Lake, NC, Hwy 158 Arm 3%5 Fish survival and Hyco Res., NC reproduction Food chain fauna, mg/kg 2.9 Avian reproduction Tulare Basin, CA dw 4%8 Fish sublethal effects Belews Lake, NC, Hwy 158 Arm 3.1 (pileworms) Avian reproduction Salton Sea, CA Fish muscle, mg/kg dw 7%9 Sublethal effects Belews Lake, NC, Hwy 158 Arm <(10%20) Teratogenesis Belews Lake, NC 6.9%36 (means), Reproductive failure Sweden (five different lakes) 23 grand mean Fish whole body, mg/kg dw 10%20 Teratogenesis Belews Lake, NC Fish gonads, mg/kg dw 17 Population collapse Martin Lake, TX Fish liver, mg/kg dw 25%30 Sublethal effects Belews Lake, NC, Hwy 158 Arm Bird liver, mg/kg dw 40%50 Adult mortality Ouray NWR, UT Bird muscle, mg/kg dw 4%8 Adult mortality Ouray NWR, UT Bird egg, mg/kg dw 4.2%9.7 Hatchability Tulare Basin, CA 6 (mean) Hatchability Salton Sea, CA 10 Hatchability Kesterson, CA 11 (mean) Hatchability Martin Lake, TX $ELRWLF)DFWRUV$IIHFWLQJ 1RUPDOEDFNJURXQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIVHOHQLXP LQXQFRQWDPLQDWHGIUHVKZDWHUHFRV\VWHPVKDYH %LRDYDLODELOLW\ EHHQHVWLPDWHG LQJ/ DV :LOEHU ² /HPO\ E /LOOHERHWDO :DWHU DQG² DYHUDJH 0DLHUDQG.QLJKW (YHQLQ&DOLIRUQLDD6WDWHKHDYLO\ 6HOHQLXPFRPPRQO\RFFXUVDVDPL[WXUHRI LQIOXHQFHGE\DJULFXOWXUDOPRELOL]DWLRQRI VHYHUDOFKHPLFDOVSHFLHVLQQDWXUDOZDWHUV VHOHQLXPWKHPHGLDQFRQFHQWUDWLRQLQ DOWKRXJKWZRLQRUJDQLFFKHPLFDOVSHFLHV VWUHDPVZDVJ/ :HVWFRWHWDO 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Summary: Effects of selenium suckers) on fish Edible tissue Se Fish Se (mg/kg) concentration Interpretive guidance (mg/kg) Health advisories recommend 2 (wet weight limited fish consumption by basis) Background, whole body <1%4 healthy adults and no (typically <2) consumption by children and pregnant women Background, skeletal muscle <1%4 (typically <2) Complete ban on human con- 5 (wet weight sumption of fish recommended basis) Background, gonads/eggs <1%4 (typically 2%3) Background, hepatic 2%8 $PSKLELDQVDQG5HSWLOHV (typically <5) %XOOIURJVFROOHFWHGIURPUHIHUHQFHDJURIRUHVWU\ Lowest validated concentration in 2.0 SODQWDWLRQVLQWKH6DQ-RDTXLQ9DOOH\FRQWDLQHG edible tissue (trout fillet) ² PJNJZKROHERG\6H &')* warranting human health advisory )URJDQGWRDGOLYHUVIURPUHIHUHQFHVLWHVLQWKH VDPHDUHDFRQWDLQHG ²PJ6HNJ %U\QHHW Outdoor macrocosm LOAEL for 16%18 (gonad/ DO 2KOHQGRUIHWDO E ,QOL]DUGVDQG reproductive impairment egg tissue) VQDNHVIURPWKHVHDUHDVZKROHERG\VHOHQLXP (bluegill) 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ucks 5HSURGXFWLYHLPSDLUPHQWLVJHQHUDOO\DPRUH Egg Se range: Observed probability of VHQVLWLYHUHVSRQVHYDULDEOHWKDQDGXOWPRUWDOLW\ ducks overt embryo teratogenesis KPQXQH[SRVXUHWRVHOHQLXPLVGLVFUHWHDQG (mg/kg) (%) HDVLO\PHDVXUHGDQGELUGV VHQVLWLYLW\WR 00%10 0.0 VHOHQLXPLVHTXDOWRRUJUHDWHUWKDQWKDWRIRWKHU 11%20 3.2 WD[D&RQVHTXHQWO\ELUGHJJVFRQVWLWXWHRQHRI 21%30 8.7 WKHEHVWELRWLFPDWULFHVIRUULVNLPSDFW 31%40 40.0 LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ 2KOHQGRUIHWDO +HLQ]HW 41%50 Insufficient data DO 6NRUXSDDQG2KOHQGRUI 51%60 Insufficient data 61%70 Insufficient data &+0+LOOHWDO 2KOHQGRUIHWDO % 6NRUXSD 6HLOHUDQG6NRUXSD +HLQ] 71 80 100.0 6NRUXSD D Notes: The field-measured background rate of overt embryo teratogenesis for Se-normal duck popu- lations in Montana (i.e., representative eggs contained %DVHGRQDUHYLHZRIH[SHULPHQWDODQGILHOG <5 mg Se/kg) was approximately 0.3 percent based on GDWD+HLQ] HVWLPDWHGWKDWWKH a monitored sample of >3,000 eggs (calculated from HPEU\RWR[LFWKUHVKROGIRUVHOHQLXPLQELUGHJJV data in Dubois 1988). Only eggs that were both LVDERXWPJNJ6HYHUDOWD[DVSHFLILF randomly sampled in the field and randomly selected H[SRVXUHUHVSRQVHSURILOHVIRUDYLDQHPEU\RV for chemical analysis are included above. Observed probabilities are for true teratogenesis only, not for all KDYHEHHQGHULYHGIURPILHOGVDPSOLQJGXULQJ types of abnormalities. Total N=138 eggs, mostly WKHODVWGHFDGH 6NRUXSDHWDOXQSXEGDWD from the San Joaquin Valley of California. 6NRUXSDHWDO 6NRUXSD D %DVHGRQ WKRVHSURILOHV SUHVHQWHGEHORZ ELUGVSHFLHV GLIIHUVXEVWDQWLDOO\LQHPEU\RVHQVLWLYLW\WR VHOHQLXPH[SRVXUH7KHYDULDWLRQVHHPVWRKDYH 6HOHQLXP )RULQGLYLGXDOGXFNHJJVFRQWDLQLQJDVOLWWOHDV Egg Se Observed probability of overt ²PJNJWKHREVHUYHGSUREDELOLW\RI range: stilts embryo teratogenesis WHUDWRJHQHVLVLVORZLQDEVROXWHWHUPVEXWLV (mg/kg) (%) QHYHUWKHOHVVïEDFNJURXQG7KHDERYH QXPEHUVDUHLQGLYLGXDOOHYHOGDWDEXWWKH\ 61%80 71.4 VXSSRUWWKHSRSXODWLRQOHYHODQDO\VLVRI6NRUXSD 81%100 100.0 % DQG2KOHQGRUI )RULQWHUSUHWLYH 101 120 100.0 SXUSRVHVKRZHYHULWLVYHU\LPSRUWDQWWR Notes: The field-measured background rate of GLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQLQGLYLGXDOOHYHODQG overt embryo teratogenesis for Se-normal stilt and SRSXODWLRQOHYHOJXLGHOLQHV3RSXODWLRQOHYHO avocet populations (recurvirostrids) in the San Joaquin Valley of California was approximately 0.15 percent WKUHVKROGVDUHXVXDOO\ORZHUWKDQLQGLYLGXDOOHYHO based on a monitored sample of >3,000 eggs WKUHVKROGVEHFDXVHWKH\DUHEDVHGRQSRSXODWLRQ (Skorupa et al., unpub. data). Only eggs that were DYHUDJHVHYHQWKRXJKLWLVDFWXDOO\WKHPD[LPXP both randomly sampled in the field and randomly YDOXHVWKDWGHWHUPLQHZKHQDSRSXODWLRQ selected for chemical analysis are included above. FURVVHVWKHWR[LFLW\WKUHVKROG LHWKHSRLQWDW Observed probabilities are for true teratogenesis only, not for all types of abnormalities. Total N=547 eggs, ZKLFKMXVWDIHZKHQVLQWKHSRSXODWLRQVKRZD mostly from the San Joaquin Valley of California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·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tilts&Teratogenesis VKRZVDVXEVWDQWLYHLQFUHDVHDWDGLVWLQFWO\ORZHU WKUHVKROG Egg Se Observed probability of overt .PJNJYHUVXV.PJNJ range: stilts embryo teratogenesis (mg/kg) (%) )LHOGFROOHFWHGFOXWFKYLDELOLW\GDWDIRUVWLOWVDUH 00%10 0.4 GLVWULEXWHGDVIROORZV 11%20 1.3 21%40 5.0 41%60 24.4 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Stilts&clutch viability Avocets&teratogenesis Egg Se range: Observed probability of Observed probability stilts (mg/kg) impaired clutch (%) Egg Se range: of overt embryo avocets (mg/kg) teratogenesis (%) 0%5 8.7 (background) 6-15 18.9 00%40 0.0 16-30 26.9 41%60 3.8 31-50 33.7 61%80 7.1 51-70 65.4 81%100 9.1 71-90 100.0 101%120 50.0 91-110 100.0 Notes: The field-measured background rate of Notes: These data represent the percentage fo overt embryo teratogenesis for Se-normal stilt and hens within each exposure interval that were avocet populations (recurvirostrids) in the San Joaquin reproductively impaired; a henwise response rate Valley of California was approximately 0.15 percent based on whole-clutch viability (4-egg clutches). The based a monitored sample of >3,000 eggs (Skorupa et background rate is a function of normal infertility. al., unpub. data). Only eggs that were both randomly Total N-410 full-term, monitored, and chemically sampled in the field and randomly selected for characterized clutches, mostly from the San Joaquin chemical analysis are included above. Observed Valley of California. probabilities are for true teratogenesis only, not for all types of abnormalities. Total N=542 eggs, mostly from the San Joaquin Valley of California. 7KHKHQZLVH FOXWFKZLVH UHVSRQVHSURILOH SUHVHQWHGDERYHSURYLGHVLQGLYLGXDOOHYHO 7KH,&IRUHPEU\RWHUDWRJHQHVLVLQDYRFHWVLV LQWHUSUHWLYHJXLGDQFHWKDWLQFRUSRUDWHVDOOIRUPV PJ6HNJHJJRUDERXW²ïQRUPDO RIHPEU\RLPSDLUPHQWQRWMXVWWHUDWRJHQHVLV EDFNJURXQG 6NRUXSD D 7KDWLVURXJKO\ 2KOHQGRUIHWDO ILJXUH DOVRSUHVHQWHGD IRXUWLPHVWKHYDOXHIRUGXFNVDQGDERXWWZLFH FOXWFKZLVHUHVSRQVHSURILOHIRUVWLOWVEXWLWLV WKHYDOXHIRUVWLOWV(YHQWKH,&IRUDYRFHWV ELDVHGXSZDUGGXHWRWKHLQFOXVLRQRIVRPH PJ6HNJHJJLVYHU\KLJK 6NRUXSD D VDPSOHVQRQUDQGRPO\VHOHFWHGIRUFKHPLFDO ,QWHUHVWLQJO\*RRGVHOO VWXG\LQJ DQDO\VLV)RUH[DPSOH2KOHQGRUIHWDO·V $XVWUDOLDQYDULHWLHVRIDYRFHWVDQGVWLOWVIRXQGD FOXWFKZLVHUHVSRQVHFXUYHVXJJHVWVWKDW VLPLODUGHJUHHRIGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHVHELUGV SHUFHQWRIVWLOWKHQVLQWKH²PJ6HNJHJJ WROHUDQFHIRUVDOLQLW\5HGQHFNHGDYRFHWFKLFNV H[SRVXUHFDWHJRU\ZLOOEHUHSURGXFWLYHO\ ZHUHIDUPRUHVDOLQLW\WROHUDQW LPSDLUHGDVRSSRVHGWRDQHVWLPDWHRI WKDQEODFNZLQJHGVWLOWFKLFNVLQWKHVDPHDUHDV SHUFHQW ZKLFKLVEHORZ2KOHQGRUIHWDO·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²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vocets clutch viability HQYLURQPHQWDOH[SRVXUHRIWKHKHQVLVSUREDEO\ Egg Se range: Observed probability of UHTXLUHGIRUWKHPWRSURGXFHHJJVWKDWDWWDLQ avocets (mg/kg) impaired clutch (%) WKUHVKROGFRQFHQWUDWLRQV%DVHGRQ H[SHULPHQWDOVWXGLHVZLWKFKLFNHQVDQGTXDLO VHH 00%20 13.5 (background) +HLQ] HPEU\RVRIXSODQGJDOOLQDFHRXV % 21 40 14.6 JDPHELUGVPD\EHPRUHVHQVLWLYHWKDQGXFN % 41 60 11.8 HPEU\RV6WXG\LQJZKLWHIDFHGLELVDW&DUVRQ 61%80 33.3 81%100 50.0 /DNH1HYDGD+HQQ\DQG+HUURQ UHSRUWHGWKDWQHVWVLQZKLFKWKHHJJVFRQWDLQHG Notes: These data represent the percentage of !PJ6HNJZHUHSHUFHQWOHVVSURGXFWLYH hens within each exposure interval that were WKDQQHVWVWKDWKDGHJJVFRQWDLQLQJ PJ reproductively impaired; a henwise response rate based on whole-clutch viability (4-egg clutches). The 6HNJ7KDW·VDERXWWKHPDJQLWXGHRIHIIHFWWKDW background rate is a function of normal infertility. ZRXOGEHH[SHFWHG Total N=230 full-term, monitored, and chemically DWWKDWH[SRVXUHOHYHO ² PJNJ IRUD characterized clutches, mostly from the San Joaquin PRGHUDWHO\VHQVLWLYHVSHFLHV OLNHVWLOWV EXW Valley of California. 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DILUPGLDJQRVLVRIVHOHQLXPSRLVRQLQJ FLWHGDVDERXW²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²PJ/ .²ï DGYLVRULHVUHJDUGLQJFRQVXPSWLRQRIILVKDQG QRUPDO 6FKDPEHUHWDO 5DFFRRQVDW ELUGV VHHDERYH VKRXOGDOVRDSSO\WRHGLEOH .HVWHUVRQ5HVHUYRLUKDGDV WLVVXHVRIPDPPDOV7KHVHFDOOIRUWDUJHWHG PXFKDV PJ6H/LQWKHLUEORRG DYHUDJH UHVWULFWLRQVDWPJNJ ZZ DQGDFRPSOHWH FRQVXPSWLYHEDQDWPJNJ ZZ 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Edible tissue Se Summary: Effects of selenium Interpretive guidance (mg/kg ww) on mammals Health advisories $2 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34.&Summary of comprehensive biotic effects of zinc [Note: Diagnostic levels for toxicity are not well established in any animal tissues because the zinc concentrations generally are homeostatically regulated] No Level of Toxicity Medium effect concern threshold Comments/Explanation Water (µg/L) <30 30%110 110 30 µg/L is lowest chronic value for aquatic life (Suter and Mabrey 1994). Threshold value assumes chronic exposure at hardness of 100 1 mg/L (as CaCO3). Sediment (mg/kg dw) 150 150%410 410 From Long et al. (1995); however, sulfides in sediment may reduce Zn toxicity. Plants (mg/kg dw) 27%150 150%300 >300 Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). Invertebrates && & Fish (white sucker && 20 From Munkittrick et al. (1991), but this is lower muscle tissue; mg/kg than normal background (88) for whole fish dw): (Schmitt and Brumbaugh 1990). Birds (mg/kg dw): Eggs 50 & & J.P. Skorupa, unpub. data, 1996. Liver/kidney <210 & >2,100 Reptiles/amphibians && & Mammals (mg/kg dw): Kidney <210 & >274 Talmage and Walton (1991). Liver <210 & >465 1 Zinc toxicity in water is affected not only by hardness but also by factors such as pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and alkalinity. Toxic effects may occur in sensitive phytoplankton, invertebrates, or fish life stages at concentrations in the "level of concern" range. In most of the West, hardness of more than 200 mg/L is much more common, and zinc would be less toxic under those conditions. 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Lowered growth Lake, Ontario, rate Canada Mammals Field vole 21,000 Whole body 191.6 Pb-Zn mine site Johnson et (Microtus agrestis) al. 1978 131 Whole body 121.2 Uncontaminated Roberts site and Johnson 1978 59 Whole body 100; liver 113; kidney Uncontaminated Anderson 121 site et al. 1982 Shrew 21,000 Whole body 141 Pb-Zn mine site Johnson et (Sorex araneus) al. 1978 Vole (Clethrionomys 21,000 Whole body 123.4 Pb-Zn mine site glareolus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able 36.&Biological effects of zinc on aquatic species Zn in water Species (µg/L) Effect Comments Reference Plants Brown macroalgae 9.5 BCF: 10,770 in 140 days Marine algae Eisler 1993 (Fucas serratus) Freshwater alga 30 Some growth inhibition in 7 days Eisler 1993 (Selenastrum % capricornutum) 40 68 95% growth inhibition in 14 days 100 100% growth inhibition in 14 days Freshwater algae, >1,000 Growth inhibition Eisler 1993 most species Phytoplankton 15 Primary productivity reduced in Eisler 1993 14 days Invertebrates Cladoceran (Daphnia 10,000%50,000 No effect on mortality 46-h exposure. Bodar et al. magna) eggs Eggs more tolerant 1989 100,000 Increase in mortality than adults Mayfly (Epeorus 10%30 Decreased growth rate after Hatakeyama latifolium) larvae 2 weeks. Notable increase in 1989 mortality at 4 weeks 100 Growth rate 37% of control at 1 week, near 0% at 2 weeks. All died before emergence 300 Growth rate 24% of control at 1 week, near 0% at 2 weeks. All died before emergence Midge (Chironomus 8,200 48-h EC50 (Effect: immobilization) Temp. 14°C, pH 6.3 Khangarot and tentans) larvae Ray 1989 Mosquito (Aedes 500 20% increase in mortality pH 6.1 Abbasi et al. aegypti) hatched 1985 pupae Snail (Ancylus 80 100d LC50 Shell length Eisler 1993 fluviatilis) juvenile <2 millimeters 130 100d LC50 Shell length >3 millimeters Snail (Ancylus 100 No adverse effect on reproduction in fluviatilis) adult 100 days 180 Reproduction reduced in 100 days Snail (Biomphalaria 500 Survival reduced to 50% Eisler 1993 glabrata) embryos Snail (Biomphalaria 500 Growth and reproduction inhibited glabrata) adults 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 36.&Biological effects of zinc on aquatic species&Continued Zn in water Species (µg/L) Effect Comments Reference Invertebrates&Continued Sponge (Ephydatia 6.5 No effect on growth; no tolerance Eisler 1993 fluviatilis) adults developed with long-term exposure 26 After exposure for 10 days, tissue deterioration and death during 3-week post-exposure period Fish Bluegill (Lepomis 1,400 96-h LC50 (Cu present) Cu = 400 µg/L; temp. Thompson et al. macrochirus) 22±1 °C; pH 6.8%7.5 1980 3,200 96-h LC50 (Cu absent) Cu = 0; other condi- tions as above Chinook salmon 1,270 96-h LC50 In fresh water; mean Hamilton and (Oncorhynchus weight 1.03 g Buhl 1990 tshawytscha) 2,880 In brackish water; mean weight 2.60 g 5,530 24-h LC50 In fresh water; mean weight 1.03 g 12,600 In brackish water; mean weight 2.60 g Chinook salmon 145 28-d LC10s, based on various mixed Zn = 3× dissolved Finlayson and (Oncorhynchus solutions of Cu and Zn Cu Verrue 1980 tshawytscha) eggs to hatchlings 175 Zn = 3× total Cu 224 Zn = 6× dissolved Cu 254 Zn = 6× total Cu 396 Zn = 11× dissolved Cu 437 Zn = 11× total Cu Chinook salmon 119 28-d LC50s, based on various mixed Zn = 3× dissolved Finlayson and (Oncorhynchus solutions of Cu and Zn Cu Verrue 1980 tshawytscha) hatchlings to swim-up 145 Zn = 3× total Cu fry 156 Zn = 6× dissolved Cu 187 Zn = 6× total Cu 208 Zn = 11× dissolved Cu 234 Zn = 11× total Cu =LQF Table 36.&Biological effects of zinc on aquatic species&Continued Zn in water Species (µg/L) Effect Comments Reference Fish&Continued Coho salmon 4,600 96-h LC50 Temp. 10%12°C; Lorz and (Oncorhynchus hardness 68%78 or McPherson kisutch), yearling 89%90 mg/kg (as 1976 CaCO3) Rainbow trout 10 28-d LC54 Larvae and alevins Spear 1981 (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 70-140 25-d LC50 Early life stages Steelhead trout 170 60-d LC10s, based on various mixed Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, Finlayson and (Oncorhynchus solutions of Cu, Zn, and Al dissolved Zn Aschuckian mykiss) eggs to 1979 hatchlings 200 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, total Zn 280 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, dissolved Zn 290 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, total Zn Steelhead trout 140 60-d LC10s, based on various mixed Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, Finlayson and (Oncorhynchus solutions of Cu, Zn, and Al dissolved Zn Aschuckian mykiss) hatchlings to 1979 swim-up fry 140 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, dissolved Zn 170 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:4:6, total Zn 180 Cu:Zn:Al = 1:12:18, total Zn Amphibians South African clawed >1,500 At 96 h, some mid-gut malformations Eisler 1993 frog (Xenopus laevis) and pericardial edema 2,700 50% malformations in 96 h Newt 200%3,000 Newts became lethargic, ate poorly, Eisler 1993 (Triturus cristatus) and had skin darkening before death. Elevated Zn concentrations in kidney, brain, liver, and intestine 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV Table 37.&Summary of exposure-response or exposure-bioaccumulation of zinc Zn in diet Zn in biomass (mg/kg dw) and effect when Species (mg/kg dw) observed Comments Reference Food chain Mayfly 940 No change in growth rate; slight increase in Hatakeyama (Epeorus (algae) mortality 1989 latifolium) 1,380 Growth rate decreased to 55% of control within larvae (algae) 1 week but rebounded after 2 weeks. Significant increase in mortality; impaired emergence 2,170 Impaired emergence and growth rate; significant (algae) increase in mortality Woodlouse 5,000 Survival reduced to 74% of control Beyer et al. (Porcellio 1984 scaber) 20,000 Survival reduced to 34% of control Slug <100 No significant effect Eisler 1993 (Arion ater) 300%1,000 Reduced food consumption at day 27 470 Significantly impaired growth Fish Rainbow 440 Liver 106; blood 171; gill 308. No effect Wekell et al. trout 1983 860 Liver 120; blood 192; gill 522. No effect (Oncorhyn- chus mykiss) 1,700 Liver 151; blood 244; gill 1,120. No effect 683 Liver 24. No effect 20-week Knox et al. exposure. Diet 1982 also contained 178 mg/kg Cu Birds Mallard 3,000 Leg paralysis and decreased food consumption 30-day Eisler 1993 (Anas platy- exposure rhynchos) >3,000 Many deaths Peking duck 2,500 Progressive ultrastructural degeneration of 56-day Eisler 1993 (Anas platy- pancreatic acinar cells evident as early as day 5 exposure rhynchos) Mammals Horse 1,000 2,728%3,511 in liver; caused Cu deficiency Eisler 1993 (Equus % caballus) 2,000 4,364 4,524 in liver; caused Cu deficiency Domestic 682 No effects Eisler 1993 mouse (Mus sp.) 6,820 Reduced survival, growth, and food intake =LQF FKURQLFDOO\RUDFXWHO\H[SRVHGWR]LQFDQGRWKHU $GDPV:-5$.LPHUOHDQG-:%DUQHWW-U KHDY\PHWDOV,WSURWHFWVDJDLQVWWKHLOOHIIHFWV 6HGLPHQWTXDOLW\DQGDTXDWLFOLIH RI]LQFE\VHTXHVWHULQJ]LQFPRUHHIILFLHQWO\ DVVHVVPHQWV'PXKTQP5EK6GEJPQN ² $QGHUVRQ7-*:%DUUHWW&6&ODUN9-(OLD 5HJXODWRU\6WDQGDUGV DQG9$0DMHWL 0HWDOFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQ WLVVXHVRIPHDGRZYROHVIURPVHZDJHVOXGJH 6WDQGDUGVDQGFULWHULDHVWDEOLVKHGE\WKH WUHDWHGLQILHOGV,'PXKTQP3WCN ² 86(QYLURQPHQWDO3URWHFWLRQDJHQF\DUH OLVWHGLQWDEOH)RUVWDQGDUGVDQGFULWHULDVHW %H\HU:1*:0LOOHUDQG(-&URPDUWLH E\6WDWHDJHQFLHVFRQWDFWWKRVHDJHQFLHV &RQWDPLQDWLRQRIWKHVRLOKRUL]RQE\]LQF GLUHFWO\6HH$SSHQGL[,IRUDOLVWLQJRIZDWHU VPHOWLQJDQGLWVHIIHFWRQZRRGORXVHVXUYLYDO TXDOLW\RIILFLDOVLQWKH:HVWHUQ6WDWHV ,'PXKTQP3WCN ² %RGDU&:0$9'=HH3$9RRJW+:\QQH DQG',=DQGHH 7R[LFLW\RIKHDY\ 5HIHUHQFHV PHWDOVWRHDUO\OLIHVWDJHVRI&CRJPKCOCIPC 'EQVQZKEQN'PXKTQP5CHGV[ ² $EEDVL6$3&1LSDQH\DQG56RQL (QYLURQPHQWDOFRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKHLQKLELWLRQ %RGHN,:-/\PDQ:)5HHKODQG LQWKHKDWFKLQJRISXSDHRI#GFGUCGI[RVKE\ '+5RVHQEODWW 'PXKTQPOGPVCN PHUFXU\]LQFDQGFKURPLXP³7KHDEQRUPDO KPQTICPKEEJGOKUVT[ 2TQRGTVKGURTQEGUUGUCPF WR[LFLW\RI]LQF,'PXKTQP5VWFKGU GUVKOCVKQPOGVJQFU3HUJDPRQ3UHVV ² 1HZ Table 38.&U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards and criteria for zinc (See Appendix II for explanation of terms. Source: EPA, 1985, 1995) Status EPA priority pollutant; carcinogencity unknown Drinking water MCL/MCLG None established Secondary MCL 5 mg/L Drinking-water health advisories 1-day HA: 6 mg/L for 10-kilogram child 10-day HA: 6 mg/L Long-term HA: 3 mg/L Drinking-water health advisories Reference dose: 0.3 mg/kg/day for 70-kilogram child Long-term HA: 10 mg/L Lifetime HA: 2 mg/L DWEL: 10 mg/L Freshwater criteria (hardness dependent) At hardness of 50 mg/L CaCO3 65 µg/L for acute exposure 59 µg/L for chronic exposure At hardness of 100 mg/L CaCO3 120 µg/L for acute exposure 110 µg/L for chronic exposure At hardness of 200 mg/L CaCO3 210 µg/L for acute exposure 190 µg/L for chronic exposure 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV &DPSEHOO3*&DQG306WRNHV )LQOD\VRQ%-DQG+-5HFWHQZDOG 6QZKEKV[ $FLGLILFDWLRQDQGWR[LFLW\RIPHWDOVWRDTXDWLF QHEQRRGTCPF\KPEHTQOVJG2GPP/KPGCTGCQP ELRWD%CP,(KUJ#SWCV5EK ² MKPIUCNOQP 2QFRUK\QFKXVWVKDZ\WVFKD CPF UVGGNJGCFVTQWV 6DOPRJDLUGQHUL KPVJG 'DOOLQJHU5DQG+.DXW]N\ 7KH /QMGNWOPG4KXGTDCUKP%CNKHQTPKC LPSRUWDQFHRIFRQWDPLQDWHGIRRGIRUWKH &DOLIRUQLD'HSDUWPHQWRI)LVKDQG*DPH XSWDNHRIKHDY\PHWDOE\UDLQERZWURXW 5CNOQ (QYLURQPHQWDO6HUYLFHV%UDQFK6DFUDPHQWR ICKTFPGTK $ILHOGVWXG\1GEQNQIKC %HUOLQ &DOLIRUQLD$GPLQLVWUDWLYH5HSW² ² )LQOD\VRQ%-DQG.09HUUXH (VWLPDWHG 'L7RUR'0-'0DKRQ\'-+DQVHQ VDIH]LQFDQGFRSSHUOHYHOVIRU&KLQRRN .-6FRWW$5&DUOVRQDQG*7$QNOH\ VDOPRQ1PEQTJ[PEJWUVUJCY[VUEJCLQWKH $FLGYRODWLOHVXOILGHSUHGLFWVWKHDFXWH 8SSHU6DFUDPHQWR5LYHU&DOLIRUQLD%CNKH WR[LFLW\RIFDGPLXPDQGQLFNHOLQVHGLPHQWV (KUJCPF)COG ² 'PXKTQP5EK6GEJPQN ² )XUQHVV5:DQG365DLQERZ *GCX[ (LVOHU5 =LQF +XOO51DQG*:6XWHU,, 6QZKEQNQIKECN /RU]+:DQG%30F3KHUVRQ (IIHFWVRI DGPEJOCTMUHQTUETGGPKPIEQPVCOKPCPVUQH FRSSHURU]LQFLQIUHVKZDWHURQWKHDGDSWDWLRQ RQVGPVKCNEQPEGTPHQTGHHGEVUQPUGFKOGPV WRVHDZDWHUDQG$73DVHDFWLYLW\DQGWKH CUUQEKCVGFDKQVC TGXKUKQP2DN5LGJH HIIHFWVRIFRSSHURQPLJUDWRU\GLVSRVLWLRQRI 1DWLRQDO/DERUDWRU\2DN5LGJH7HQQHVVHH FRKRVDOPRQ 1PEQTJ[PEJWUMKUWVEJ ,(KUJ 5HSW(6(570 53UHSDUHGIRU86 4GU$QCTF%CP ² 'HSDUWPHQWRI(QHUJ\2IILFHRI (QYLURQPHQWDO5HVWRUDWLRQDQG:DVWH 0LOOHU3$.50XQNLWWULFNDQG'*'L[RQ 0DQDJHPHQW 5HODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRI FRSSHUDQG]LQFLQZDWHUVHGLPHQWEHQWKLF -HQQHWW-&%*:L[VRQ,+/RZVOH\ LQYHUWHEUDWHVDQGWLVVXHVRIZKLWHVXFNHU .3XUXVKRWKDPDQ(%ROWHU''+HPSKLOO %CVQUVQOWUEQOOGTUQPK DWPHWDO 1/*DOHDQG:+7UDQWHU 7UDQVSRUW FRQWDPLQDWHGVLWHV%CP,(KUJ#SWCV5EK DQGGLVWULEXWLRQIURPPLQLQJPLOOLQJDQG ² VPHOWLQJRSHUDWLRQVLQDIRUHVWHFRV\VWHP &KDSRI :5%RJJHVVHG.GCFKPVJG 0XQNLWWULFN.53$0LOOHU'5%DUWRQDQG GPXKTQPOGPV1DWLRQDO6FLHQFH)RXQGDWLRQ '*'L[RQ $OWHUHGSHUIRUPDQFHRI 5$113URJUDP:DVKLQJWRQ5HSW16)5$ ZKLWHVXFNHUSRSXODWLRQLQWKH0DQLWRXZDGJH FKDLQRIODNHVLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKFKDQJHVLQ EHQWKLFPDFURLQYHUWHEUDWHFRPPXQLWLHVDVD -RKQVRQ065'5REHUWV0+XWWRQDQG UHVXOWRIFRSSHUDQG]LQFFRQWDPLQDWLRQ 0-,QVNLS 'LVWULEXWLRQRIOHDG]LQF 'EQVQZKEQN'PXKTQP5CHGV[ ² DQGFDGPLXPLQVPDOOPDPPDOVIURPSROOXWHG HQYLURQPHQWV1KMQU ² 3DWULFN)0DQG0/RXWLW 3DVVDJHRI PHWDOVLQHIIOXHQWVWKURXJKEDFWHULDWRKLJKHU .DEDWD3HQGLDV$DQG+3HQGLDV 6TCEG RUJDQLVPV9CVGT4GU ² GNGOGPVUKPRNCPVUCPFUQKNUGHG&5& 3UHVV%RFD5DWRQ)ORULGD 3XOV5 /KPGTCNNGXGNUKPCPKOCNJGCNVJ &KCIPQUVKEFCVC6KHUSD,QWHUQDWLRQDO&OHDU .KDQJDURW%6DQG3'5D\ 6HQVLWLYLW\RI EURRN%&&DQDGD PLGJHODUYDHRI%JKTQPQOWUVGPVCPU)DEULFLXV 'LSWHUD&KLURQRPLGDH WRKHDY\PHWDOV$WNN 5REHUWV5'DQG06-RKQVRQ 'LVSHUVDO 'PXKTQP%QPVCO6QZKEQN ² RIKHDY\PHWDOVIURPDEDQGRQHGPLQH ZRUNLQJVDQGWKHLUWUDQVIHUHQFHWKURXJK .QR['&%&RZH\DQG-:$GURQ WHUUHVWULDOIRRGFKDLQV'PXKTQP2QNNWV (IIHFWVRIGLHWDU\FRSSHUDQGFRSSHU ]LQFUDWLR ² RQUDLQERZWURXW 5CNOQICKTFPGTK 6FKPLWW&-DQG:*%UXPEDXJK 1DWLRQDO #SWCEWNVWTG ² &RQWDPLQDQW%LRPRQLWRULQJ3URJUDP &RQFHQWUDWLRQVRIDUVHQLFFDGPLXPFRSSHU /RQJ(5DQG/0RUJDQ 7KHSRWHQWLDOIRU OHDGPHUFXU\VHOHQLXPDQG]LQFLQ ELRORJLFDOHIIHFWVRIVHGLPHQWVRUEHGFRQ WDPLQDQWVWHVWHGLQWKH1DWLRQDO6WDWXVDQG 86IUHVKZDWHUILVK ² #TEJ 7UHQGV3URJUDP861DWLRQDO2FHDQLFDQG 'PXKTQP%QPVCO6QZKEQN ² $WPRVSKHULF$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ6HDWWOH :DVKLQJWRQ12$$7HFK0HPR126 6SHDU3$ 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV 6XWHU*:,,DQG-%0DEUH\ 7D\ORU0&$.HPD\RDQG.:7D\ORU 6QZKEQNQIKECNDGPEJOCTMUHQTUETGGPKPI (IIHFWVRI]LQFRQKXPDQVODERUDWRU\DQGIDUP RQVGPVKCNEQPVCOKPCPVUQHEQPEGTPHQTGHHGEVU DQLPDOVWHUUHVWULDOSODQWVDQGIUHVKZDWHU QPCSWCVKEDKQVC TGXKUKQP2DN5LGJH DTXDWLFOLIH%TKV4GX'PXKTQP%QPVTQN 1DWLRQDO/DERUDWRU\2DN5LGJH7HQQHVVHH ² (6(570² 53UHSDUHGIRU86 'HSDUWPHQWRI(QHUJ\2IILFHRI 7KRPSVRQ.:$&+HQGULFNVDQG-&DLUQV-U (QYLURQPHQWDO5HVWRUDWLRQDQG:DVWH $FXWHWR[LFLW\RI]LQFDQGFRSSHUVLQJO\ 0DQDJHPHQW DQGLQFRPELQDWLRQWRWKHEOXHJLOO .GRQOKU OCETQEJKTWU $WNN'PXKTQP%QPVCO 7DOPDJH66DQG%7:DOWRQ 6PDOO 6QZKEQN ² PDPPDOVDVPRQLWRUVRIHQYLURQPHQWDO FRQWDPLQDQWV4GX'PXKTQP%QPVCO :HNHOO-&.'6KHDUHUDQG&5+RXOH 6QZKEQN ² +LJK]LQFVXSSOHPHQWDWLRQRIUDLQERZWURXW GLHWV2TQI(KUJ%WNV ² $33(1',;, 2IILFHV5HVSRQVLEOHIRU:DWHU4XDOLW\ 6WDQGDUGVLQ:HVWHUQ6WDWHV State Clean Water Act&Standards Safe Drinking Water Act&Standards Arizona Mark Charles, Manager Bob Munari, Manager Water Quality Compliance Section Drinking Water Section Dept. Of Environmental Quality Dept. Of Environmental Quality 3033 North Central Avenue 3033 North Central Avenue Phoenix, AZ 85012%2809 Phoenix, AZ 85012%2809 (602) 207%4567 (602) 207%4617 California Gail Linck, Supervisor David Spats, Division Chief Division of Water Quality Division of Drinking Water & State Water Resource Control Board Environmental Management P.O. Box 994213 State Department of Health Services Sacramento, CA 94244%2130 601 North 7th Street (916) 657%2188 Sacramento, CA 95814 http://www.swrcb.ca.gov (916) 322%2308 Colorado Dennis Anderson, Env. Engineer Jerry Biberstine Water Quality Control Division State Drinking Water Program Department of Public Health & Department of Public Health & Environment Environment 4300 Cherry Creek Drive South 4300 Cherry Creek Drive South Denver, CO 80222%1530 Denver, CO 80222%1530 (303) 692%3571 (303) 692%3546 [email protected] [email protected] Idaho Mark Shumar Lance Nielsen Water Quality Program Drinking Water and Wastewater Program Division of Environmental Quality Division of Environmental Quality 1410 North Hilton 1410 North Hilton Boise, ID 83706 Boise, ID 83706 (208) 373%0120 (208) 373%0409 Kansas Theresa Hodges David Waldo Office of Science and Support Bureau of Water Kansas Department of Health Kansas Department of Health & Environment & Environment Forbes Field, Building 283 Forbes Field, Building 283 Topeka, KS 66620 Topeka, KS 66620 (916) 296%5572 (916) 296%5503 $33, 1DWLRQDO,UULJDWLRQ:DWHU4XDOLW\3URJUDP*XLGHOLQHV State Clean Water Act&Standards Safe Drinking Water Act&Standards Montana Abe Horpestad John Camden Resource Protection & Planning Division Public Water Supply Specialist Department of Environmental Quality Permitting and Compliance Division Metcalf Building Department of Environmental Quality P.O. Box 200901 Metcalf Building Helena, MT 59620 P.O. Box 200901 (406) 444%2459 Helena, MT 59620 (406) 444%4019 Nebraska John Bender Jack Daniel Surface Water Division Department of Registration and Department of Environmental Quality Licensure 1200 North Street, Suite 400 Nebraska Health and Human Services P.O. Box 98922 P.O. Box 95007 Lincoln, NE 68509%8922 Lincoln, NE 68509 (402) 471%4201 (402) 471%2541 Nevada Adele Basham Dr. Jonathon C. Palm Bureau of Water Quality Planning Bureau of Health Protection Services Division of Environmental Protection Nevada State Health Division 333 West Nye 505 East King Street, Room 103 Carson City, NV 89706%0851 Carson City, NV 89710 (702) 687%4670 ext. 3102 (702) 687%6615 ext. 229 New Ed Kelley Robert Gallegos Mexico Surface Water Quality Bureau Drinking Water & Community New Mexico Environment Department Services Bureau P. O. Box 26110 New Mexico Environment Department Santa Fe, NM 87502 P. O. 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Box 144870 150 North 1950 West Salt Lake City, UT 84114%4870 P.O. Box 144830 (801) 538%6329 Salt Lake City, UT 84114%4830 (801) 536%4207 Washington Mark Hicks, Standards Coordinator Jim Hudson Water Quality Standards Department Division of Drinking Water Department of Ecology Department of Health P.O. Box 47600 P.O. Box 47822 Olympia, WA 98504%7600 Olympia, WA 98504%7822 (360) 407%6477 (360) 753%9674 Wyoming1 US EPA Region VIII US EPA Region VIII Water Program Water Program 999 18th Street, Suite 500 999 18th Street, Suite 500 Denver, CO 80202%2466 Denver, CO 80202%2466 (303) 312%6260 (303) 312%6120 1 The State of Wyoming does not administer the Clean Water Act or the Safe Drinking Water Act. The Environmental Protection Agency Region VIII in Denver, Colorado, has jurisdiction. $33, Appendix II Glossary of Abbreviations and Technical Terms A aerobic: Living or existing in the presence of oxygen. abiotic: Not involving living organisms or life processes. albumen: The white of an egg. absorption: Taking in of fluids or other alevin: A young fish which has not yet absorbed substances by cells or tissues (cf. adsorption). its yolk sac. acclimation: Physiological and behavioral algicide: A chemical that kills algae. adjustments of an organism to changes in its environment (especially changes that occur amalgam: An alloy of mercury. within single individuals and single generations; cf. adaptation). ambient: Surrounding natural conditions (or environment) in a given place and time. action levels: Limits established by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to amphipod: A small crustacean of the order control levels of contaminants in human food Amphipoda, such as a beach flea. Amphipods and animal feed. The FDA will take legal action lack eye stalks, have little or no shell, and have to remove products from the market if they laterally compressed bodies. exceed these limits. anadromous: Fish that migrate from salt water acute exposure: A single exposure to a toxic to freshwater to breed. substance which results in severe biological harm. Acute exposures are usually characterized anaerobic: Living or existing in the absence of as lasting no longer than a day. oxygen. adaptation: Changes in an organism's structure anatid: Any member of the Anatidae, an order or habits that help it adjust to its surroundings of waterfowl that includes ducks, geese, (especially changes that occur through natural mergansers, and swans. selection over multiple generations; cf. acclimation). Anseriformes: An order of waterfowl comprising the ducks, geese, swans, mergansers, adipose: Fatty; of or relating to fat. and screamers. adsorption: The adherence of a gas, liquid, or antagonism: Interference or inhibition of the dissolved material on the surface of a solid. effect of one chemical by the action of another Should not be confused with absorption. chemical. APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines aquo ion: An ion that incorporates water AWQC: Ambient water quality criteria molecules. Most metallic ions, if dissolved (established by U.S. Environmental Protection in water, form a complex with six water Agency). molecules, resulting in an aquo ion with the same charge as the free metallic ion. Pb 2+, for 2+ instance, is really [Pb(H2O)6] . B Arochlor: A clear, colorless to pale-yellow, B: Chemical symbol for boron. viscous organic liquid consisting of a mixture of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is widely basophilic granules: Bodies from a cell's used in electrical components, vacuum pumps, cytoplasm that take up basic dyes when stained gas-transmission turbines, heat- exchange fluids, in preparation for microscopic examination. The coatings, inks, insecticides, fillers, adhesives, dyes give them a blue, gray, or bluish-gray color paints, and duplicating papers. It is a common under the microscopic. environmental contaminant. BCF: Bioconcentration factor, the concen- arsenical: (1) Containing or relating to arsenic. tration of a chemical in biota (e.g., earthworm) (2) An arsenic compound. divided by the concentration of the chemical in media (e.g., soil). arthropod: Any member of the phylum Arthropoda, which includes insects, crustaceans, benthic organism: Plant or animal that lives on arachnids, millipedes, and centipedes. or near the bottom of a stream, lake, or sea. articular gout: Swelling around the joints bioaccumulation: General term for the uptake caused by accumulation of urates (uric acid and storage of chemical constituents by plants salts). and animals. As: Chemical symbol for arsenic. bioassay: Determination of the potency of a chemical by comparing its effect on an organism athalassohaline: Refers to a nonmarine saline to the effect of a standard preparation on the environment. Nonmarine salinity is far more same type of organism variable than the salinity in seawater, but it (cf. toxicity test). generally includes much less sodium chloride and higher proportions of other salts, such as bioavailability: The extent to which a substance calcium and magnesium sulfides. is capable of entering into biological metabolism. avian: In, of, or related to birds. bioconcentration: The accumulation of a chemical in tissues of an organism (such as fish) AVS: Acid-volatile sulfide. Sulfide ions in to levels that are greater than the level in the sediment that are extractable by cold organism's food or in its environment. hydrochloric acid. These form insoluble and, hence, nontoxic compounds with metals. biomagnification: The cumulative result of Therefore, metal toxicity is reduced, ion for ion, bioconcentration as a chemical passes up the by the amount of AVS in the sediment. food chain, becoming progressively more concentrated at each trophic level. APP II-2 Appendix II biomonitor: An organism sensitive to changes chelation: Process by which a metallic ion in water quality, which is kept under observation bonds to a complex molecule at two different in order to detect such changes promptly. points, which creates a ring structure and greatly reduces the chemical reactivity of the metallic biota: Plant and animal life. ion but greatly increases its solubility. biotransformation: The chemical alteration of a chironomid: Members of the family compound caused by enzymatic activity within Chironomidae (the true midges), two-winged an organism. flying insects which live their larval stage underwater. bivalent: Capable of forming single bonds with two other atoms or a double bond with one chlorohydrocarbons: A class of persistent, other atom. broad-spectrum insecticides that linger in the environment and accumulate in the food chain. bw: Body weight. Among them are DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, lindane, endrin, mirex, hexachloride, and toxaphene. C chlorosis: Yellowing of leaves and stems of C: Chemical symbol for carbon. green plants, caused by a loss of chlorophyll and other green pigments. Ca: Chemical symbol for calcium. chronic exposure: Long-term, low-level cachexia: Severe weight loss and general exposure to a toxic chemical. wasting of the body. Cl: Chemical symbol for chlorine. calcium carbonate (CaCO3) equivalent: An expression of the concentration of specified Cladocera: An order of small, freshwater constituents in water in terms of their equivalent branchiopod crustaceans having a transparent value to calcium carbonate. For example, water bivalve shell. Also called “water fleas.” hardness is usually described as calcium carbonate equivalent. conductance: The capacity of a medium to carry an electrical current. In water, carcinogen: Any substance that tends to conductance is directly related to the produce cancer in an organism. concentration of ionized substances and, hence, a conductance test serves as a rapid method of centrarchid: Any fish from the family estimating the water's dissolved solids content Centrarchidae, which includes the freshwater or (salinity). black basses and several sunfishes. contaminant: Any physical, chemical, cerebellum: A part of the brain lying below the biological, or radiological substance or matter cerebrum, consisting of three lobes and that has an adverse effect on air, water, soil, or concerned with muscular coordination and living things. maintenance of equilibrium. Charadriformes: An order of birds including the auks, gulls, snipes, and other shorebirds. APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines criterion (plural: criteria): An estimate of the DDE: A common metabolite of DDT. Chemical concentration of a chemical or the magnitude of name: dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethene or 2,2- a physical property that will preserve an bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1, organism or group of organisms from harm if not 1-dichloroethene, CAS No. 72–55–9. exceeded. Criteria are not standards but may serve as the basis for standards. Under the DDT: The first chlorinated hydrocarbon Clean Water Act, each State is required to set up insecticide banned in the United States since enforceable water quality standards that are at 1972 because of its persistence in the least as protective as the Environmental environment and its accumulation in the food Protection Agency's criteria. chain. Chemical name: dichlorodiphenyl- trichloroethane or 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1- crust (of Earth): Rocks and soil close to the trichloroethane. CAS No. 50–29–3. surface of the Earth. The crust is generally considered to extend 20–50 kilometers below defoliant: An herbicide that removes leaves the continents and 5–10 kilometers below the from trees and growing plants. ocean floor. demethylation: Loss or removal of the methyl crustal abundance: Estimated average group (CH3) from a methylated compound. abundance of an element in the crust of the Earth. demyelination: Destruction or loss of myelin—a soft, white fatty substance that forms Cu: Chemical symbol for copper. a sheath around certain nerve fibers. cyanobacteria: Blue-green algae. dermatosis: General term for a disease of the skin. cytoplasm: All of the fluids and microscopic bodies (organelles) that make up the contents of dicofol: Organochlorine pesticide that often has a living cell, except for the nucleus. a trace of DDT contamination. Commonly used on citrus fruits and cotton. Also known as cytoplasmic oxyphilia: A condition of living Kelthane®. Chemical name: cells in which the cytoplasm contains an unusual dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanol. excess of bodies that take up acidic dyes when stained in preparation for microscopic dicotyledon: Any plant of the class examination. Dicotyledonae (or Magnoliopsida), which includes most broad-leafed flowering plants and trees. D dry weight: Weight determined after water and d: Days. other volatile liquids have been driven off by heating or by prolonged exposure to dry air. daphnid: A water flea, particularly one of Daphnia or a related genus. A cladoceran. dw: Dry weight. DDD: A common metabolite of DDT. Chemical name: dichlorodiphenyl- dichloroethane or 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1, 1-dichloroethane. CAS No. 72–54–8. APP II-4 Appendix II DWEL: Drinking water equivalent level—a EPA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. lifetime exposure concentration estimated to be safe from all toxic effects other than cancer. Ephemeroptera: An order of the class Insecta Calculated based on the assumption that all that includes all mayflies. exposure to a contaminant is from drinking water. ERL: “Effects range-low” value of Long et al. (1995). Level at which 10 percent of test specimens show adverse effects. E ERM: “Effects range-median” value of Long et EC50: Median effective concentration; al. (1995). Level at which 50 percent of test estimated concentration at which 50 percent specimens show adverse effects. of exposed specimens exhibit a particular effect. Similarly, “EC” may be used with other estuarine: In, of, or relating to an estuary. percentages to indicate concentrations for which the affected population is equal to those estuary: A river mouth, particularly that portion percentages. subject to tidal action and fluctuating salinity. ecosystem: Complex system composed of a eutrophication: The increase in the nutrient community of animals and plants as well as the levels of a lake or other body of water; this chemical and physical environment. usually promotes greater growth of aquatic animal and plant life. ecotoxicity: The harmful effect a substance may inflict on any part of an ecosystem. evapotranspiration: The process by which water in the soil is drawn up through the roots of ED50: Median effective dose; the dose plants and then is transpired through the plants' estimated to produce a particular effect in 50 leaves into the atmosphere. percent of the test specimens. Similarly, “ED” may be used with other percentages to indicate doses for which the affected population is equal F to those percentages. Falconiformes: An order of birds which effluent: An outflow, especially the partially or includes all raptors except owls. completely treated wastewater flowing out of a treatment facility, reservoir, or basin. fauna: Animal life. embryopathic: Having to do with fecundity: Fertility; the capacity for producing malformations that are congenital but not offspring in abundance. necessarily hereditary. fingerling: (1) A young or small fish no larger emergent plants: Plants that are rooted than a human finger. (2) A life stage of fish from underwater but rise above the water surface 2 weeks after absorption of the yolk sac up to 1 (e.g., cattails). year of age. endrin: A pesticide toxic to freshwater and fledging: Growing feathers. marine aquatic life that produces adverse health effects in domestic water supplies. APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines floating-leaf plants: Plants that are rooted in half-life: The length of time required for the the sediment on the bottom of a water body but mass, concentration, or activity of a chemical or have leaves that float on the surface (e.g., water physical agent to be reduced by one-half. lilies). hardness, water: The concentration in water of flora: Plant life. various mineral salts, primarily carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates of fresh weight: Wet weight, as determined in the calcium and magnesium. Usually expressed as field or shortly after sample collection. calcium carbonate equivalent. Hardness reduces the toxicity of copper, zinc, and some other fry: Life stage of fish between the egg and contaminants. fingerling stages. Depending on the species of fish, fry can measure from a few millimeters to a hectare: A measure of area in the metric system few centimeters. similar to an acre. One hectare is equal to 10,000 square meters or 2.4711 acres. fungicide: Pesticides used to control, deter, or destroy fungi. hepatic: In, of, or related to the liver. fw: Fresh weight. hepatocellular hypertrophy: Swelling of the cells of the liver. fww: Fresh wet weight. herbicide: A chemical pesticide designed to control or destroy plants, weeds, or grasses. G Hg: Chemical symbol for mercury. g: Grams. histopathological: Pertaining to or caused by gastroschisis: An opening or fissure in the diseases of bodily tissues. ventral wall of the abdomen. homeostatic: Regulated internally as part of an germinal tissue: Specialized reproductive animal's metabolism. tissue, such as egg or sperm cells. hydrosoil: Nutrient-rich pore water within the bottom sediment of a water body. H H: Chemical symbol for hydrogen. I h: Hours. IC50: Inhibitory concentration estimated to reduce the normal response of an organism by HA: A Drinking Water Health Advisory issued 50 percent. Only quantifiable responses, such as by the Environmental Protection Agency: a non- growth rates, are expressed as IC values. Other regulatory health-based reference level of percentage values may be used with “IC” to chemical traces in drinking water at which there indicate greater or lesser amounts of inhibition. are no adverse health risks when ingested over various periods of time. (See separate definitions for 1-day, 10-day, long-term, and lifetime HAs.) HAs incorporate a large margin of safety. APP II-6 Appendix II immunotoxicity: Harmful effect of a substance L to the immune system. Immunotoxins cause increased susceptibility to diseases. L: Liter, 1,000 cubic centimeters. (1 L of fresh water normally weighs almost exactly 1 kilo- infauna: Aquatic animals that live within rather gram, which makes it possible to relate weight- than on the bottom sediment. per-volume measurements, such as micrograms per liter,to weight-per-weight measurements, inorganic: Chemical substances of mineral such as micrograms per kilogram or parts per origin, not of basically carbon structure. billion.) insecticide: A compound specifically used to larid: Any bird of the family Laridae, which kill or prevent the growth of insects. includes gulls and terns, and is sometimes considered to include jaegers. insectivore: An animal that subsists primarily on a diet of insects. LC50: Median lethal concentration; estimated concentration at which 50 percent of exposed instar: Life stage of an insect or other arthropod specimens would die. Similarly, “LC” may be between one molt and the next. used with other percentages to indicate concentrations that produce mortality rates equal invertebrates: All animals that lack a vertebral to those percentages. column (e.g. insects, crustaceans, mollusks, worms). LD50: Median lethal dose; estimated dose sufficient to cause death to 50 percent of ion: An atom or molecule that has acquired a exposed specimens. Similarly, “LD” may be net electrical charge through gaining or losing used with other percentages to indicate doses electrons. that produce mortality rates equal to those percentages. isocaloric: Providing the same number of calories. leachate: The ground-water solution that results from leaching. isomers: Chemical compounds that have identical atomic compositions but differ in leaching: The dissolution and removal of structure. soluble constituents from soil by water percolating through the soil. K legume: Any plant of the family Legumi-nosae, which includes peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, and keratin: A tough, fibrous protein material, other plants having seeds in bilaterally somewhat softer than bone, that makes up many symmetrical pods. semi-hard body parts, such as horns, nails, and feathers. lesion: Any alteration of tissue caused by injury or disease. keratinization: Growth of keratin on skin or other soft tissues. level of concern: Concentration of a toxic substance above which adverse effects may kg: Kilograms. result from even brief exposure. APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines lifetime exposure: Total amount of exposure to MCL: Maximum contaminant level—the a substance that a human would receive in a maximum permissible level of a contaminant in lifetime (usually assumed to be 70 years). water delivered to any user of a public water system. MCLs are enforceable standards. lifetime HA: The concentration of a chemical in drinking water that is not expected to cause any MCLG: Maximum contaminant level goal—the adverse noncarcinogenic effects over a lifetime maximum level of a contaminant in drinking of exposure, with a margin of safety. water at which no adverse health effects would be anticipated. MCLGs are nonenforceable lipids: Fats, fatty acids, waxes, and similar long- health goals. chain organic compounds (e.g., alcohols, amines, aldehydes), which make up a large MD25: Dose or concentration that results in an proportion of every living cell. adverse effect other than death to 25 percent of the test population. Similarly, MD may be used lipophilic: Having an affinity for fats or other with other percentages to indicate doses that lipids. Also, promoting the dissolution of lipids. produce adverse effects in larger or smaller population segments. LOAEL Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level; the lowest dose in an experiment which MeHg: Methylmercury. produced an observable adverse effect. meninges: Membranes that cover the brain and long-term HA: The concentration of a chemical spinal cord. in drinking water that is not expected to cause any adverse noncarcino-genic effects up to metacarpals: Five major bones in the upper approximately 7 years part of the forefoot or the hand. (In humans, (10 percent of an individual's lifetime) of the metacarpals diverge outward from the “heel” exposure, with a margin of safety. of the hand toward each of the digits.) lordosis: Exaggerated forward curvature of the mercurial: (1) Containing or related to mercury. spine. (2) A mercury compound. mercuriferous: Containing mercury. M mesic: Having moderate amounts of moisture; m: Meters. intermediate between humid and arid. macroalgae: Free-floating water plants that are metabolism: The sum of the chemical reactions large enough to be seen with the naked eye. occurring within a cell or a whole organism; includes the energy-releasing breakdown of macroinvertebrate: An invertebrate large molecules (catabolism) and the synthesis of new enough to be seen with the naked eye. molecules (anabolism). macrophyte: A plant large enough to be seen metabolite: Any product of metabolism, with the naked eye. especially a transformed chemical. MATC: Maximum allowable toxicant metalloid: A nonmetallic element that has some concentration. of the chemical properties of a metal. APP II-8 Appendix II metallothionein: A low-molecular-weight monocotyledon: Any plant of the class protein that binds and detoxifies divalent heavy Monocotyledonae (or Liliopsida), which includes metals, such as mercury, copper, and zinc. all of the grasses, lilies, orchids, and other Some plants and animals synthesize flowering plants with narrow, parallel-veined metallothionein when exposed to heavy metals. leaves. methylation: A chemical or biochemical monoclinic: Describes mineral crystals having reaction that adds a methyl group (CH 3) to an three axes of unequal length, two of which are element or molecule. perpendicular to the third but not perpendicular to each other. + methylmercury: An organic ion (CH 3Hg ) that represents the most toxic form of mercury monogastric: Having a single, undivided generally found in the environment. stomach (cf. ruminant). Methylmercury enters into metabolism more readily than any of the inorganic forms. mutagen: A chemical that induces genetic mutations. mg: Milligrams. mg/kg: Milligrams per kilogram, equivalent to N parts per million. NAWQ: National ambient water quality criteria, mg/L: Milligrams per liter, essentially equivalent issued by the Environmental Protection Agency. to parts per million in water. necrosis: Death of cells or tissue. May result in microinvertebrate: An invertebrate too small to spots or small discolored areas on leaves of a be seen by the naked eye. plant or on the skin of an animal. micromelia: A condition characterized by necrotic: Affected by necrosis. undersized and/or deformed extremities. neuron: A nerve or brain cell. micronutrients: Elements and compounds required by living organisms only in minute ng: Nanogram (one-billionth of a gram). amounts. NOAEL: No-observed-adverse-effect level—the mine tailings: Residue of low-grade material highest tested concentration at which no adverse and waste discarded during the processing of effect was observed. mineral ores. Mo: Chemical symbol for molybdenum. O molybdenosis: A disease of cattle and sheep O: Chemical symbol for oxygen. caused by an excess of molybdenum in forage plants, which leads to copper deficiency because octanol-water partition coefficient: The ratio of molybdenum's ability to sequester of a chemical's solubility in n-octanol (C8H17OH) copper. Common symptoms include loss of to its solubility in water. Symbol: Kow. The ratio pigmentation in the hair or wool, diarrhea, indicates the chemical's propensity for anemia, poor growth, anorexia, and deformed bioconcentration by aquatic organisms. offspring. APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines Odonata: An order of the class Insecta that P includes all dragonflies and damselflies. particulates: Very small solid particles oligochaete: Worms of the class Oligochaeta, suspended in water. They vary in size, shape, including the common earthworms. density, and electrical charge and can be gathered together by coagulation and omnivore: Animal that eats both vegetable and flocculation. animal substances. periphyton: Organisms that live attached to one-day HA: The concentration of a chemical underwater surfaces. in drinking water that is not expected to cause any adverse noncarcinogenic effects for up to 5 pH: A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity, consecutive days of exposure, with a margin of based on the inverse logarithm of the safety. concentration of hydrogen ions. On a scale from 0 to 14, 7 is considered exactly neutral, organic: In general, produced by or having to lower values are increasingly acidic, and higher do with living organisms. In chemistry, refers values are increasingly alkaline or basic. specifically to carbon and its many compounds. phytoplankton: The portion of the plankton organochlorine: Refers to any organic community that consists of tiny plants, such as compound containing one or more chlorine green algae and diatoms. atoms. piscivore: An animal that subsists primarily on organomercurial: An organic compound fish. containing mercury. planarian: A type of flatworm common in organophosphate: An organic compound aquatic environments. containing phosphorus and oxygen in combination. Organophosphate pesticides are plankton: Free-floating plants and animals that short-lived, but some can be toxic when first live near the surface of a body of water applied. Plecoptera: An order of insects commonly orthorhombic: Describes mineral crystals known as stoneflies. having three mutually perpendicular axes of symmetry, all of different lengths. pM: Picomoles, one-trillionth of a mole. One pM . 6.02×1011 molecules. ovalbumin: The white of an egg. porphyry deposit: A low-grade mineral deposit ovoglobulin: Non-water-soluble simple proteins in which the commodity of interest is found in the yolk of an egg. concentrated in isolated crystals dispersed within a fine-grained rock. oxidation state: The effective ionic charge of an atom or compound which determines, among prepupation: The stage in an insect's life cycle other things, which other atoms it may combine prior to formation of a pupa (such as a cocoon with and in what proportions. or chrysalis). Basically, the larval stage. APP II-10 Appendix II Procellariformes: An order of sea birds salmonid: Any fish belonging to the family including the albatrosses, petrels, and Salmonidae, which includes trout, salmon, shearwaters. whitefish, and grayling. ppt: Parts per thousand. salt gland: A compound tubular gland which secretes a watery, highly saline fluid. Located near the eyes and nasal passages of certain birds, R snakes, and marine turtles. rallid: Any member of the Rallidae, a family of Se: Chemical symbol for selenium. birds that includes the rails and coots. secondary maximum contaminant level: raptor: A bird of prey. Nonenforceable Environmental Protection Ageny-recommended maximum concentra-tion recurvirostrid: Any member of the of a drinking water contaminant, based on Recurvirostridae, a family of birds that includes considerations of odor, taste, and appearance, the stilts and avocets. rather than any finding of toxicity RfD: Reference dose—an estimate of a daily seed dressing: Any of various types of chemical exposure to the human population that is likely coatings applied to seeds. to be without appreciable risk of deleterious Fungicides and insecticides are most common. effects over a lifetime. seleniferous: Containing selenium. riparian: Of, on, or pertaining to the bank of a river, pond, or lake. selenosis: Selenium poisoning. riverine: Riparian; pertaining to a riverbank. sink: Any component in the natural cycle of an element or compound which takes that element rumen: The first chamber in the stomach of a or compound out of circulation. ruminant. slimicide: A chemical that prevents the growth ruminant A mammal of the suborder of slime in paper stock. Ruminantia, having a stomach subdivided into multiple (usually four) compartments, which smolt: A young salmon at the stage at which it chews a cud consisting of regurgitated, partially migrates from freshwater to the sea. digested food. Ruminants are invariably hoofed, even-toed grazing animals, and most grow solubilization: A process that makes a horns. Examples include cattle, sheep, goats, substance soluble or increases its solubility. deer, camels, and giraffes. sorption: A general term referring to either absorption, adsorption, or a combination of the two. S standard: Legally enforceable limit on a salinity: A measure of the concentration of constituent or condition (e.g., pH, cloudiness) in dissolved mineral substances in water. water or some other medium APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines Storage ratio: See BCF. teratogenesis: The induction of congenital malformations (birth defects) in a developing Strigiformes: An order of birds consisting of the fetus by a toxin acting inside the egg or the owls. womb; interference with normal embryonic development. sublethal: Having an effect less severe than death. threshold: The lowest dose of a chemical at which a specified measurable effect is observed Superfund: Program administered by the and below which it is not observed. Environmental Protection Agency that identifies high-priority pollution sites and oversees cleanup thymus: A gland in the neck or chest of all at such sites. vertebrates, most prominent in the early stages of life, which plays a role in regulating the supply supraorbital: Situated or occurring above the of white blood cells. eye socket. tile drainage: Water drained from beneath a swim-up fry: The stage at which young fish are field by a system of pipes. (Originally, nearly all able to swim up from the gravel bed in which the pipes were tile, though now various materials they hatched. are used.) synergism: An interaction of two or more tillering: Production of new shoots (especially chemicals which results in an effect that is in grasses). greater than the sum of their effects taken independently. total DDT: DDT plus all metabolites. toxicity test: A measure of the degree of T response of an organism exposed to a particular concentration of a chemical or a particular level TDS: Total dissolved solids—total amount of of some other environmental variable. dissolved material contained in water. Depending on analytical method, this may toxicosis: A pathological condition caused by a include only inorganic material or both organic toxin. and inorganic material. Trichoptera: An aquatic order of insects Technical grade DDT: A mixture of DDT commonly known as caddis flies. isomers, especially p,p'-DDT and o,p'-DDT; it is a cream-colored to gray powder with a faint trigonal: Describes mineral crystals having fruitlike odor. threefold symmetry. Ten-day HA: The concentration of a chemical trophic position: The position of a plant or in drinking water that is not expected to cause animal in the food chain. any adverse noncarcinogenic effects up to 14 consecutive days of exposure, with a margin of turbidity: The cloudy appearance of water safety. caused by suspended and colloidal matter. Technically, an optical property of the water teratogen: A chemical that causes congenital based on the amount of scattering of polarized malformations. light by suspended particles. APP II-12 Appendix II U equivalent to parts per billion in water. ungulate: Generally, any hoofed mammal. µS: Microsiemens, a measure of conductivity (1 µS = 1 micromho). Conductivity is expressed as Unionidae: The freshwater mollusks; a family the inverse of electrical resistance; hence 1 µS of bivalve mollusks. corresponds to 1 million ohms. V References Consulted Bates, R.L. and J.A. Jackson. 1987. Glossary of valence: The capacity of an atom or molecule geology, 3d edition. American Geological to combine in specific proportions with other Institute, Alexandria, Virginia. atoms or molecules. Bennett, H., ed. 1986. Concise chemical and vector: An organism, often an insect or rodent, technical dictionary. Chemical Publishing that carries disease. Company, Inc., New York. visceral: Of or having to do with the abdominal EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1994. organs. Drinking water glossary: A dictionary of technical and legal terms related to drinking water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of volatile: Readily vaporizable at a relatively low Water, Washington. Rept. EPA 810–B–94–006. temperature. [Available on-line at http:// www.epa.gov/watrhome/pubs/gloss2.html.] volatilization: The transformation of a substance into a volatile form. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1997. Terms of environment. U.S. Environmental Protection wet weight: Weight determined through Agency, Office of Communications, Education, techniques that preserve and measure all the and Public Affairs, Washington. [Available on-line moisture in the original sample. at http://www. epa.gov/ OCEPAterms/.] Gove, P.B., ed. 1976. Webster's third new ww: Wet weight. international dictionary of the English language, unabridged. G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Massachusetts. Z Lapedes, D.N., ed. 1976. McGraw-Hill dictionary of the life sciences. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New Zn: Chemical symbol for zinc. York. zooplankton: The portion of the plankton Long, E.R., D.D. MacDonald, S.L. Smith, and F.D. community that consists of tiny animals. Calder. 1995. Incidence of adverse biological effects within ranges of chemical concentrations in marine and estuarine sediments. Environ. Greek Letter µ Manage. 19:81–97. Nevada Division of Water Planning. 1997. Water words dictionary: A compilation of technical µg: Microgram. water, water quality, environmental, and water-related terms. Carson City, Nevada. µg/L: Micrograms per liter, essentially [Available on-line at http://www.state.nv.us/ APP II - 13 National Irrigation Water Quality Program Guidelines cnr/ndwp/dict-1/waterwds.htm.] Rand, G.M. and S.R. Petrocelli, eds. 1985. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology: Methods Parker, S.P., ed., McGraw-Hill dictionary of scientific and applications. Hemisphere Publishing, and technical terms, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill Washington. Book Co., New York. APP II-14