Post-Byzantine Art and Western Influences in Military Iconography 173

Chapter 7 Post-Byzantine Art and Western Influences in Military Iconography: The Case of Staff Weapons in the Work of Michael Damaskenos

Iason-Eleftherios Tzouriadis

This essay explores Western influences in the representation of late medieval and early modern arms and armour in Byzantine art. It focuses in particular upon the works of the sixteenth-century Cretan painter, Michael Damaskenos, and especially the staff weapons depicted in his paintings. The problem of identifying and studying late and post-Byzantine military equipment is a great and interesting subject, which, however, will not be discussed here.1 The paintings that will be examined include famous works of the artist, as well as only recently identified and published works of art such as the four paintings of the Life of Saint Nicholas in Corfu.2 The artist belonged to the great tradition of the Cretan School of painters, which emerged in Venetian-controlled Crete between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The unique features of the Cretan School include: the high contrast between a base of darker colour and bright highlights; use of hard lines to highlight faces and garments; subtle or striking western influences which are harmoniously blended together. Western themes and concepts in the depiction of military equipment can be observed in the work of many representative artists of the School such as Theofanes the Cretan, George Klotzas, Emmanuel Tzanes, Nicholas Tzafoures and John Moskos.3 With the exception of battle depictions, which are unusual in post-

1 An extensive research on the problems encountered in this field, as well as a suggested meth- odology to approach and fill in on gaps in material culture from the discussed period can be found in Andrea Babuin’s doctoral thesis on late Byzantine weapons. Babuin, Tα επιθετικά όπλα των Bυζαντινών κατά την ύστερη περίοδο (1204-1453), 2 vols., Ioannina 2009. 2 Michael Damaskenos, The Life of Saint Nicholas, Corfu, Temple of Saint Nicholas of Geronton. 3 Chatzedakes’ and Drakopoulou’s monumental work on Greek painters after the fall of Constantinople included brief profiles for all the mentioned Cretan representatives. The three volumes include information on their lives and artistic style, as well as examples of their work. This work provides valuable information, and is an excellent resource for an initial comparison of the artistic production of painters and the themes they used in the examined period. Chatzedakes/Drakopoulou, ‘Ελληνες ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450-1850), 3 vols., Athens 1987/1997/2010.

Byzantine art, but are popular in Western Europe during this period, the thematic group that is popular in both traditions and which includes in their depictions extensive examples of staff weapons and other arms and armour is that of religious iconography. Scenes such as the Nativity or the Crucifixion usually include soldiers who are often depicted with the discussed equipment. Therefore, staff weapons are present when the tactical army (Romans) or the city guards are depicted, which is entwined with the development of warfare in the sixteenth century. Before discussing the representation of weapons in Damaskenos’ works, it is useful to provide some brief biographical details of him, and explain why his work was significant. Damaskenos, as mentioned earlier, is considered a major representative of the Cretan School of post-Byzantine painting, second to fame only perhaps to El Greco.4 Damaskenos was born in Chandakas of the Venetian controlled Crete in the third decade of the sixteenth century and he was taught his art in the Sinaitic Saint Catherine monastery. In the third quar- ter of the sixteenth century he travelled and worked in Venice until 1583/84, where he and his workshop took the prestigious commission of painting the San Giorgio dei Greci.5 On his way to Venice and back to Crete he most likely spent a significant amount of time producing several icons there. He spent the last years of his life working in Crete. Damaskenos produced numerous works, including portable icons of various sizes. What is also unique about this great artist is that there is only fragmental information about him and hopefully more works will resurface to shed some light on his life. Most of his works are identified by inscriptions of the artist himself signing the painting, or by documents that were used as receipts for the services provided by the artist. The same documents are used to track the artist’s travels and the places he visited and where he produced specific paintings.6 Damaskenos had a unique style, combining the earlier Byzantine tradition and conservative forms and themes with the strong western mannerism. The aforementioned artistic elements of the Cretan School can be found wide- spread in his works used every time to a different extent. The forms of his

4 Domenikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco) needs to be excluded as a point of comparison because of his complete transition to a western style, which of course influenced his perception and depiction of material culture. 5 Drakopoulou, ‘Ελληνες ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450-1850), vol. 3, Athens 2010, pp. 232-33. 6 Receipts, contracts, and other documents are discussed by Drakopoulou, who attempts to reconstruct Damaskenos’ path from Crete to Italy and back again, through the places where he and his workshop produced certain works of art. The author also provides an extensive and detailed list of the identified works of Damaskenos and the relevant secondary sources. Drakopoulou, ‘Ελληνες ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450-1850), vol. 3, Athens 2010, pp. 233-241.