NO MORE TEARS FOREVER: THE DYNAMICS OF CONVERSION TO EVANGELICAL CHRISTIANITY BY BOLIVIAN AYMARA (1941-2002) By IAN GRANVILLE A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2005 Copyright 2005 by Ian Granville ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When Samuel Hopkins finished writing his Life and Character of the Late it Reverend Jonathon Edwards in 1 761 , he remarked that "Imperfect as is, it has cost me much time and labor; much more than I thought when I undertook it." I could echo him. Yet had my project been of shorter duration, I would have missed the personal enrichment of associating with a number of fine people who worked with me in bringing it to completion. It is with pleasure that I acknowledge them here. My thanks go first of all to Doris Wan-en, Samuel Joshua Smith, Fran MacNeill, and Marion Heaslip for responding to my e-mailed questionnaires with autobiographical material and accounts of their work in Bolivia. Samuel, Fran, and Marion answered me with long and detailed hand-written letters. Dons went the second mile and sent me more than 100 pages of clippings and articles and wrote many lengthy e-mails in response to my questions concerning the work of the Seminary Mission during its existence from 1941 to 1975. 1 am profoundly grateful to the four of them. Marcelino Huanca, president of the Seminario Biblico denomination for the years 2001-2002, became a close friend in the course of many (often arduous) trips to rural churches. He took an active interest in this project and granted me time during the 1 denomination's quarterly pastors meetings, so that people who were interested in my project could fill out questionnaires. My proficient and longsuffering language teachers (Maria Eugenia Urefia de Flores, Susana Zurita de Quiroga, Jaime Mejia, Wilma Rocha, Kitty Schmidt, Teresita iii Leserna, Guadalupe Griancom, and Gabriela Fernandez, the last six of whom are Catholics) brought me into a working knowledge of their beloved native language and helped me, in the course of our language lessons, to understand something of the cultures of highland Bolivia and the often painful events in the turbulent history of their country. David Walker, a minister from England who lived in Oruro for much of 2003, provided some data on the Oruro Carnival. I owe a great deal to Dr Freddy Mendez Estrada, professor of philosophy and theology at the Universidad Catolica Boliviana in Cochabamba, for his extraordinary patience and care when working with me through interminable lists of questions concerning Aymara worldview and fiestas. My wife, Annette, and I had the extreme good fortune to board with Alberto and Maria-Elena de Moscoso for 8 months while we attended language school in Cochabamba. Alberto and Maria-Elena took it upon themselves to introduce us to many aspects of Bolivian life and graciously included us in many social occasions with their extended family. From them we learned a great deal and with them we had a lot of fun. More is said of the Moscoso family in Chapter 3. I am very thankful indeed to my supervisor Dr Tony Oliver-Smith, and to Dr Manuel Vasquez, Dr Paul Magnarella, and Dr John Moore of the University of Florida, and Dr Deidre Crumbley of North Carolina State University for their encouragement and expert guidance in the course of my program of studies. Foreigners need friendship as much as anything and it is a pleasure to acknowledge the many American people whom my wife and I have befriended. The support of our friends in England and Bolivia, and our friends and family members in New Zealand and IV Australia was appreciated very much also. Those who have themselves negotiated the doctoral study rite of passage helped with practical advice and all were warmly encouraging. Gil Prost, a member of Wycliffe Bible Translators who spent 25 years with the Chacobo tribe in northern Bolivia, made helpful comments on Chapter 4. I am most fortunate among fieldworkers in having my wife share with me the joys, soitows, and sometimes dangers, of a very eventful sojourn in South America. TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xi ABSTRACT xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 THEORY 16 Religious Conversion 16 Conversion and Evangelicalism 19 Theories Concerning Protestantism in Latin America 27 Structural Change 27 Conspiracy 34 More of David Stoll 36 Alleviating Poverty 38 Escaping Financial and Ceremonial Obligations 40 Rebecca Bomann's Tripartite Approach 41 The Thesis Underpinning This Project 43 3 METHODS 46 Survey in 1996 46 Methods 47 Language School and Culture Shock in Cochabamba 48 Culture Shock Again 50 Missionary Informants 5) Participant Observation 52 Data from Converts 53 Obtaining Data on Folk Religion 60 How Informants Affected Me 62 Objectivity 63 Howl Affected Informants 66 VI 1 4 THE RELIGIOUS CONTEXT 68 Introduction 68 The Religious Milieu in the Years 1941-2002 70 The Syncretized Nature of Aymara Folk Religion 76 Non-fiesta Folk Religion 83 Three Fiestas 86 Informant Attitudes to Folk Religion 98 Potentially Attractive Doctrinal and Praxical Elements of Evangelicalism 107 Power-oriented Worldviews: The Spiritual. Natural, and Human Worlds are Integrated and Influence Each Other 107 The Spatial Dimension of the Two Worldviews: A World Divided 11 A Cosmos in Conflict 112 The Maintenance of Balance and Harmony in the Cosmos 114 Fear of Capricious Spirits Versus the Peace-giving Constancy of God 117 Three Praxical Differences: Idol Worship, Magic, and Witchcraft 118 Obligatory Reciprocity Versus Voluntary Service out of Gratitude and Love .1 19 A World Governed by the Stars Versus a World Governed by God 122 A Stratified Religion Versus the Priesthood of all Believers 123 Life Hereafter 123 Summary 125 5 PEOPLE WITH POWER IN THE YEARS 1825-1952: HACENDADOS, PRIESTS. POLITICIANS, WAR VETERANS. CAMPESINOS, AND EVANGELISTS 128 Introduction 128 The First Evangelists, 1825-1902 131 The Road to Religious Freedom in the Years 1890-1906 133 The Chaco War, 1932-35 135 The Murder of Norman Dabbs, 1949 138 The National Revolution, 1952 139 Conclusions 143 6 DOCTRINAL AND EXPERIENTIAL MOTIVATIONS ENERGIZING THE EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE 145 Introduction 145 The Motivating Power of Belief and Experience 147 The Inerrancy and Authority of the Scriptures 147 The Gospel: The Heart of Evangelicalism 148 God 152 Eternity 153 The Temporal Plight of People 154 The Exclusivity of the Gospel 155 The Universality' of the Gospel 156 The Motivation of Being Indispensable 1 56 vn The Motivation of Being on the Winning Side 158 The Call of God 159 A divine summons 159 A personal summons 159 A serious summons 160 A specific summons 160 A summons demanding obedience and promising blessing 160 The Desire to Glorify God 161 Conclusion 162 7 THE EVANGELISTS: PEOPLE MOTIVATED TO SEEK CHANGE IN OTHERS 164 Introduction 164 The Lives and Work of the Missionaries and Aymara Evangelists 165 Samuel E. Smith (1904-84) and Gladys Smith (d.1987) 165 Samuel J. Smith and Mary Ellen Smith 171 Doris Warren 171 Marion Heaslip and Fran MacNeill 177 Jessie Hickey 180 RuthHaan 181 Betty Brown, Charlotte Bates, the Tolans, Trussells, and Skinners 182 The Aymara Evangelists 184 Analysis 185 Goal and Strategies 187 Geographic Strategy 187 Sufficient Commitment 188 Literacy Training and Publishing Literature 189 Prayer 189 Preaching 190 Training Leaders 191 Self-propagating Native Churches 192 Self-funding Native Churches 193 Self-governing Native Churches 194 Service of People in the United States and Canada 196 Conclusions 197 8 THE CONVERTS: PEOPLE MOTIVATED TO SEEK CHANGE IN THEMSELVES 199 Introduction 199 The Lives of Six Converts 200 Francisco Mamani 200 Ezequiel Arcani Patty 202 Marcelino Valeriano 206 Samuel Corteza Quispe 208 Esperanza Rios Mamani 209 vm Andres Quisbert Sullco 210 Analysis 211 Analysis of Causation and Consequences 212 Causes: People Converting in Crisis 213 Causes: Miracles and Crises 216 Causes: Converting in Peaceful Circumstances 219 Consequences: Conversion as Revitalization 220 Conclusions 223 9 SOCIAL AND ANTISOCIAL DIMENSIONS: DIRECTING, SECURING, AND TESTING CONVERSION 225 Introduction 225 The Direction of Conversion 225 Through Families 225 Through an Ethnic and Socio-economic Channel 228 A People Movement? 235 Securing Conversion: The Securing Effects of Church Life 242 Government 243 Services and Church Anniversaries 244 The Communal and Personal Nature of Church Life 251 Testing Conversion: Opposition 254 The Sources and Nature of Opposition 255 The Effects of Opposition 259 10 CONCLUSIONS 262 APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE REGARDING CONVERSION 270 B QUESTIONNAIRE REGARDING THE FOUNDING AND GROWTH OF THE CHURCHES 273 LIST OF REFERENCES 274 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 299 IX LIST OF TABLES Table mm 2-1 Tippett's Schema for Group Conversion 24 4-1 The Catholic Church Calendar for Highland Bolivia in 2003 74 4-2 Major Aymara Folk Festivities in the Bolivian Andes in 2003 88 5-1 Time-line of Events in the Years 1825-1952 142 7-1 Time-line of Missionary Involvement with Seminario Biblico 183 7-2 Length of Service for Missionaries Associated with Seminario Biblico 189 8-1 Incidence and Nature of Personal Crises at Time of Conversion 214 8-2. Incidence and Nature of Miracles 217 9-1 Calendar of Special Events for an El Alto Church in 2002 251 LIST OF FIGURES Figure E^fi^ 0-1 Localities in the Study Area xv 1-1 The Hope of Many Bolivians (Mural in Cochabamba) 2 1-2 Bolivian Altiplano in Winter 4 1-3 Shoreline, Southern Lake Titicaca 6 1-4 An Aymara Pastor and his Wife 9 1-5 Araca Church 10 3-1 Aptaphi (Potluck Lunch) at Araca Church 54 4-1 Ekeko 90 4-2 Diablada Dancer, Oruro Carnival.