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Canada's Archival Tradition Saw Its Beginnings In COMING FULL CIRCLE?: ABORIGINAL ARCHIVES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA IN CANADIAN AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE by Rita-Sophia Mogyorosi A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of History (Archival Studies) Joint Master’s Program University of Manitoba/University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Copyright © 2008 by Rita-Sophia Mogyorosi ii Table of Contents Abstract...............................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................v Introduction..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: Holistic Memory: An Introduction to Aboriginal Archival Traditions in Canada..................................................................................................................................6 Chapter 2: Reactionary Remembrance: “Cultural Decolonization” and Aboriginal Archives in British Columbia............................................................................................34 Chapter 3: Coming Together: Aboriginal Archives Beyond British Columbia................72 Conclusion: Coming Full Circle? The Future of Aboriginal Archives in British Columbia..........................................................................................................................132 Appendix A: Introductory Correspondence for the Questionnaire – BC........................138 Appendix B: Introductory Correspondence for the Questionnaire – Canada..................139 Appendix C: Introductory Correspondence for the Questionnaire – International..........140 Appendix D: Questionnaire.............................................................................................141 Bibliography....................................................................................................................152 iii Abstract This thesis examines the past, present and future development and nature of Aboriginal archives and archiving in British Columbia, set in Canadian and international perspective. The thesis focuses on Aboriginal archives in BC because the higher number of First Nations there than elsewhere in Canada makes it one of the most prominent and important areas of Aboriginal archiving activity in the country. The thesis begins with an introduction to the holistic ways in which Aboriginal people in Canada traditionally recorded, preserved, and communicated knowledge and history over time, and thus the methods by which they “archived” up to the mid-twentieth century, in contrast to and compared with Euro-Canadian traditions of archiving. It then goes on to explore the various forces that directly and indirectly disrupted the processes by which Aboriginal culture and knowledge, and thus memory and identity, were transmitted from one generation to the next. As a result of these forces, and the inevitable intertwining of Aboriginal and Euro-Canadian cultures and worldviews, Aboriginal people increasingly found themselves having to access Euro-Canadian archives or establish their own along similar lines. In BC, where historically very few treaties were signed, the documentation created in the context of land claims and treaty negotiations in particular meant that such records were couched in occidental rather than Aboriginal people’s own cultural terms and thus demanded corresponding storage and use methods. Thus, the thesis suggests that such new approaches to Aboriginal archives and archiving were a “reactionary” or defensive response to legal, political, and social requirements and forces, rather than simply as a basis for communicating and recording a traditionally “holistic” sense of culture, memory, and identity. And, as will be seen, this reactionary response was not iv limited to BC, but would reveal itself concurrently in the rest of Canada, and in other colonised countries such as Australia and the United States. With the results of a questionnaire responded to in Australia, Canada, and the U.S., the thesis then presents comparative national and international approaches to, experiences with, and views on Aboriginal archives and archiving. With these explorations in hand, the thesis concludes with the suggestion that Aboriginal archiving is now coming full circle, returning to its holistic roots, having been positively influenced by the power inherent in the reactionary approach, but also newly challenged with varying issues. At the same time, Aboriginal archiving has challenged and contributed to a redefinition of traditional, Euro-Canadian notions of archiving, and thus pushed the boundaries of archiving as we know it. v Acknowledgements A number of extraordinary people inspired and were central to the development and completion of this thesis, and to each I express my deepest appreciation. To Tia (Patricia) Halstad of the Stó:lō Archives, for providing encouragement, knowledge and inspiration as the topic took shape. To colleagues who offered their wisdom and expertise, both professional and personal: Terry Eastwood, Christine Elsey, and Laura Millar for sharing their research; Amanda King for sharing her survey; the questionnaire respondents in Australia, Canada, and the United States for taking the time to share their thoughts and experiences; the staff of the Universities of Manitoba and Winnipeg for their tireless assistance, especially Carol Adam, Graduate Secretary extraordinaire of the University of Manitoba Department of History; the seven fabulous women with whom I began the Archival Studies program at the University of Manitoba/University of Winnipeg, and who provided camaraderie from the start; and Professors Terry Cook and Tom Nesmith for their unfailing patience, encouragement, and belief in my abilities. As my thesis advisor, Dr. Nesmith saw me through this journey with his distinctly positive and unflappable enthusiasm. And, finally, to my dear family and friends, near and far, new and old, who have maintained an unwavering faith in me throughout my life and have given selflessly of their time, their hearts, their patience, and their words of support. My heartfelt thanks. 1 Introduction This thesis examines the past, present and future development and nature of Aboriginal archives and archiving in British Columbia, set in Canadian and international perspective.1 The thesis focuses on Aboriginal archives in BC because the higher number of First Nations there than elsewhere in Canada makes it one of the most prominent and important areas of Aboriginal archiving activity in the country. The study of Aboriginal archives in BC, and in fact the world, is an intriguing and challenging one. The difficulty begins with definitions – indeed, what does “archives” mean from an Aboriginal perspective? As the first chapter will reveal, the understanding of “archives” for Aboriginal people in Canada up to the mid-twentieth century differed significantly from the Euro-Canadian understanding. Aboriginal methods and traditions of recording, maintaining and transmitting culture, memory, and identity, were traditionally holistic in nature. Archives did not reside in a building but lived, on a daily basis, among, interconnected with, and interpreted by the community, its people, the land, and an overarching spirit. Time was commonly understood in a circular fashion, and was not compartmentalised into the past, present, and the future, as with the Euro-Canadian tradition. Aboriginal archives did not reveal themselves in material documents, but had a 1 For the purposes of this thesis, the terms “Aboriginal(s)” or “Aboriginal people(s)” will be used when referring to any of “the original peoples of North America and their descendants” – and specifically those in Canada – as defined by the Communications Branch of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada [INAC] in Words First: An Evolving Terminology Relating to Aboriginal Peoples in Canada (Ottawa: INAC, Communications Branch, September 2004), http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/pub/wf/index_e.html (accessed 24 February 2008). In instances where sources refer to Canada’s Aboriginal people(s) using alternate terminology (i.e., “First Nations,” “Natives,” “Inuit,” “Metis,” etc.), the alternate terminology will be maintained when direct quotes are used. The term “Euro-Canadian people(s)” will be used to refer to those Canadians who are not the original peoples of North America and their descendants. Similarly, in instances where sources refer to Canada’s Euro-Canadian people(s) using alternate terminology (i.e., “Europeans,” “westerners,” “white,” etc.), the alternate terminology will be maintained when direct quotes are used. 2 strong basis in the oral tradition, with various tangible and intangible manifestations to provide provenance, reliability and authenticity. It was these differing approaches and materials, however, which led to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the Aboriginal “record,” and the belief that such archives were somehow inferior to Euro-Canadian archival traditions and certainly poor evidence of history. Nonetheless, despite the differences in methods and materials, it can be said that Aboriginal and Euro-Canadian archiving were actually analogous in approach as both had an underlying desire to remember and recall history, culture, knowledge, and identity, using set processes
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