A CASE FOR ANTHROPOLOGY AS THE INTEGRATING FORCE IN PRE-COLLEGIATE SOCIAL STUDIES

ty JOE ALLEN WEEDMAN, B.S. in Bus. A THESIS IN ANTHROPOLOGY Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS Approved

Accepted

August 1976 HD^"*^^

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Professor Evelyn I. Montgomery for her many helpful criticisms, suggestions, and particu­ larly for her understanding and patience throughout the several drafts of this thesis. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee. Professors William J, Mayer-Oakes and Philip A. Dennis for their many helpful suggestions.

11 PREFACE It is this writer's conviction that anthropology, the youngest of the social sciences and the integrating science, has too long been omitted from pre-collegiate curricula and that our children have suffered from this omission. The primary audience to which this thesis is directed, therefore, is that of school-system administrators, ele­ mentary school principals, and elementary teachers. For this reason those readers who may be more familiar with the structure and content of anthropology and the various elementary anthropological projects may wish to by-pass Chapter II. In order to place anthropology in its proper perspec­ tive Chapter I consists of a brief history of the social studies in the United States and of the development of an­ thropology into the social studies curriculum. When Sputnik I began orbiting the earth in 1957» there developed in the United States a newly intense awareness of the importance of a quality education for our children. We also began questioning the content as well as the quali­ ty of our curricula. As part of this new awareness, an­ thropology's potential contribution to a pre-collegiate curriculum, particularly in the social studies, began to be recognized. However, that potential is, as yet, far from being realized for two reasons. One reason is that anthropology has seldom been viewed • • • 111 as the basic, integrating science of the social studies that I contend it is. In Chapter IV, by the creation of a social studies unit employing folklore material, I have attempted to demonstrate the integrating value and effec­ tiveness of anthropology for the teaching of the social studies, particularly in the primary grades. A second reason anthropology's potential has yet to be realized is that not only several of the project teams which created anthropological units but also many authors of social studies textbooks have failed in their initial planning to consider adequately the problems characteris­ tic of any school setting. Seven of what I believe to be the major problems are examined in Chapter III. The chap­ ter also includes a list of criteria used to judge the merits of social studies curriculum materials, a review of an elementary social studies textbook and a unit produced by the Anthropology Curriculum Project for the elementary grades.

IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii PREFACE iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter I. THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM IN THE UNITED STATES 9 Entry of Anthropology into the Curriculum . . 11 Anthropology in the Curriculum Since i960 . . 13 Summary . 17 II. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM MATERIAL ... 19 Archeology 19 Cultural Anthropology 20 Physical Anthropology 22 Elementary Level Anthropological Projects . . 23 Local School Social Studies Text 29 Summary 31 III. STANDARD CRITERIA AND VARIOUS PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAMS 32 Criteria 3^ Ideal Versus Actual Performance 38 Individual Differences in Learning: Problem One 38 Drastic Versus Gradual Change: Problem Two , . kO V Prejudicial Attitudes and Behaviors: Problem Three * M Values in a Classroom: Problem Four ^2 Ethnic Studies and Values: Problem Five ... 44 Teacher Attitudes and Expectations: Problem Six 45 Textbooks and Resource Materials: Problem Seven 47 Other Problems 48 Review of The Concept of Culture 50 Review of Regions Around The World 54 Summary 58 IV. FOLKLORE AS A BASIS FOR A SOCIAL STUDIES UNIT . 59 Folklore as Curriculum Material 6o A Four Week Social Studies Unit 63 Folklore Unit: First Week (>1 Lesson One: String Figures 67 Lesson Two: Riddles 74 Lesson Three: Proverbs 80 Folklore Unit: Second Week 85 Lesson One: Animal Tales 85 Lesson Two: Ordinary Tales 96 Lesson Three: Ordinary Tales ...... 105 Folklore Unit: Third Week 113 Lesson One: Jokes and Anecdotes II3 Lesson Two: Formula Tales 123 vi Lesson Three: Review 128 Folklore Unit: Fourth Week 129 Lesson One: Folksongs: The Black Experience 129 Lesson Two: Folk Heroes 137 Lesson Three: Civil Rights Movement . . . 142 A Unit on Folklore: Its Rationale 150 Folklore and Different Learning Styles . , I5I Folklore and Change 152 Folklore and Prejudicial Attitudes and Behaviors 152 Folklore and Values 153 Folklore and Ethnic Studies 153 Folklore and Teacher Attitudes and Expectations 154 Folklore and Resource Material 154 CONCLUDING STATEMENT 155 NOTES 157 REFERENCES CITED . . 0 158 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES I68

Vll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Partially Constructed String Figure . 71 2, Completed Cat's Cradle String Figure 72

Vlll INTRODUCTION

In Minneapolis, a small group of students reflect upon a reproduction of an ancient statutette, speculating as to the kind of society that might have produced it. In Berkeley, California, high school seniors read a scholarly article comparing the European conception of authority with the very different conceptions that underlie the individualism of certain American Indian groups. In Illi­ nois, fourth grade pupils work through sets of picture cards, sorting scenes of urban and rural life, the begin­ ning steps of a substantial inquiry into the origins and nature of cities. In Buffalo, New York, pupils watch a color movie on the child-rearing practices of the Netsilik Eskimos. These separate classroom events have a common context. They all occur in connection with experimental units de­ signed to test the contribution of anthropology to the social studies. Anthropology has been the most under­ utilized social science in the traditional social studies program. However, evidence from several quarters suggests that that period of neglect is almost over (Nimkoff I966; Michaelis I968; Jarolimek 1971; Lee 1974). Certain developments in the social studies have created a need for the specialties offered by anthropolo­ gists. Among these developments is the interest in non- 1 2 Western cultures and in Western ethnic studies. The ma­ terial frequently includes brief overviews of various cul­ tures and ethnic groups. Anthropologists, whose methods demand intensive work in the field and whose training develops a sensitivity for the wholeness of cultures, will, by providing in-depth studies of specific groups, be able to offer a complementary approach to the brief overviews as they are currently presented. This approach will be characterized by case materials that make in-depth study possible and by an emphasis on the interrelatedness of an economy, social organization, political system, technology, and the many other factors that comprise a culture. Those who wish anthropology to play a part in the social studies do not imagine that the discipline can play more than a part. Yet the role of anthropology can be an important one, adding significantly to the impact of the social studies. The explicit curriculum of the schools probably has less influence on the pupils than any teacher would care to admit (Lortie 1975). Nevertheless, the influence of the social studies prograins could be increased if such pro­ grams provided young minds with the opportunity to see hu­ man affairs and their role in it, in a larger perspective, with new power to explain and with a greater depth of under^ standing of social phenomena. In such a social studies prograjn, anthropology will have a significant contribution to make. There are, however, many problems in developing rele­ vant curricula for public school prograins. This thesis will be centered around an examination of several of those problems - teachers' attitudes and expectations, ethnic studies and values, individual differences in learning, textbooks and resource materials, prejudicial attitudes and behaviors, drastic versus gradual change, and values in a classroom- An elementary school curriculum unit, em­ ploying folklore as the primary instructional discipline, will then be created that will take into consideration the various problems discussed. The unit will further attempt to turn into a working reality a suggestion by two profes­ sional anthropologists (See Gearing I970 and Dundes 1974) that folklore is excellent material for an elementary so­ cial studies curriculum. Before proceeding to the design and creation of an anthropological unit for the social studies, it will be helpful to designate exactly what is meant by the terms social studies, anthropology, and culture.

The Social Studies

Clements, Fielder, and Tabachnick regard the social studies as an activity: "...it is the effort to pose and ajiswer questions about people as they may be, or have been 4 found in the various cities, villages, nations, and terri­ tories on our planet" (Clements et al 1966:3). The authors later expand upon their earlier defini­ tion: By social study, then we mean: 1. The process of learning about variety and change in the actions of people as they arrange to live together in groups. This learning goes on through the gathering and interpreting of social data, as well as through critical examination of the conclusions and generalizations of social scientists. 2. The development of intellectual skill appropriate to this study. a. Acquiring a language whose content and struc­ ture are capable of patterning, ordering, and communicating social realities. b. Acquiring the "suppleness of mind" that per­ mits the examination of alien individual and cultural forms (Clements et_ al 1966:13). This expanded definition of the social studies is quite similar to the definition of a working anthropolo­ gist.

Anthropology

The late Alfred Kroeber, the acknowledged dean of American anthropology, defined anthropology as the "... science of man and his works" (Kroeber 1923:1)• Its very name anthropos, Greek for "man", and logos for "study" defines itself as a discipline concerned with every aspect of mankind. So defined, it would appear anthropology would encompass all other disciplines ranging from the hard phys- 5 ical sciences of physics and chemistry to the humanistic disciplines of literature and philosophy. Most of these other disciplines have been separate fields of study longer than has anthropology and would not tak:e kindly to being treated as subdisciplines of anthropology, which is under­ standable. And anthropologists would be in the forefront of those defending such a position. What then creates the uniqueness of anthropology so that it could acceptably develop into a separate discipline and what could cause it to retain its separate identity since its inception over one hundred years ago? The answer is contained in four characteristics: it is historical; it is holistic; it is comparative, and it is concerned with culture. Anthropology is historical in the sense that it is concerned with man's past. This is not just the immediate past of 10,000 years, but a past that began with man's emergence over four mil­ lion years ago and continues to the present. The branches of anthropology most directly concerned with this histori­ cal aspect are archeology and physical anthropology. These branches, along with several others, will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter II. Anthropology is holistic in that it is interested in studying all aspects of man's experience. Earlier anthropologists when describing an unknown culture were interested in its history, environment, reli- 6 gion, social structure and orgajiization, economy, politi­ cal system, technology, food procuring or food producing techniques, and so forth. Today, as knowledge increases, anthropologists tend to specialize, for example in politi­ cal systems. However, the other factors still remain im­ portant for a full understanding of the political system under study. Anthropology is comparative. It is explicitly and directly concerned with all va­ rieties of man wherever on this planet they may be found- A specialist in political systems, for instance, is con­ cerned with the political systems of all cultures - their similarities and differences from the system of the group he is currently studying.

Culture

Finally anthropology is concerned with culture. In 1871f E, B. Tylor in his masterpiece. Primitive Culture, defined culture in the first sentence. It was one of the first definitions of culture attempted and to­ day remains one of the best and probably one of the most quoted: Culture is ... that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, lav/s, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Tylor 1871:1). 7 From this definition, we know that culture is learned. An individual is born into a specific culture and through a complex learning process, beginning even before birth, the individual learns the various intricacies of that cul­ ture. We know that culture transcends the life of any one individual. Because of this, culture is sometimes called the "Superorganic" (Kroeber 1917). Kroeber argued that culture is a "substance" which is irreducible to the level of the individual organism. He opposed the view that the great inventions or discoveries in the history of civili­ zations are to be explained as products of individual gen­ ius, for he maintained that these innovations are cultural events and should be seen as part of the flow of cultural change, We know that culture organizes behavior. Culture helps to regulate hov/ societies are organized and it is easy to see that cultures throughout the world differ in their organization. Culture helps to regulate the actions of individuals toward their physical environment, toward their social environment as a whole, and toward other persons as individuals. In short, culture regulates all human life. Finally, we know that culture basically is not inheri­ ted, but it has a biological basis because it was created out of a series of biological events. These biological 8 events, transmitted to the offspring of individuals by genetic material, is believed by some scientists to help regulate what and to what degree an individual internalizes the various cultural elements of his society. CHAPTER I THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM IN THE UNITED STATES

Introduction

Anthropology is concerned with history. The history of the social studies curriculum in the United States is important because it places the subject of our study in its proper perspective, as does the areal history an anthro­ pologist collects during a field study. The evolution of the social studies curriculum can be divided into five periods: previous to 1893; 1893 to I9I6; I916 to I936; 1936 to 1955» and 1955 to present and beyond (Skretting and Sundeen I96I). U£ to 18£3 Previous and up to 1893 history emerged as the main­ stay of the social studies curriculum with geography and civil government on the periphery (Skretting and Sundeen 1969). Informal history has almost certainly been an ele­ ment in all instruction among all peoples of all times. The sayings, traditions and exploits of ancestors are ex­ amples of information which was and is preserved and taught to the younger generation. In America, during the Colonial and Revolutionary periods some history was taught. The first textbook in 9 10 American history, written by John McCulloch, was published at Philadelphia in I787 (Kepner 1935:158). In the period after I860 more emphasis was placed on history. By I890 about 28% of all high school students in the United States were studying some history other than United States his­ tory (Wesley 1942:179). 1893 t£ 1916 From I893 to I9I6 under the leadership of several na­ tional committees history matured as the dominant social science discipline (See Wesley 1942). Civil government was still peripheral, with a smattering of physical geo­ graphy, economics, and sociology included in the curricu­ lum (Skretting and Sundeen I969)• The elementary schools had, until after I908, no such definitive program in his­ tory as had the high schools. However, they gradually ex­ tended their offerings until history was taught in even the primary grades. The history program was becoming quite standardized by I9IO. Of IO32 primary and secondary schools examined in I9I6, 96% offered ancient history, 95?^ American history, ^0fo medieval and modern history, and ^3% English history (Wesley 1942:181). A course in history was not only available, it was required. 1916 to 1936 From 1916 to I936 history's dominance in the educa­ tional curricula was challenged by "social studies," a ^yr.- thesis of fields combining in varying degrees political 11 science, economics, human geography, and sociology as separate or cross-disciplinary subjects. The scientific approach to education, more atten­ tion to individual differences, new developments in educational psychology, and concern for the needs of the student encouraged a new and experimental social studies (Skretting and Sundeen 1969:1231). 1936 to 1955 The period of time from 1936 to 1955 was a period in America's history marked by general unrest, high unemploy­ ment, and two wars. As a result, attacks were made upon the national committee's leadership of social studies pro­ grams and there was a movement toward local control with emphasis on citizenship, personal adjustment, and societal needs (See Skretting and Sundeen I969). 1955 to present Since 1955 there has been an increase in the inclu­ sion of the social science disciplines into the curricula, building on the start initiated during the I9I6 to 1936 period.

Entry of Anthropology into the Curriculum

Fallers (I968) suggests that the main impetus for the increase of interest in anthropology developed during and after World War II. .,. World War II and its aftermath had brought the United States into much more intimate contact with the non-Western societies and cultures, which seemed 12 to press, morally and intellectually to be better understood. Both teachers and students felt called upon to try to come to terms, not only with the West, as they had in the past, but also with the great non-Western nations and high cultures and with the smaller societies then emerging from the dis­ solving colonial empires. Existing social studies curricula provided few tools for this purpose (Fallers 1968:105). Earlier, Chilcott (I962) wrote of the increase in an­ thropology at the collegiate level: ... yet secondary schools almost universally have been reluctant to include anthropological topics in their school programs. Part of this lack of en­ thusiasm for anthropology is derived from an out­ dated^ stereotype of an anthropologist as a person who digs up old bones and broken pots and embarrasses dinner guests by describing unmentionable erotic practices of primitive peoples. Another deterrent is the myth that classroom discussion of the evo­ lution of man may cause controversy. Both of these positions are partially created by a lack of an­ thropology course-work in teacher-education pro­ grams (Chilcott 1962:387). Collier (1971) reports in the Encyclopedia of Educa­ tion that: In i960 it would have been possible to report on every secondary school course in the United States labeled anthropology or drawing extensively on an­ thropological ideas and materials. The courses were taught by imaginative and energetic teachers who had taken at least a few university courses. Of the 35 such courses about which information was available, 14 were taught in private schools, 21 in public schools (Collier I97I). Therefore up until the early I960's, less than two decades ago, anthropology, its ideas or materials, were rarely in­ cluded in the social studies curricula of our secondary schools. Ironic though it may seem, it can hardly be termed humorous that the science of man, his behavior and works, 13 was excluded from a curriculum that purportedly was to help students reach some understanding of the meaning of their own lives (See Jarolimek and Walsh 1974).

Anthropology in the Curriculum Since i960

In 1962, once notice was taken of the exclusion of anthropology from the curriculum, the National Science Foundation (NSF) began supporting the Anthropology Curricu­ lum Study Project (ACSP) for the development of anthropo­ logical materials for secondary school curricula (Collier 1971)* At about the same time. Educational Services, Inc. (now called the Education Development Center) with both public and private financial support began work on a curri­ culum project that contained a significant corpus of anth­ ropological concepts and materials (Collier 1971). This project later came to be known as Man; A Course of Study or more popularly known as MACOS. The United States Office of Education also lent its support and recognized the im­ portance of anthropology in a social studies curriculum by funding the Minnesota K-12 Social Studies Project at the University of Minnesota and was soon to begin also support­ ing the University of Georgia Anthropology Curriculum Pro­ ject (ACP) in the publishing of materials for elementary grades (Collier 1971). The increasing acceptance of anthropology into the 14 social studies curriculum can be readily seen by a review of the literature. In 1958 Wesley and Wronski made no mention whatsoever concerning anthropology as curricular material. By contrast, in their revised edition in 1964 the authors recognized that within recent years anthropo­ logy, while not taught as a separate subject, was being increasingly used within the social studies curriculum (Wesley and Wronski 1964:535). In 1966 Nimkoff (I966) reported the beginnings of the teaching of a few separate courses in behavioral science at the secondary levels among which were included anthro­ pology. Although a few schools may have offered separate courses in anthropology, Michaelis felt that anthropology, taught as a distinct discipline, was not by itself suffi­ ciently inclusive for a well-programed curriculum in the social studies. However, he did recognize that: An increasing number of concepts and key ideas from anthropology are included in new programs of in­ struction (Michaelis 1968:118). He also recognized that: This increase is the result of greater recognition of the contributions that anthropology can make to the objectives of the social studies, especially to those attitudes, understandings, methods of inquiry, and skills related to the comparative study of cul­ tures (Michaelis 1968:118). In 1970 Krug, Poster, and Gillies defended history as the mainstay of the social studies but recognized that the other social sciences could contribute significantly to the 15 curriculum if the teacher intelligently chose: ... from the social science those concepts, in­ sights and modes of inquiry which would help him in more effective instruction of the story of man and toward a better understanding of the human society, cultures and civilizations (Krug et al 1970:39). In 1971 Jarolimek made a big shift. Although Krug, Poster, and Gillies believe that: History, because of its total concern with human experience and its rather ill-defined boundaries, can and should serve as a common body of knowledge for the other social sciences (Krug e^ al, 1970:39)- Jarolimek, on the other hand, views anthropology not only as a distinct subject to be taught, but as the integrator of the social studies curriculum. Anthropology, with its several divisions, is often thought of as a unifying social science, because it is by definition the study of man.... There has developed a considerable amount of interest in the exciting possibilities for social studies programs with an anthropological orientation (Jarolimek I97I: 271). Two years later in 1974 another shift occured. An­ thropology and its rightful place in a social studies cur­ riculum ceased to be debated by educators. What educators questioned instead was the preparedness of teachers to teach anthropological materials: Many teachers fear the intrusion of anthropology into the elementary classroom. Their fears are rea­ sonable, for they are based on limited course-work in anthropology (Lee 1974:344). Bohannan et al report that "the difficulty in applying this sort of program lies largely with the fact that teachers are not adequately trained in anthropology" (Bohannan, 16 Garbarino, and Carlson 1975:502). A second question being debated by educators is the effectiveness of the material available for teaching the behavioral sciences as either an integrative part of or as a separate subject in the social studies: Should the integrity of the disciplines be main­ tained so that they are taught as separate subjects or should a social education approach be used such as citizenship education or social problem solving? These latter approaches make for the fragmentation of the disciplines in the social studies which, in the opinion of academic scholars, reduces the effec­ tiveness of the disciplines since students are not learning to use the powerful tools of the social sciences such as structure and methodology (Taylor n.d.i66). At the present time, the debate about whether programs should be structured to teach the social science disciplines separately or to integrate them into one packaged program has ended (Jarolimek 1974). New questions are being asked and anyone concerned with social studies curriculum devel­ opment must address himself to the following: How can social studies programs be made more mean­ ingful, more highly individualized, and, most im­ portant, more personal for learners? How can the in-school social studies program be related to the out-of-school lives of pupils? How can the concepts and content of the social sciences, history, and humanities be used to pro­ vide pupils with insights about the world in which they live? How can social studies programs realistically and truthfully depict the diversity of racial, ethnic, and national backgrounds of the people of this coun­ try? 17 How can social studies education become a vital force in combating the evils of racism that flow through the bloodstream of this society? How can social studies programs help pupils build values consistent with the democratic traditions of this society? How can social studies programs help pupils build skills that will enable them to learn how to learn and keep on learning about their social world for a lifetime? How can the social studies program help the learner become a more effective decision maker? How can the social studies program help learners grasp the reality of our international involvements socially, economically, militarily? (Jarolimek 1974: 7,8).

Summary

It is the position in this thesis, consistent with the curriculum guidelines set forth by the National Council for the Social Studies (See Jarolimek and Walsh 1974), that the discipline of anthropology as only one - but a basic, inte­ grating - ingredient in an overall social studies curricu­ lum can build a solid base of learning at the elementary level. Anthropology is unique in comparing different peo­ ples of the world. Cultural differences do exist. How people of other cultures solve similar problems, quietly and efficiently lends itself to the study of bias, the study of social and religious problems, and so forth. In short, anthropology as the integrator of the social studies 18 lends itself easily to the fulfillment of the questions asked above. CHAPTER II THE STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM MATERIAL

Introduction

Anthropology is a broad discipline encompassing many areas. Appropriately the anthropological projects created as curriculum materials for the social studies at the ele­ mentary level reflect the holistic approach of anthropolo­ gy.

General

«

Anthropology as it was defined in the introduction to this thesis is "the science of man and his works" (Kroeber 1923:1). Anthropology is so encompassing that anthropo­ logists must specialize in order to achieve precision in their work. Each subdivision has a number of specialized subdivisions of its own. The subdivisions and their spe­ cializations discussed below are taken from Hoebel's Anth­ ropology; The Study of Man (1972:9-13).

Archeology

Archeology is the discovery and uncovering of the 19 20 evidence of mankind's previous existence, but it is much more than just the "digging up" of material and human re­ mains. Archeology is primarily concerned with what can be learned from these remains: the description of cultural history and the explanation of the cultural processes of past peoples. By cultural processes is meant the social and ideational aspects of a culture changing in relation to the technico-economic part of a culture. Not only must a prehistoric archeologist have a good background in general anthropology, but he must also be knowledgeable in geology and paleontology, and he must be skilled in archeological techniques (excavation). Archeologists who specialize in the classical civili­ zations such as Sumer, Egypt, Greece, India, and China are more commonly thought of as classicists than as anthropo­ logists. Classical archeology, which is concerned with literate civilizations, deals with the early historical record and is less closely tied to prehistory than anthro­ pological archeology is. Nonetheless, the objectives and functions of both classical and prehistoric archeology are the same (Hoebel 1972).

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology is a subdivision that deals with learned behavior characteristics in human societies. 21 It, in turn, has many subdivisions, the most prominent of which are ethnography, ethnology, social anthropology, and linguistics (Hoebel 1972).

Ethnography is descriptive cultural anthropology. It is concerned with the accurate description of a specific village, tribe, ethnic group - in short, of any definable cultural group. While ethnographic monographs have some theoretical framework implicit in their organization, they are not concerned explicitly with theoretical prob­ lems (Hoebel 1972),

Ethnology attempts to derive explanations that go be­ yond description, emphasizing analysis and comparison. It differs from ethnography in that as a science it seeks interrelationships between peoples and their environments, between human beings as organ­ isms and their cultures, between different cultures, and between the differing aspects of cultures (Hoebel 1972:12). Since each culture is continually changing, ethnology is concerned with the historical backgrounds of cultures. This is sometimes called cultural history. When ethnology is concerned with the general principles of cultural de­ velopment, it is considered cultural evolutionism (Hoebel 1972). Ethnology itself divides into a number of subdivi­ sions: primitive kinship and family life, economic activ­ ities, law and government, religion, the arts, and folk­ lore which will be employed in creating an elementary cur­ riculum unit in Chapter IV. 22 Social anthropology is the study of family and kin­ ship systems, age groups, political organizations, law and economic activities - in short, it is the study of what is termed social structure. Social anthropologists who accept the position of an English anthropologist, A. R. Radcliffe-Brown deny the necessity of historical stu­ dies in anthropology. Social anthropology is non- histor­ ical as opposed to ethnology which is historical (Hoebel 1972). Linguistics is the science of languages. A linguist works to understand the spoken, symbolic and gestured com­ munication of a culture. Anthropological linguists are concerned primarily with non-written languages; with trac­ ing probable contacts that groups of people who have spo­ ken different languages have had with each other through the similarities in language, and in considering the in­ fluence of culture on language and of language on culture.

Physical Anthropology

One aspect of anthropology which distinguishes it from the other social sciences is that it contains a branch, physical anthropology, that is concerned with human beings as biological organisms. The objective of physical anth­ ropology is to compile knowledge concerning the biological characteristics of human populations, modern and ancient. 23 Only through the study of living or recently deceased people can physical anthropologists learn about the struc­ ture, growth, and physiology of the human body in any de­ tail. They have developed special instruments and techni­ ques for measuring innumerable ratios of size, composition of the body, dental patterns, hair form and color, blood groups and so forth (Hoebel 1972), Physical anthropologists are also concerned with the study of the evolution of mankind. They direct their at­ tention to the comparative study of fossils, including monkeys, apes, and man - a study known as paleontology. They are also concerned with how mankind evolves through the study of human genetics and how humans adapt to their environments (Hoebel 1972), Physical anthropologists have also become increasing­ ly involved in field studies of primate behavior, espe­ cially of baboons, chimpanzees, and gorillas. This area of study, called primatology, is an effort to obtain in­ sight into protohuman social behavior as an aspect of evo­ lution (Hoebel 1972).

Elementary Level Anthropological Projects

Anthropology is an holistic discipline. This concept of holism which we examined in the introduction is funda­ mental in a well-programed social studies curriculum be- 24 cause once one element of culture has changed, other ele­ ments are effected. However, anthropology was not thought of as a discipline relevant to a well-planned social stu­ dies curriculum until the early 1960's, Since that time several anthropological projects designed specifically for a social studies curriculum have been created. This sec­ tion will examine those projects which have been created for an elementary level curriculum. The Anthropology Curriculum Project was funded ori­ ginally in 1964 by the United States Office of Education (Collier 1971). The project developed and tested material on the various concepts of anthropology as they related to cross-cultural perspectives on behavior. The material produced is of two types, A program was created for the kindergarten through the seventh grades (K-7) on a cogni- tively-oriented survey of anthropology as a separate dis­ cipline. Secondly, material was designed as self-contain­ ed units to supplement existing social studies programs. Neither type of material has been commercially published nor has its existence been widely disseminatedl (Collier

1971). Included in the materials available is the "Concept of Culture: An Introductory Unit." The curriculum mater­ ials consist of a picture text activity book for the pupils with daily lessons extensively outlined in an accompanying teacher's manual. The material v/as created for level K-1 25 (Anonymous 1975a). "The Concept of Culture" is a unit prepared for grade level 1-2, It is a descriptive unit with an emphasis plac­ ed on an oral presentation by the teacher and the use of a picture text by pupils. Three groups are studied: Amer­ icans; the Arunta of middle Australia; and the Kazak in the south central part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. There are seven topics: how we study people; economics-housing; material culture; earning a living; social organization - family and community; and religion (Anonymous 1975a), "The Development of Man and His Culture: New World Prehistory" produced for grade 2-3 introduces archeologi­ cal methods and New World prehistory. The pupils' learn­ ing centers around five stages of Native American cultural development: Paleo-Indian; Archaic; Formative; Classic; and Post-Classic. The final section is an in-depth study of the traditional Hopi culture and the changes it has undergone. Teacher background material is provided as are tests (Anonymous 1975a). For grade levels 3-5 the Anthropology Curriculum Pro­ ject designed "The Changing World Today: Case Studies of Modernization in Japan, Kenya and India." This unit deve­ lops a model for an analysis of cultural change in three studies: industrialization and urbanization in Japan; na­ tionalism in Kenya; and planned agricultural change.in In- 26 dia (Anonymous 1975a). "The Concept of Culture" prepared for grade 4-5 re­ peats and enlarges upon the concepts introduced in the unit "The Concept of Culture" for level 1-2. The approach is again analytic, emphasizing the development of cultural constructs. The teacher is provided with a guide, back­ ground materials, and a test. There are five chapters in the pupil study guide and pupil text which are: How We Study People; Concepts of Culture; Cultural Universals and Cultural Variation; Enculturation; and Cultural Dynamics. The ethnographic material provided is in a separate text and again includes the Arunta, Kazak, and American popula­ tions (Anonymous 1975a). "The Development of Man and His Culture: Old World Prehistory" is a survey of archeological methods, evolu­ tion, fossil man, and Old World prehistory. It illus­ trates a rapid rate of cultural development after the in­ vention of agriculture. This unit was produced for levels S""] (Anonymous 1975a). "Archeological Methods" was designed to complement the "Development of Man and His Culture" unit. It empha­ sizes archeology as being a science. A pronunciation guide and tape are included to aid in the new vocabulary

(Anonymous 1975a). "Evolution: A Programmed Text" develops the modern approach to evolution. It describes the work of Darwin 27 and discusses genes and inheritance, mutations, genetic drift and migration. A pronunciation guide accompanies the text. The unit is also designed for grade levels 5-7 (Anonymous 1975a). Produced for levels 6-8 is the unit "Cultural Change in Mexico and the United States," It is a comparative ethno-historical analysis of the processes of cultural changes in Mexico and the United States in four periods of history: pre-Columbian; colonial; nineteenth century; and twentieth century. The chapter titles include: Culture; Cultural Change; The Cultural Heritage of Mexico and the United States; Changes in Language Traits in Mexico and the United States; Political Institutions; Religion; and Edu­ cation (Anonymous 1975a). Materials and Activities for Teachers and Children is a series of units produced by the Boston Children's Museum.^ The only unit with an anthropological orienta­ tion is "A House of Ancient Greece." It is a unit on ar­ cheological concepts and techniques. The students simulate the activities of an actual archeologist. Dr. David Robin­ son, who excavated the Villa of Good Fortune between 1928 and 1934. Included is a teacher's guide, two maps and large mounted pictures of the structures and excavation of the villa. Also included are museum replicas of artifacts uncovered during the excavation (Anonymous 1975^)). Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) was developed by the 28 Education Development Center with funds provided by the National Science Foundation.-^ The course was prepared for upper elementary or middle school pupils and over eighty- five centers have been established in the United States and abroad to provide in-service programs for teachers who are going to teach this course. MACOS was designed for a full year of study and encompasses four units (Anonymous 1975c).

In the first unit the pupils study the life cycle of the salmon. The pupils are led to a comparison of differ­ ences between human behavior and other animals (Anonymous 1975c). The second unit concentrates on the behavior of the herring gull including its life cycle, mating habits, and parental roles. Through this method the pupils are taught how the structure of an organism influences its behavior (Anonymous 1975c). The third unit encompasses the study of a baboon troop with a comparison to human society (Anonymous 1975c). The fourth unit is a study of the Netsilik Eskimo's life cycles and child-rearing behaviors. Great emphasis is put on the Netsilik social structure, the values and beliefs of Netsilik culture, and a comparison between tra­ ditional Netsilik culture and modern western culture. This unit contains a variety of printed materials and two films with natural sound and very little narration (Anony­ mous 1975c). 29 The University of Minnesota Project Social Studies was funded by the United States Office of Education. The social studies program was initially designed as a sequen­ tial program, levels K-12, building upon and reinforcing the material presented in the previous level. The units are self-contained, however, and can be taught indepen­ dently from each other. At the present time only some of the elementary materials are available^ (Anonymous 1975d). Each unit takes approximately eight weeks to complete and is designed to produce both "nation-minded" and "world- minded" children. For the first and second grades there are eight units entitled Family Studies. Family Studies includes material on a Hopi Indian family, an Ashanti fam­ ily of Ghana, a Japanese family, a family of early New England, a Kibbutz family in Israel, a Soviet family, a Quechua family in Peru, and an Algonquin Indian family (Anonymous 1975d). The third and fourth grade curriculum involves com­ munity studies. The third grade materials emphasize poli­ tical institutions, while the fourth grade emphasizes eco­ nomic institutions. Not all units for these two grades have been published as yet (Anonymous 1975d). The materials for the fifth and sixth grades are not yet available. 30 Local School Social Studies Text

The textbook described in this section will be com­ pared and analyzed with a project unit from those outlined above.

The standard fourth grade elementary social studies text for the school district in Lubbock, Texas, is a volume titled Regions Around The World. It was written by Dr. Phillip Bacon, Professor of Geography at the University of Houston and published by Field Educational Publications, Inc. The text is designed to teach pupils about the earth generally, and how man adapts to and lives in the various environmental regions of this planet. The first three chapters are: Looking at the Planet Earth;-Using the Tools of the Geographer; and Meeting Your Neighbors on the Planet Earth. The latter chapter includes a discussion of culture. The next nine chapters are concerned with the various environmental areas of the earth, specifically a descrip­ tion of each region with a discussion of from one to three groups of people who inhabit that region, their kinship system, types of houses, clothing, food, and tools. These regions are; Oceania - the Ifalik of a Pacific island; Po­ lar regions - Eskimos; Desert lands - Australian aborigi­ nes; Tropics - Bantus of Congo River Basin; High Mountain lands - Inca Indians of Peru, 400 years ago and today, and Switzerland today; Northern forest lands - Canada and :Cor- 31 way; Grasslands and Great Plains - Indians and white set­ tlers and the Musai of Kenya; Mediterranean lands - Greece, ancient and modem, California Indians and Califomians today; and the Middle Latitude Forest lands - industry in the Ruhr Valley of Germany, Illinois, U.S.A., and Japan. The final chapter describes how life, transportation, trading and communications have changed from the past, some present day environmental problems and what this means for the future.

Summary

This chapter has been a synopsis of the major subdi­ visions of anthropology and a synopsis of four elementary level anthropological projects, including a local social studies text. In the next chapter the local text will be compared and analyzed along with a project unit chosen from those outlined above. CHAPTER III

STANDARD CRITERIA AND VARIOUS PROBLEMS

RELATED TO THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAIv^S

Introduction

One characteristic of anthropology is that it is com­ parative. What anthropologists generally mean by the term comparative, as a description of anthropology, is the com­ parison of the elements of differing cultures. This chap­ ter is a comparative analysis of the locally adopted text­ book Regions Around The World and the Anthropological Cur­ riculum Project unit. The Concept of Culture. The text­ book and the unit will be examined, not to determine which is the better in regard to specified criteria which will be listed presently, but to help determine which approach to take in producing a suitable unit of lessons for an el­ ementary social studies program incorporating folklore as the primary discipline. The elements best suited to such a program will of necessity be further affected by various problems characteristic of any school setting. These pro­ blems and their effects will be discussed later in this chapter.

32 33 General

In the past two decades grade school textbooks have been the target of a continuous, driving, sometimes mind­ less, more often well-deserved criticism (Joyce 1973), This has been particularly true for social studies textbooks. During the late 1950's the criticism had no central focus. Textbooks were condemned for their all-encompassing nature and superficial coverage of topics. They were further con­ demned for their reliance on obsolete material: .,.for their avoidence of conflict and controversy, for their inability to provide for individual dif­ ferences among students, for their tendency to pre­ sent slanted "facts", stereotypes and ethnocentric attitudes under the guise of "proven knowledge" (Joyce 1973:218) During the early 1960's as the Civil Rights Movement began to be more of a force in our society, the focus of criticism centered on the lack of social reality portrayed in textbooks (Joyce 1973). Textbook critics alleged that the then current books reflected a totally white, middle class society and the critics attacked publishers and at times authors for not accurately depicting the multi-racial, multi-ethnic, pluralistic nature of American society (Joyce 1973). Some publishers attempted to counter this attack by darkening the skin color of a few of the individuals pic­ tured in the textbooks. This attempt was doomed to failure because it was an obvious attempt to evade the most poignant point made against the textbooks: that they promoted the vir- 34 tues and accomplishments of the dominant white, Anglo- Saxon segment of society, while skimming over, omitting, or even denegating the contributions made by the Black, Native American, Spanish-American, and Oriental. Critics maintained that by presenting children with distorted views of American society, these books consciously or un­ consciously promoted, reinforced, and perpetuated racial and ethnic bias. Under the barrage of this attack, and the increasing awareness, interest, and support of the general population, federal and state educational agencies and local school boards demanded social studies textbooks that reflected the pluralistic, multi-racial, and multi­ ethnic nature of our society. And to ensure that future textbooks would accurately and honestly depict social re­ ality, review committees were innaugurated and desired criteria were formulated to judge the merits of proposed textbooks.

Criteria

If certain criteria are used to judge the merits of a social studies program, it is this writer's opinion that similar criteria should be used from which to create the programs initially. The criteria I have selected to use are a combination of criteria used by the Michigan Depart­ ment of Education, criteria derived from the guidelines 35 set forth for social studies programs by the National Council for the Social Studies (Jarolimek and Walsh 1974), and criteria formulated by Capron, Charles, and Kleiman (1973) to judge the merits of textbooks. The criteria selected are listed below, as are also interpretative comments by this writer: 1. Do the objectives span the range of cognitive proces­ ses, or do they, for example, stress low-level cogni­ tive skills, such as recognition of factual data (Capron et al 1973)? The criterion will be met if the answer is span the range of cognitive processes. 2. Is the material accompanied by multi-media resources for both teachers and students? A teacher's guide? Instructional games? Readings from primary sources? Tapes? Artifacts? (Capron e^ al 1973:285). The criterion will be met if the answer is yes to more than two of the questions. 3. Does the material focus on the social world as it re­ ally is? Or is the world idealized (NCSS)? The criterion will be met if the answer is that the material focuses on the social world as it really is, 4. Does the material build upon the realities of the immediate school community (NCSS)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 5. Does the material represent some balance between the immediate social environment of students and the lar­ ger social world (NCSS)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 6. Are present-day problems realistically presented (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 36 7- Does the material take a moral stand on issues (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is no. 8. Are controversial matters dealt with (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is. yes. 9. Does the content emphasize the value implication, both individual and societal, of social problems (Capron et al 1973:284)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 10. What are the implicit assumptions of the content, both pictorial and verbal (MDE)? 11. Does the content of the primary and supporting mater­ ial, both the pictorial and written content, reflect the pluralistic, multi-ethnic, multi-racial nature of our society, both past and present (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 12. Are the contributions of the various ethnic groups included (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 13. Is the legitimacy of a variety of life styles acknow­ ledged (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 14. Would the material tend to encourage a positive self- image (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 15. Does the content tend to raise open-ended questions and present issues (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 16. Does the material include the study of events and policies which are commonly considered contrary to present national goals, for example, slavery and imperialism (NCSS)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes, 17. Are learning activities sufficiently varied and flex- 37 ible (NCSS)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 18. Are events consistently glorified (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes, 19. Are ethnocentric views reinforced or worked against (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is: worked against. 20. Is the wider community suggested as a resource for student learning and involved as a focus of study (Capron et al 1973:285)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes, 21. Does it reflect a recognition of individual differen­ ces in students' learning styles? Does it include a wide range of alternatives for individualization of instruction as an integral part of the primary and/or support material (Capron ejt al 1973:284)? .- The criterion will be met if answers to both ques­ tions are yes. 22. Does the material emphasize currently valid concepts, principles, and theories in the social sciences(NCSS)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes. 23. What seems to be the authors' approach to patriotism (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is an expli­ cit as opposed to an implicit approach. 24. What appears to be the authors' approach in present­ ing heroes (MDE)? The criterion will be met if the answer is an expli­ cit as opposed to an implicit approach. 25. Are evaluative data on the suitability and effective­ ness of the material available to the general public. 38 i.e. school administrators, teachers, and parents (Capron et al 1973)? The criterion will be met if the answer is yes.

Ideal Versus Actual Performance

It is not to be expected that all the criteria will be covered in all instances, nor should they be. We live in a world where practical considerations and non-ideal­ ized values-^ structure our thoughts and activities. It is these practical considerations and non-ideal values held by individuals which constitute the basis for "problems" involved in both creating an ideal social studies program or unit and in teaching the program in the spirit in which it was conceived. Before evaluating The Concept of Culture and Regions Around The World, a discussion of these problems is in order. The problems, in this writer's opinion could be the difference between the success or failure of a social studies program even when the program matches perfectly against the criteria presented in the preceding section.

Individual Differences in Learning -- Problem One

Dorothy Fraser has written of the individual differ­ ences inherent in learning (See Fraser I969). Too often educators have tended in the past to classify students as 39 either SIOYI, average, or rapid learners on the basis of some global criterion such as standard tests of intelli­ gence - tests which we now know are culturally biased. To offset such inadequacies in the educational system, efforts have been made to establish "homogeneous" class groups and to set up corresponding curriculum tracks in which these groups progress. Instruction is adjusted for the various groups of pupils according to the rate at which material is presented to them and according to the level of abstraction at which they can perform. This ad­ justment in instruction is carried out by the individual teacher according to how he perceives each pupil. For example, the type of instruction in reading that is cur­ rently being used in the Lubbock Public School System was developed by the Science Research Association. Pupils are segregated into color coded groupings according to their perceived abilities. Some pupils advance through several color groupings while other pupils remain in one or two color groupings for the entire year. Evaluations for grading are made on the basis of the child's ability to read within a specified color group and it is therefore possible for a pupil to receive satisfactory marks through' out his grade school years and yet not be able to read well enough to perform satisfactorily above the sixth- grade level. Beyond the elementary level, consequently, the pupil 40 falls farther behind, becomes increasingly frustrated, is labeled as a problem child and eventually drops out of school before completing high school. As Fraser has so ably put it:

In spite of the widespread practice of so-called homogeneous grouping, there is evidence that such grouping does not provide for individual differen­ ces, but rather provides the teacher with a false sense of having cared for such differences in learning. There is also reason to suspect that homogeneous grouping may generate self-fulfilling prophecies of failure for pupils labeled as "slow" and create expectations that inhibit effective de­ velopment of the potential of students assigned to "standard" groups (Fraser 1969:14).

Another dimension of individual differences is that of learning styles. Individuals vary in such factors as personality structure, visual and auditory perception, and skill in handling verbal symbols. All of these differen­ ces and more are closely interrelated and can result in a variety of approaches to learning that are most effective from one child to another.

Drastic Versus Gradual Change — Problem Two

A problem that has to be constantly faced in curric­ ulum development is one of change. School teachers want change. Hov/ever as one sociologist assesses the situa­ tion: teachers' views would tend to "...be conservative rather than radical, individualistic rather than collec- tivist, and present - rather than future - oriented" 41 (Lortie 1975:181). In other words, the choice would not be one of change versus no change, but between gradual versus drastic revision in the curriculum. It is Gibson's (1969) conviction that curriculum change is essentially a matter of grafting the new upon the old. He believes that: ...it would be rash and presumptuous for any educa­ tor, project staff, or institution engaged in cur­ riculum improvement in the social studies to recom­ mend a total "wall-to-wall" change in the social studies program of any school...Irrespective of the surface appeal of any innovative curriculum for the social studies, an entirely new and total program should not be adopted by a school system in ex­ change for its present program. Rather, this wri­ ter believes, the "new" must be woven in slowly and carefully (Gibson 1969:306). Gibson's arguments in support of his convictions are essentially the same as Lortie's views. Gibson believes that teachers, being conservative, are generally unwilling to make drastic revisions in their curriculum because they perceive some success in their current program and they feel equipped to handle it. Gibson goes on to state that a totally new program is likely to require knowledge in disciplines of the social sciences with which teachers are little acquainted (Gibson I969). If changes were slowly introduced, the teacher would have time to gain an ade­ quate background.

Prejudicial Attitudes and Behaviors -- Problem Three

With reference to the emphasis on new content in the 42 proposed social studies programs, other problems arise. One is that teachers will have to overcome their own in­ securities. Another is that some teachers will have to deal openly with their own covert prejudicial attitudes and behaviors in order to objectively discuss such topics as race relations, politics in America, and cultures other than our own. This is not to say that teachers are bigo­ ted and openly prejudicial, although unfortunately in some instances, this is true. It is more to say that in edu­ cation generally the teacher is the advocate and the stu­ dent the receptor of information. Education is a feeding program in which the student must accept well or fail. Truly processual education, in which the student and tea­ cher are involved in a dialectical and creative process of interaction with each other, is a liberating yet poten­ tially disruptive force to a society. And this leads to the question of teaching values in a classroom.

Values in a Classroom -- Problem Four

The question of values in a classroom usually re­ volves around whether or not values should be taught in a classroom (Clark 1972). If so, whose values should be taught - the teacher's, the parents', or the general soc­ iety's? Are any of these various groups' values less va­ lid than those of any others? If values are not taught 43 in school and the child's parents do not teach them, who will? Leon Clark has written that: ...values are hard-fought beliefs; they are bom of conflict and nurtured through a long process of sharpening our perceptions, refining our analysis, and perhaps changing our minds, until finally we commit ourselves to something that is ours (Clark 1972:31). This writer believes that teachers cannot teach values. Teachers can and do, nevertheless, have a primary respon­ sibility to provide the opportunity for students to clari­ fy, test, and refine their own values. And teachers can provide the opportunity for students to come face to face with their own values by studying other people. By study­ ing the values of other peoples and the reasons they are held, we can more objectively examine our own values. The greatest benefit derived from studying an alien culture is not a knowledge of their ways and history, but a knowledge of ourselves. Studying a foreign culture pro­ vides the closest equivalent to "culture shock" that can be obtained without actually living in that culture. "Culture shock" helps us to find out who we are by showing us who we are not. Clark says it best when he writes that "It triggers off an internal dialogue, a conflict of as­ sumptions, that seldom develops within the context of our own culture" (Clark 1972:31). 44 Ethnic Studies and Values — Problem Five

It is this writer's observation that our values af­ fect almost everyone that we contact. In the modern world with rapid communication systems, we have contact with everyone, at least indirectly. In a bicultural or multi­ cultural setting, where the contact is direct, the formal schooling program may be incongruent with the traditional culture patterns of a large segment of the school-age pop­ ulation, thus rendering school ineffective for those pu­ pils. According to James A. Banks, "...Comparative ap­ proaches to ethnic studies are needed to help students to understand fully the complex role of ethnicity in American life and culture" (Banks 1976:77). In schools which offer ethnic studies programs where a particular ethnic group is present or dominant in the school population the pro­ grams' foci are on that group (Banks 1976). Significantly specialized ethnic studies courses are almost never found in predominantly white schools and are almost always elec- tives in schools with large non-white populations (Banks

1976). This writer believes that the study of ethnic groups should not be limited to specialized courses on the par­ ticular groups enrolled in a school, but should be part of an entire school curriculum no matter what the popula­ tion make-up. This last point cannot be emphasized too 45 strongly.

Teacher Attitudes and Expectations — Problem Six

Fifteen years ago, the theoretical paradigm that tea­ chers were taught in professional training was that minor­ ity children did badly in school because of their home environment, which resulted in inferior intellectual, language, and social skills (Sexton 1967). The classroom would therefore provide the educational experiences for these children that the home had not provided and would lead to school success. This "cultural deprivation" para­ digm dominated educational theory and led to numerous cur­ riculum programs in the "compensatory education" framework. A change occured, however, and now in most colleges teachers are taught about the "culturally different" ra­ ther than the "culturally deprived" pupils (Kleinfeld 1975). This has resulted in a new breed of teacher: one that can be termed a "cultural relativist" as opposed to an "ethnocentric" teacher. However, neither the lot of the minority group child nor the reinforcement concerning racial attitudes transmitted to students has changed in any significant degree (Kleinfeld 1975). Teacher expectations can be powerful determinants of student behavior and attitudes (See Rosenthall I966; Rosenthall and Jacobsen I968). Judith Kleinfeld (1975) 46 in a study of Eskimo and Native American children and their school environment found that with rare exceptions the teachers could be considered strong cultural relati­ vists, Kleinfeld believes that the end result of the tea­ ching of an ethnocentric and cultural relativist teacher are the same. A cultural relativist's strong emphasis on the differences between the Indian and White students of-' ten created unease among the Native American students and reinforced their fears of being peculiar and strange. The cultural relativist teacher viewed any deviant behavior of an Indian or Eskimo pupil as an expression of their culture and the teacher was very hesitant about trying to change that behavior. The cultural relativist teachers often viewed Indian students as cultural abstractions and made few attempts to identify or empathize, or to under­ stand their students' problems through recalling similar problems of their own. In Kleinfeld's words; ...the new breed of teacher emerging in the cross- cultural classroom is as "racist" (in the diction­ ary definition of the word) as the older type. Both the ethnocentric teacher and the cultural rel­ ativist teacher assume that social tracts and ca­ pacities are determined by race, that races differ radically from one another, and that one race is superior. But, while the ethnocentric teacher views such racial differences as deficiencies to be corrected, the cultural relativist views them as assets to be cultivated (Kleinfeld 1975:272).

Kleinfeld's findings show that the "cultural relati­ vists" had misinterpreted the concept of cultural relati­ vism and grossly misapplied it in their eagerness to cor- 47 rect the racial injustices that had occurred in the past. An example would be the idea that the Indian and Eskimo students were incapable of learning because they had dif­ ficulty speaking and reading English, As a result, the old maxim that a little knowledge is dangerous became an unfortunate reality. Kleinfeld's findings with Eskimo and Native American students could certainly be extended to Black or Mexican-American students or any other ethnic group. The paradigm change from "culturally deprived" to "culturally different" has had an unintended effect - an effect that future teachers during their professional training must be made aware of if any change and progress is to be made in this very sensitive area.

Textbooks and Resource Materials — Problem Seven

The use of textbooks is an important problem in cre­ ating an atmosphere in which the students are able to con­ front and broaden their own ideas. This writer believes that textbooks by themselves are not capable of producing such an atmosphere. Edwin Carr has written that ",,, in the majority of social studies classrooms the textbook de­ termines the requirements of the course and ... determines its limits as well" (Carr 1965:82). Textbooks, in other words, have a limiting rather than a broadening effect on a curriculum. If students are to gain an understanding of 48 who they are, then a teacher must employ additional re­ source material. Bragdon has discussed this point and writes that:

A textbook does not force bad teaching. A reason­ ably^ imaginative teacher or curriculum maker can put it in its place, will use it to give an over­ view, or simply for reference...But too many tea­ chers will not look beyond the text...so one is driven inexorably back to the proposition that the textbook itself must contain antidotes to the peda­ gogical poison it may transmit...Perhaps the very writing of a textbook is an immoral proceeding on the ground that it contributes to the mental de­ linquency of minors (Bragdon 1969:296-297). This writer does not believe that writing a textbook is immoral, but it is a sad fact that too many teachers confine themselves to one text. They do so for good rea­ son - it is much easier to teach from one source than to gather, on one's own time, additional information. Pro­ bably one of the most time consuming and difficult pro­ blems a teacher has is the accumulation of resource ma­ terials that are current and relevant. One method to par­ tially overcome this problem is to have teachers and schools informally exchange resource materials. Another method is for a teacher to use his students in gathering material.

Other Problems

Administrative duties and discipline problems related to large class size are two of the major problems which 49 consume teachers' time which might otherwise be used in preparing visual aids and other instructional devices. Although I have attempted to list and discuss the most relevant problems of obtaining a social studies education within the general guidelines set forth by the National Council for the Social Studies (See Jarolimek and Walsh 1974), many practical considerations and non-ideal values too numerous to mention have been bypassed in the above discussion. These are problems that do affect the amount of social studies materials presented and the manner in which it is presented; problems that do affect the amount of material received by a pupil and the way the pupil in­ ternalizes it and makes it part of his own cognitive and evaluative structure. In short, this presentation has focused on problems that affect the effectiveness of any prepackaged curriculum material over and above any ideal criteria used to judge the merits of social studies mater­ ial - problems that are not normally considered when the selection of curriculum materials is made (See criteria 8, page 36 for the one exception). These are problems that are important and in the review of Regions Around The World and The Concept of Culture which immediately follows and in the creation of a fourth grade social studies unit in Chapter IV employing folkloristics, they will be weighed very heavily. In addition the criteria listed on pages 35 - 38 will be also applied in the following two reviews.

TEXAS TECH LIBRARY Review of The Concept of Culture 6 ^°

In The Concept of Culture, prepared by the Anthropo­ logy Curriculum Project, University of Georgia, the physi­ cal quality of the materials is poor. It is reproduced by mimeography and line drawings rather than photographs are used. The major emphasis of this unit is concerned with learning the three aspects of culture listed in the last three chapters. These are a) cultural variation, b) en­ culturation, and c) how cultures change and grow. A secon­ dary emphasis is placed on learning what anthropology is and how anthropologists work. The objectives are accomp­ lished through the use of an anthropological vocabulary and explanatory text that are too sophisticated and could result in pupil reading problems. A teacher and pupil guide are included. The material idealizes social reality. No controver­ sial matters are dealt with nor is an approach opened to them. The content does not reflect the pluralistic, multi­ ethnic, and multi-racial nature of the American society. Only one drawing depicts a Black family and then the accom­ panying text makes no reference to this fact, nor to any contributions made by any ethnic group in North America. In short, the material portrays the typical, white, middle- class life style in the United States. The legitimacy of three life styles, the Arunta, the 51 Kazak, and the American, is acknowledged. Since there is no attempt to legitimize the life styles of different American ethnic groups, the material would tend to encour­ age in a pupil a positive self-image on a world wide scale only and not on a national level. Ethnocentric views of people from other countries would be discouraged. However, because of the virtual ab­ sence of any material on American ethnic groups and the concentration on White society, prejudicial attitudes cen­ tering on ethnic groups living in North America would be either reinforced or would remain untouched. Suggestions are made for various learning activities to be carried out at the discretion of the teacher. These activities include: puppet making, collection of pictures of children from other cultures for inclusion in a scrap- book, writing short plays of life situations in the three cultural groups, and class discussions on several sugges­ ted topics. The successful completion of these supplemen­ tal activities requires large quantities of teacher time and talent. The local community is suggested as a resource for student learning; but again this is left to the discre­ tion of the instructor, and in small communities might of­ fer little help. While several learning activities are suggested, there is no recognition of individual differ­ ences in pupils' learning styles as reflected by the struc­ ture of the material. 52 With one exception, the theories, principles, and con­ cepts of anthropology presented in the text are error free - the exception being the debatable point that "only man has culture." Patriotism as a subject is not covered, nor is any emphasis given to heroes in the material. Evaluative data is available from the University of Georgia. In addition two tests have been prepared. A pre­ test could be given before any lessons are taught and a post-test could then be used to measure comprehension of the completed unit. At this point. The Concept of Culture does not fare too badly when matched against the standard criteria estab­ lished for this purpose. How does The Concept of Culture rate when matched against the problems that affect all prepackaged curriculum materials? No effort is made to allow for individual differences in learning. There are no different reading levels, no sections that are incorporated especially for a slow or rapid learner. The material, in short, is not suited for an heterogeneous class. There are different learning ac­ tivities suggested, but these are all fairly time consum­ ing. And as it has been mentioned, these activities are left to the discretion of the teacher and are not incor­ porated into the main instructional program, as they should be. Another problem discussed was one of change. Teachers 53 in general resent drastic change in their curriculum mater­ ial (Lortie 1975). They desire material that can slowly be integrated into their current program. The adoption of The Concept of Culture would necessitate an abrupt change in a curriculum and for this reason alone, its popularity would not be great. In fact, this writer has been unable to ascertain that this or any other units of the Anthro­ pology Curriculum Project have been received enthusias­ tically. The director of the project, M.J. Rice, has ad­ mitted that due to lack of funds, the promotional activ­ ities for this project has had to be severely reduced (See Rice 1975). This has, in my opinion, lent strength to my hypothesis concerning the project's reception. With regard to the section of prejudicial attitudes and behaviors, the structure and content of The Concept of Culture makes it too easy to overemphasize the differen­ ces between cultures while singling out the white, middle- class American culture as the most advanced and therefore the best. The contents of The Concept of Culture sire designed to help the students understand that values are culturally determined. There are, however, no openings which would lead pupils to examine, on their own, their own values. While there are openings in which the teacher could direct the children in this area, exploration of one's own values is not a topic suggested by the teacher's guide nor is it 54 one of the objectives of the unit. Concerning the theme of ethnic studies and values, The Concept of Culture is completely silent.

Because of its omissions, the effectiveness of The Concept of Culture depends on the attitude of the teacher and the supplemental resources available. If a teacher were to use this unit without supporting material, a pupil would learn what a cultural anthropologist is and what terminology an anthropologist uses and little more. A pupil's grasp of the three concepts of cultural variation, enculturation, and cultural dynamics depend on the teach­ er's attitudes toward these concepts and toward culturally different groups and it is the individual teacher's atti­ tudes that are a large unknown. The failure of The Concept of Culture to deal with this omission and the other omis­ sions discussed previously would, in this writer's opinion, be a basis for rejecting this unit for possible inclusion in a social studies curriculum.

7 Review of Regions Around The World^

In Regions Around The World, the basic text in use in the Lubbock (Texas) Public School District, the quality of the printed material is excellent. The print is large enough for easy reading. Topic changes are indicated by section headings. And there is an abundance of carefully 5^5 reproduced color illustrations and color photographs to • complement and enhance the text. The major emphasis of the material, as the title par­ tially indicates, is the different environmental regions of the earth and how people have adapted to them. A secon­ dary emphasis which is only touched briefly upon in the next to the last two chapters and then brought to fruition in the final chapter is that of environmental protection and its implications for the future. This subject is the only controversial matter dealt with in the entire text and the question is left open for the pupils to discuss. Other questions are asked throughout the textbook; however these questions with rare exceptions are answered by the author. Those questions being left unanswered are along the line of "How are these different from yours?" with the blank being filled with such terms as houses,

clothes, and toys. Many life styles are portrayed in both text and photo­ graphs and no judgements are made, either implicitly or ex­ plicitly, as to their legitimacy. The content, however, does not adequately portray the pluralistic nature of the North American society. Alaskan Eskimos are both discussed and pictured, but with no reference being made to their be­ ing United States citizens. Other Native American groups are mentioned only briefly as existing in the past until the white man "settles" the land and then the Native .^neri- 5^ cans mysteriously disappear. No photographs of Native Americans appear. There are a few scattered photographs of American Blacks and there is one photograph of a Mexi­ can - American child. No other ethnic minority groups are mentioned or pictured. Industrialization, specifically North American industrialization, is made a topic of glo­ rification. A pupil might obtain from this material a pos­ itive self-image (I am glad I am an American) only on a world-wide basis, but a North American ethnic minority pupil would be left wondering why his group had not made any contributions to the American culture and exactly what role they do play in American society. Very few suggestions are made for alternative learning activities. The majority of activities suggested is merely further reading from various listed sources, map reading, and one instructional game designed to increase perception. The local community is not suggested as a resource for learning. As with The Concept of Culture, there is no recogni­ tion of individual differences in pupil learning styles. Contrary to The Concept of Culture, however, the reading level should be easily attained by a fourth grade pupil, but here again, the reading level is on one level only and not structured for pupil differences. Patriotism is approached implicitly. While reading the entire textbook one would receive the inipression that 51 America, because of her great industrialization, is the best country in the world. Further, one would receive the impression that America can do no wrong and indeed has only the best interests of all people at heart as when our im­ perialistic policies forced the opening of Japan and her markets to the West: In 1853f American ships, commanded by Matthew Perry, steamed into Tokoyo harbor. The Japanese were amazed. They had never seen a steamship, since they knew nothing of the Industrial Revolution. ^Perry brought a letter from the President of the United States to the Japanese emperor. The Presi­ dent wanted Japan and the United States to trade with each other. Perry left the letter with the Emperor and returned to America, He returned to Japan the following year bringing gifts that in­ cluded a steam engine. When he saw these gifts, the Japanese emperor realized that Japan had been wrong to shut itself off from the world (Bacon 1970:270). H.G. Wells, along with other historians, believed that it was the steamships and the threat of their use rather than the gift of the steam engine that persuaded the Emperor (Wells 1971). There are no heroes in the textbook. If there were to be heroes it would have to be the people - the people of many various cultures with their rich, engrossing life styles. In comparison with the problems discussed earlier, the comments made concerning The Concept of Culture can be applied to Regions Around The World. The only exception is that Regions Around The World, which contains geography, history, anthropology and other social science material in 58 its contents, is not a drastic change from other social studies material. Only its focus, that being primarily geography, may be different from the majority of other textbooks, but it nonetheless can be easily worked into any curriculum. However, for all its strengths, the text is no better than the teacher using it. This writer per­ sonally knows of one instance in which the teacher simply read the material of Regions Around The World to her fourth graders - to the utter boredom of the class.

Summary

In a direct comparison of the two units, I find that where one is strong, the other is weak. Both however fail to provide solutions to the major problems involved in creating a curriculum, particularly in the area of resource materials and ethnic studies. It is these two and the other problems discussed that will be the focus of atten­ tion in Chapter IV, where solutions will be attempted in the creation of a social studies unit whose primary empha­ sis will be in the field of folklore. CHAPTER IV FOLKLORE AS A BASIS FOR A SOCIAL STUDIES UNIT

Introduction

Anthropology as was learned in the introduction to this paper is concerned with culture. In this regard, Robert Redfield once told the following fable: ... a hen . . . was making an effort to instruct her chicks about their future sources of food sup­ ply while she and they were balanced precariously on a chicken coop which was being carried down a river by a flood. It was a long time since the hen had studied the forests on the bank, and the ac­ count she was giving her chicks of forest resources was none too good. So she called to a wise owl on the bank for help. "You know the woods, oh owl, for you stay in this forest and study it," said the hen, "Will you not tell me what to teach my chicks about life in the forest?" But the owl had over­ heard what the hen had been telling the chicks about the forest as she came along, and he thought it was scientifically inaccurate and superficial. Besides, he was just then very busy completing a monograph on the incidence of beetle larvae in acorns. So he pretended he had not heard the hen. The hen, turned back upon herself, proceeded as well as she could to prepare and put into effect an instruction unit on the food resources of oak forests, meanwhile struggling to keep the chicks from falling off the chicken coop. The chicks took the instruction very well, and later the chicken coop stopped at a point far downstream, and the chicks all went ashore - to begin their adult lives in a treeless meadow (Red- field 1941:568). If there were but one moral to this fable, I would have to say it is this: It is far more important for the hen to have taught her chicks to survive in an uncertain future with its different cultures than to have taught her 59 60 chicks to survive in one known culture. We live in a time and a society that has undergone rapid changes and there is no reason to believe this change will not continue. It is our responsibility to educate the younger generations to live successfully in a new world. However, we have no sure way to predict exactly what that new world will be, because of the ideological and techno­ logical changes and the resultant cultural innovations that will tsLke place. Education must prepare the individual to live in a world of change; that whatever else we may be cer­ tain of in an uncertain world, it is that the fu­ ture will be different than the present; therefore, what appears true today may be proven untrue tomor­ row (Kimball 1968:120). There is, therefore, no sure way to predict what the fu­ ture world will be like, nor to teach a child how to sur­ vive in it. The only escape from such a dilemma is to provide the kind of education that will enable a child to exist in any culture the future may bring. This is the major contribution that the social sciences can make to a general education (See Redfield 1941) and anthropology can be a significant part of that contribution.

Folklore as Curriculum Material

How exactly can anthropology make its contribution to a general education? This writer believes that one obsta­ cle forestalling a better understanding of one's own cul- 61 ture and of others' cultures, whether it be Mexican-Ameri­ can or Chinese, is ethnocentrism. What better way, writes Alan Dundes, than to use folklore as a means to overcome ethnocentrism in children: Gradually the children will come to realize that in folklore as in life, there is often no one correct or right version. One traditional version is just as traditional as another version. A's way of ob­ serving Christmas or birthday rituals is no better and no worse than B's. Isn't this a marvelous way of showing what ethnocentrism is; people insisting that the way they know is best and proper while the strange unfamiliar way is wrong? And isn't this a marvelous way of teaching tolerance? If children can learn that their fellows' ways are not "wrong" but "alternative," equally traditional ways of doing things, this could be one of the most important lessons they are ever likely to learn (Dundes 1974: 131). Previously, in an article in Todays Education, Frede­ rick Gearing described what he termed a mankind course. By this term he meant that: A mankind curriculum invites students at all grade levels to take frequent looks far afield at the culturally strange and alien lives of people re­ mote in time or space. But note well: The main purpose in doing this is to help the student gain deeper understanding of himself, of his own human nature, thereby enabling him to relate with com­ fort and a degree of empathy to a heterogeneous nation and world (Gearing 1970:28). At the time of his writing no mankind courses existed for the primary grades, however this situation has since chang­ ed (See Chapter II). Gearing wrote: . . . to my knowledge, no mankind course exists for the primary grades, nor does the need for an ambi­ tiously organized "course" appear to be pressing. Rather, in these grades, schools are well advised to indulge the young child's special capacity to 62 appreciate the wonder of the human universe, espe­ cially as that wonder is conveyed by folk song and dance, folk tales and myths, and good pictures. Such indulgence is already a mankind curriculum (Gearing 1970:30). This writer agrees with Gearing's contention that no press­ ing need at present exists in the elementary levels for a "mankind course" if it is defined as incorporating only the one discipline of anthropology, notwithstanding the fact that such courses do exist. Their mere existence does not indicate the "need" for them, in fact, the accep­ tance of the existing courses has been minimal. Educators are, however, in agreement with using the methods and con­ cepts of anthropology as one ingredient in an integrated social studies curriculum especially in the elementary grades as opposed to a distinct course in anthropology (See Jarolimek and Walsh 1974). It will be the purpose of this final chapter to create a curriculum unit, using anthropological material - speci­ fically folklore - to resolve the seven problems discussed in Chapter III and to comply with the ideal standards as closely as possible. It needs to be re-emphasized at this point that the unit is not conceived nor meant to be a course in anthro­ pology per se. Anthropology - specifically folklore - is to be used as a medium in transmitting to the pupils know­ ledge about themselves and their similarities to other people. Anthropology, of course, is interested in both the 63 similarities and differences of peoples. However, as Kleinfeld (1975) demonstrated, the concept of relativism is often misunderstood even by adult minds. Therefore the unit is designed to mainly emphasize similarities. The similarities to be emphasized are values that almost all American children have internalized. For an American pu­ pil to deny these same values to other American ethnic groups or even to people from other countries that have in­ ternalized the same values as the pupil simply on the basis of racial grounds would require of the pupil a very hard re-examination of his own values.

h Four Week Social Studies Unit

The following unit created for a fourth grade social studies program is designed to be taught during a four- week period entailing three one-hour class sessions per week. The unit is to be integrated into an existing social studies curriculum. Due to the familiar nature of the ma­ terial (games, riddles, folksongs) to be presented, it is recommended that the unit be taught to the class as one group for there is no need to provide for slow or quick learners. Children at different levels of cognitive devel­ opment can all profit from the study of folklore. The Objectives The objectives of this unit are (l) to acquaint pupils 64 with folklore and several of its forms, (2) to encourage discussions of the pupils' values as reflected by and in the material, and (3) to promote in the pupils an attitude of cultural relativism. There is no significance attached to the order in which the objectives are listed. Back­ ground material should be transmitted to the pupils by the teacher as he finds it relevant and inasmuch as anthropo­ logy is the integrating science the unit will incorporate geography, sociology, reading (literature) skills, and some history. Folklore: Definitions and Background Folklore is a word with a short history. The term "folklore" was coined in 1846 by an Englishman named William John Thoms' to replace the cumbersome "popular antiquities" which was used to designate the study of old customs, us­ ages, and superstitions (Dundes I965). There is no wide­ spread agreement among folklorists about what folklore is. The most common criterion for defining folklore is the means of its transmission. Specifically, folklore is said to be transmitted orally. This criterion, however, leads to sev­ eral difficulties. Materials other than folklore are oral­ ly transmitted, therefore the designation that folklore is transmitted orally b^ itself is not sufficient to differ­ entiate folklore from non-folklore or what Dorson has coin­ ed "fakelore" (See Dorson 1959). Another difficulty is that some forms of folklore are transmitted almost exclus- 65 ively in written as opposed to oral form, such as grave­ stone epitaphs, book marginalia, and autograph-book verse. Alan Dundes, Professor of Anthropology and Folklore at the University of California, Berkeley, suggests that an itemized list of the different forms of folklore might be the best definition for the beginner: Of course, for this definition to be complete, each form would have to be individually defined. Unfor­ tunately, some of the major forms, such as myth and folktale, require almost book-length definitions, but the following list may be of some help. Folk­ lore includes myths, legends, folktales, jokes, pro­ verbs, riddles, chants, charms, blessings, curses, oaths, insults, retorts, taunts, teases, toasts, tongue-twisters, and greeting and leave-taking for­ mulas (e.g. See you later, alligator). It also in­ cludes folk costume, folk dance, folk drama (and mime), folk art, folk belief (or superstitions) folk medicine, folk instrumental music (e.g. fiddle tunes), folksongs (e.g., lullabies, ballads), folk speech (e.g., slang), folk similes (e.g., as blind as a bat), folk metaphors (e.g., to paint the town red), and names (e.g., nicknames and place names). Folk poetry ranges from oral epics to autograph- book verses, epitaphs, latrinalia (writings on the walls of public bathrooms), limericks, ball-bounc­ ing rhymes, jump-rope rhymes, finger and toe rhymes, dandling rhymes (to bounce children on the knee), counting-out rhymes (to determine who will be "it" in games), and nursery rhymes. The list of folklore forms also contains games;, gestures; symbols; prayers (e.g., graces); practical jokes; folk etymologies; food recipes; quilt and embroidery designs; house, barn, and fence types; street vendor's cries; and even the traditional conventional sounds used to summon animals or to give them commands. There are such minor forms as mnemonic devices (e.g., the name Roy G. Biv to remember the colors of the spectrum in order), envelope sealers (e.g., S.W.A.K. - Sealed With A Kiss), and the traditional comments made after body emissions (e.g., after burps or sneezes). There are such major forms as festivals and special day (or holiday) customs (e.g., Christmas, Halloween, and birthday) (Dundes 1965:3).

The list of folklore forms just quoted from Dundes is a sam- 66 pling. It does not include all the forms but it does pro­ vide the beginner with a practical summary of what folk­ lore is. Above, reference was made to what Dorson coined fake- lore or non-folklore. Richard Dorson is Distinguished Pro­ fessor of History and Folklore at Indiana University, and Director of the Folklore Institute there. Dorson claims that fakelore is the result of fabrication, selection, in­ vention, and similar refining processes of the raw data of folklore for monetary gain. Dorson writes that: ...the calculating money-writers, using the very different medium of print in a self-conscious effort to reach readers who already associate "folklore" with froth and fun, is the voice not of the folk but of the mass culture. Of course the^creative artist employs folk themes imagi­ natively, but he makes no claim to present pris­ tine folklore (Dorson 1959:4), Folklore as an academic discipline is over 130 years old, while the true importance of folklore has emerged only in the last 20 years (Montgomery I976). Folklorists, sociologists, anthropologists, and educators have come to realize that in the final analysis, we are all the product of our folklore, particularly our oral literature and tra­ ditions (Montgomery 1976). Folklore is not limited to the rural, the poor, the exotic. Every definable group ( a college campus, a silk factory, the members of a country club) has its folklore: its beliefs, its values, its style of jokes, its view of the world. And since even the United States has not eliminated illiteracy, cultural beliefs and 67 behaviors are taught and transmitted orally. As an exam­ ple, the Bible is a great book, but its believers live by the excerpts which they can quote verbally.

Folklore Unit: First Week

Dundes* delineation of the various folklore genres includes games, jokes, and riddles. These three forms will comprise the three lessons in the first week. Entertainment is something we Americans take for grant­ ed. It is as simple as turning the knob on the television set or driving to the nearest concert or ball game. Yet, in general, mankind has had to make his own entertainment and games, riddles, and jokes comprise part of this enter­ tainment . One kind of game still with us today is the manipula­ tion of string or twine into patterns and figures. The rea­ son for introducing the pupils to folklore through string figures is to demonstrate to them that folkloristics, al­ though a serious science, can be both an enjoyable and ed­ ucational experience. This theme that learning can be an enjoyable, educational experience should be maintained throughout the entire unit on folklore. 68 Lesson One: String Figures

Background Material Before I902 string figures were regarded as a past- time for children (Jayne I962). Today when serious atten­ tion is given to folklore and the anthropology of games it is looked at differently. The study of string figures be­ gan in I898 when Drs. Rivers and Haddon, two British anthro­ pologists, conducted a study in the Torres Straits. Among other information that they gathered were thirty examples of string patterns. Some of these designs were made by adults to the chanting of songs, some were connected with tribal stories, and some were devised merely as amusements (Jayne I962). From the beginning of Rivers' and Haddon's study of these figures the question arose as to their possible rela­ tion to historical and religious traditions. However, with few exceptions, no evidence has been found of any such con­ nection. The only traces of it so far recorded are in New Zealand where the different figures are associated with mythical heroes and the invention of the game is attributed to Maui, the first man (Jayne I962). The Eskimo likewise have patterns connected with par­ ticular songs. They also have a taboo against boys playing the game, for they believe that to do so would lead to their getting entangled with harpoon lines. Further the 69 Eskimo believed that string figures, if they must be made at all, should be constructed in the autumn so as to en­ tangle the sun in the string and delay the coming of the long winter night (Jayne I962). There are two methods used for constructing string figures: the Asiatic and the Oceanic. In the Asiatic me­ thod, two players are required - one of whom always takes the string from the other's fingers in such a way as to form a new pattern. In the Oceanic method, only one play­ er is needed who weaves the pattern with his fingers using his feet and teeth if need be (Jayne I962), The Asiatic method has many varieties, but generally speaking this method is known to us in the classical form of the Cat's Cradle, which is common in English nurseries. This form occurs in Korea, Japan, the Asiatic Islands, China, and Northern Europe. Once the Cradle is formed by one player, a second player can remove the string from the first player's fingers forming a second pattern and so it goes back and forth between the two until one player misses a string (Jayne 1962). Construction of String Figures The Cat's Cradle is very easy to construct. A piece of string or twine six feet in length is needed. The string is then tied to form a closed loop three feet long. Next, take the string and pass the four fingers of each hand through the untwisted loop and separate the hands. 70 The loop should now pass betv/een the thumb and index finger, circling the back of each hand and enclosing the four fin­ gers of each hand within the loop. The next step is to loop the string around each hand so that the string passes between the thumb and four fingers, around the back and the palm of each hand. There are now two strands across the back of each hand and a single strand across each palm (See Figure 1). The final step is to pick up each palmar string (the strand crossing the palm) with the middle finger of the opposite hand. There is now a loop on each middle fin­ ger and two strands across the back of each hand. The "Cradle" is formed by the two straight strings looping the back of each hand and the crossed strings of the middle finger loops (See Figure 2), For further information on constructing string fi­ gures Caroline F. Jayne's (1962) String Figures and How to. Make Them, published in New York by Dover Publications, Inc., is highly recommended. Resources A ball of heavy string or twine cut into lengths of four feet and tied into a closed loop for each pupil in the class. Note: the instructor should use a six foot len­ gth while the four foot length will be adequate for the physically smaller child. Activities Teach each pupil to construct the Cat's Cradle, It 71 72 73 is to be anticipated that some children will know how to construct other string patterns. Encourage them to demon­ strate for the entire class. Interpretation The implicit knowledge to be learned from this intro­ ductory lesson to folklore through string patterns (and it should remain implicit at this point) is that people (in this instance children) the world over, whether they are Korean, Polynesian, Eskimo, or American, and no matter how different their appearance and lifestyle (culture) seems to be, are similar in some respects (e. g., their enjoyment in constructing string figures). Assignment Ask the pupils to learn from their parents, other rel­ atives* and friends, the construction of any string pat­ terns, its name, and any stories or chants that may accom­ pany the construction and share it with the entire class during the next period set aside for this unit. Study Questions 1. Why did early man start making string figures? Entertainment. 2. Has this changed? No. 3. What other things do people do while constructing string figures? Chant songs and tell stories. 4. Why are Eskimo boys not allowed to make string fi­ gures? Afraid it would lead to their being caught 74 in their harpoon lines and spoil their hunting of seals and walrus, 5. When do Eskimos think is the best time to construct string figures and why? In autumn, to catch the sun and hold it in place to prevent the long winter night. On a globe explain why it is light half the year and dark the other half. This practice is a dir­ ect result of the environment the Eskimos live in. 6. Do you know any other string figures? 7. Who did you learn them from? 8. How is construction learned? One person shows an­ other.

Lesson Two: Riddles

Background Material Folk riddles are traditional questions with unexpect­ ed answers. They are verbal puzzles that circulate, mostly by word of mouth, to demonstrate the cleverness of the questioner and challenge the wit of his audience. The riddle combines recreational and educational fea­ tures to an unusual degree. Young people love riddles for the amusement they provide; old people encourage their use because of their instructive value. Because of their re­ creational and educational features, riddles are socially very significant, and therefore it is not surprising to 75 find that among many peoples taboos are associated with their use (Brunvand I968). Riddling is referred to in the most ancient Oriental and Sanskrit writings, in the Bible, in classical legends and myths, in European folktales and ballads and in some of the earliest manuscripts of Medieval literature. Antho­ logies of riddles were among the first printed books in the Middle ages, and books of riddles continued to be pop­ ular well into the Renaissance (Brunvand I968). Since the beginning of professional interest in folklore during the nineteenth century, collections of folk riddles have been published in most countries of the world. Riddles have been found in the cultures of all peoples. Riddles have a much more restricted role in a people's life than proverbs, which will be the topic of the next lesson. Riddles are often the concern of only one section of a community, and their use is usually restricted by cer­ tain taboos or traditions, whereas the proverb is a part of everyday speech (Brunvand 1962; Beuchat I965). In the United States, the main function of riddles is entertain­ ment (Brunvand I962). This function is always recognized whereas the other functions of riddles are often not re­ cognized at all. A second function a riddle performs is an exercise of intellectual skill and quickness of wit - especially in Africa and South America (Beuchat I965)• A riddle may also be a memory test in that the answers 76 have to be learned by heart to be known. A final function of riddles is that they are instructive (Brunvand I962). Many may contain reference to historical events or they may mention geographical names. To deduce the answers to these riddles requires experience and an acute sense of observation. In short, the educational value of riddles is a consequence of their cultural content, which will natural­ ly differ as each culture differs. Nevertheless, their primary purpose is for entertainment. Resources A mimeographed copy of the following riddles with the answers deleted should be prepared. Sources for these riddles are Hull and Taylor (1942) for the Welsh riddles and Hart (1964) for the Philippine riddles. A-1. What stones are most frequent in the water? Wet stones (Welsh) A-2. What happens to the stone thrown into the water? It becomes wet (Philippine) B-1. Born without parents; Married without in-laws. Adam and Eve (Philippine) B-2. What did Adam and Eve give to their children that they did not have themselves? Parents (Welsh). C-1. A small white lady, the longer she is in the world, the smaller she becomes. Candle (Welsh). C-2. A very small young lady is eating her own body. Candle (Philippine). 77 D-l. A red person, a mantle of horn. Hocus-pocus, there it is! A finger and a finger-nail (Welsh). D-2. Flesh on one side, bone on the other side. Good med­ icine. Especially for the itch. Fingernail (Philip­ pine) . E.l. What is a fair tree with its twelve branches, and four nests on each branch, and seven eggs in each nest and no two of them having the same name? A year, months, weeks, days (Welsh). E-2. I know a tree having seven branches. Each branch has twenty-four leaves. Its leaves are black and white. One week (Philippine). Activities Pass the mimeographed pages, have a pupil read one riddle and attempt to answer it. If the pupil reading the riddle fails to answer it correctly, allow any pupil from the class to attempt to answer it. Solicit other riddles from the pupils' own knowledge, rewarding the pupil who answers it correctly by allowing him to present a riddle to the class. Interpretation In the background section, the educational value of a riddle was said to be the consequence of a specified cul­ tural content. This is true for many riddles, witness the examples given below of several Bantu riddles: It is so very small, whence does it take the words? It is the divining bone. 78 The gnome that boils over itself? A pot of beer. It carries reeds on its head, it rocks, it rocks. The secretary bird (its feathers are on its head). Ask the pupils to answer these riddles. Unless they have observed the secretary bird, watched a pot of beer being made and watched a divination occur, it is highly unlikely they will be able to deduce the correct answer or even understand the answer once they are given it. This is what is meant by "cultural content." These three objects are fairly common sights at least for a Bantu child. On the other hand, ask the pupil the following riddle: What time is it when the clock strikes thirteen? Time to repair the clock. Those pupils who cannot guess the correct answer will cer­ tainly understand it. But will the Bantu child, who has never seen a clock? Obviously he will not. It is easy to see that children from different cul­ tures are exposed to many of the same experiences referred to in the Welsh and Philippine riddles. Many American school children can deduce and all can understand them be­ cause there are many "things" common to all cultures. These "things" are what anthropologists call universals. The best example of a riddle that shows the similari­ ties in human beings is that of the classical Greek riddle of the Sphinx; What walks on four legs in the morning, on two in the afternoon, and on three in the evening? 79 This riddle, with the answer "man" (who crawls in infancy, walks upright in adulthood, and leans on a cane when aged) occurs in a significant number of cultures of the world. For example: Walks on four feet, on two feet, on three. The more feet it walks on the weaker it be. (Scotland) What is it that walks with four legs in the morning, with two legs at midday, and v/ith three legs in the evening, when the sun has gone down? (Bantu) Discuss the Sphinx riddles with the pupils. The study questions should help in this regard. Guide the pupils in coming to their own conclusions about the differences and similarities in cultures. Study Questions 1. What is the purpose of riddles? a, entertainment; b. test cleverness; c, teach and train memory. 2. What do riddles teach? History, geography, events (things important in that culture). 3. Riddle A: Why is this found in two such different cul­ tures? Water is plentiful in both areas as opposed to a desert culture. 4. Riddle B: What common influence is shown here on both cultures? Christianity - story of Adam and Eve in the Bible. 5. Riddle C: What do we know about these two cultures con- 80 cerning sources of light? Both have used candles for lighting their homes at some time. 6. Riddle D: How do these two riddles differ in describ­ ing the fingernail? Welsh riddle indicates coloring of the nail by artificial means, Philippine does not. 7. Riddle E: What do these riddles tell you about their concepts of time? They divide the year, etc., in the same way. 8. Each of the Sphinx-type riddles describes mankind. What similarity is related about man in each culture? He develops physically in the same way, no matter where he lives.

Lesson Three: Proverbs

Background Material A proverb is a popular saying in a relatively fixed form which is, or has been, in oral tradition (Buchanan 1965). The proverb must be a saying, not merely a tradi­ tional word like "fiddlesticks" (Buchanan I965). Secondly a proverb must exist in a standardized form such as "sour grapes," ("sweet grapes" or "bitter grapes" would not qual­ ify) (Buchanan I965). Finally a proverb must have had some oral tradition as opposed to only written cliches

(Buchanan I965). There are four broad categories of proverbs. The true 81 proverb is always a complete sentence. It never varies more than slightly in form and usually expresses some gen­ eral truth or wisdom. Some true proverbs are simple com­ ments such as "Absence makes the heart grow fonder" (Brun­ vand 1968). A few proverbs leave part of the sentence un­ stated but understood: "No fool like an old fool." Other true proverbs are based on Aesop's fables or similar stor­ ies; "Don't count your chickens before they hatch." How­ ever, the majority of true proverbs are metaphorical de­ scriptions of an act or event such as "A new broom sweeps clean" (Brunvand I968).

Proverbial phrases are never complete sentences. They regularly vary in form and nearly all of them are metapho­ rical: "to be in hot water;" "behind the eight ball," or "from A to Z" (Brunvand I968).

While proverbial phrases are traditional metaphors, proverbial comparisons are traditional similes, usually ex­ pressed in the "like" or "as" form: "red as a beet;" "go like blazes," and "as clear as mud" (Brunvand I968). The fourth major kind of proverb is the Wellerism named for Charles Dickens' Sam Weller in Pickwick Papers (Brunvand I968). A Wellerism is actually much older than its namesake and is easy to identify in spite of its defin­ ition: "a saying in the form of a quotation followed by a phrase ascribing the quotation to someone who has done some­ thing humorous and appropriate" (Brunvand 1968:^0). For 82 example, " 'Everyone to his own taste,' (quotation) as the old lady said (ascription) when she kissed the cow (ac­ tion)," or " 'I see' said the blind man, as he picked up his hammer and saw." Because they are short, succinct, common and extremely varied, proverbs offer much for understanding other cul­ tures better. There are proverbs based on beliefs, weather signs, medical lore, business, law, historical events, household or farm tasks, and nearly everything else that goes to constitute a culture. Resources A mimeographed list of the following proverbs with ex­ planations when included, but excluding the English paral­ lels should be prepared. The list is to be handed out to each pupil The following are literal translations of Japanese proverbs taken from Buchanan (I965): 1. "To whip a tethered horse." This is metaphorically interpreted as "To add to a person's pain and dis­ tress." English parallel: To add insult to injury. 2. "People of the same temperament desire each other." English parallel" Birds of a feather flock together. 3. "One peach rotting, one hundred are spoiled." English Parallel: One rotten apple will spoil a bar- relful. 4. "A samurai or warrior does not have a double tongue." Good faith was considered a prime virtue of a samurai of Japan, and even today when a Japanese wants to swear to his honesty, he will quote this proverb. English parallel: A man's word is as good as his bond. 83 5. "Fast Ripe, Fast Rotten." An accomplishment that is quickly acquired will also be lost quickly. English parallel: Easy come, easy go. 6. "To talk like burning oilpaper," English parallel: To talk like a house on fire. 7. "This is a dream of Kyoto and a dream of Osaka." In old times Japanese folk stories were often begun with the above expression. English parallel: Once upon a time. 8. "To study penmanship at eighty." English parallel: It is never too late to learn. 9. "Habit becomes one's nature." That is, constant practice of something makes it second nature. English parallel: Practice makes perfect. 10. "Even a poor gunner if he shoots many times will hit it." English parallel; If at first you don't succeed, try, try again, 11. "Like two parts of a halved melon." English parallel: Like two peas in a pod. 12. "If I am hard on other people, other people will be hard on me." English parallel: What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. 13- "Aged trees cannot be bent." Or don't try to make old people conform to new ways. English parallel: You can't teach an old dog new tricks, 14, "Brush away the flies from your own head." Or attend to your own affairs. English parallel: Mind your own business. Activities Pass the mimeographed sheets excluding the English parallels out to the pupils. Have a pupil read the Japa­ nese proverb out loud and see if the other pupils can give the English parallel. See the study questions for addi- 84 tional questions concerning the proverbs. Interpretation Fun is again the key word. These proverbs, like the riddles of the last lesson, are designed to teach the pu­ pils that the Japanese, no matter how different their ap­ pearance and customs are from ours, hold many of the same values that we Americans do. This is reflected in the pro­ verbs. The pupils should not be provided this information, but should be led to a realization of it through the reci­ tal of the proverbs and the answering of the questions pro­ vided. Study Questions 1, What is a proverb? A popular saying passed on orally. 2. What are the four types of proverbs? a. true proverb: complete sentence with a general truth, b. proverbial phrases: metaphors c, proverbial comparisons: similes d, Wellerism: a quotation followed by an action. 3, What are proverbs based on? Beliefs, weather signs, medical lore, business, law, historical events, house­ hold or farm tasks, 4. Proverbs listed by type: 1. proverbial phrase, 2. true proverb, 3. true proverb, 4, true proverb, 5. proverb­ ial phrase, 6, proverbial comparison, 7. proverbial phrase, 8. proverbial phrase, 9. true proverb, 10. true proverb, 11. proverbial comparison, 12, true pro- 85 verb, 13. true proverb, l4. true proverb. 5. What does the fact that there are English proverbs which match the Japanese proverbs tell you about the two cultures? They share common values: Discuss Uhese.

Folklore Unit: Second Week

Lesson One; Animal Tales

Background Material Folktales are the short stories of oral literature. They are strictly fictional and are told primarily for en­ tertainment, although they may also point toward a truth or moral. Folktales differ in length. Some European sto­ ries about marvelous wonders and magical events may take hours or even days in the telling. On the other end of the spectrum are American topical jokes that are told in min­ utes. There are four basic types of folktales: animal tales; ordinary folktales; jokes and anecdotes; and for­ mula tales (Brunvand I968). The next two weeks will be devoted to examining what is meant by these different types Animal tales, as the name suggests, have domestic or wild animals as their main characters. These animals can speak, reason, and generally behave like human beings. These animals usually are stereotyped such as the faithful 86 dog, the industrious ant, the clever fox or rabbit, and the stupid bear. Quite often the folktales describe conflicts between the animals and human beings (Brunvand I968). Many of the favorite traditional children stories printed in books are traditional animal tales; however, the genuine oral versions usually differ greatly from the printed version - for example, "The Three Little Pigs." In a Kentucky mountain version, the pigs are named Mary, Mar­ tha, and Nancy. The three build their houses out of chips and clay, chips and hickory bark, and "steel and arn, " respectively. When the bad wolf comes, he threatens "to get up on the house and fiddy, fiddy, faddy your house all down" (Brunvand 1968). It is important to remember that many classic child­ ren stories of animals are not folktales. Examples are Hans Christian Andersen's "The Ugly Duckling" and "The Three Bears" written by Robert Southey, English Poet Laure­ ate from 1813 to 1843. There are modern versions of "The Three Bears" that are considered folklore, but these are parodies of the original. Resources Mimeograph one of the following two animal tales. The

tales are from Japan and France. "The Golden Chain from Heaven" (Japan) Very, very long ago, there lived a father and mother and three children. When the youngest child was still 87 small, the father died. On the seventh day after his death, the mother went to visit his grave and left the three child­ ren to look after the house, "In these mountains here, there is a frightful old "yamauba" (malevolent ogress). While I am gone, even if someone comes, do not open the door," said the mother; then she left.

After a short while the "yamauba" came. "Your mother has returned now," she called out, "Then put out your hand; let us see," said the child­ ren. She stuck out her hand and they saw that it was cov­ ered with hair, "Our mother's hands are much smoother than that. You are a 'yamauba.'" they said. The "yamauba" went somewhere, borrowed a razor, and shaved the rough hair off her hand. She took some buck­ wheat flour and smoothed her hands, then came back to the children's house again, "Your mother has returned now," she called. "Then let us see your hand," the children said. The "yamauba" stuck out her hand and the children felt of it. It was very nice and smooth, but the "yamauba's" breathing was very rough and her voice sounded like someone rolling kettles down a mountain canyon. "Our mother has a much nicer voice than you," said the boys.

The "yamauba" went and drank some water in which red beans had been washed; then she came back and knocked. 88 "ton ton" on the door, "Your mother is late, but she has finally returned," she called out.

This time the "yamauba's" voice was just like their mother's and the boys thought that it must really be she; so they opened the door, and the "yamauba," disguised as their mother, came into the house.

When they went to bed the two older boys slept in one room as usual, and the youngest boy slept with the dis­ guised "yamauba" mother in an adjoining room. About the middle of the night, as the two older boys were sleeping, they heard a sound, "kori, kori," crunch, crunch, coming from the next room. "Mother, what are you eating?" they called. "I am eating pickles," replied the "yamauba" mother. "Please give us one," they begged, and she tore the fingers from one of the child's hands and threw them to the older boys. They picked them up and saw that it was their little brother's fingers; then they realized for the first time that this was the "yamauba." Softly the two boys got up, took a jar of oil, and left the house. They climbed up in the tree by the gate and poured the oil down the tree trunk. As soon as the "yamauba" discovered that the two boys had escaped, she ran after them. When she got to the pond by the front gate, she saw the reflection of the boys in the water. She got a net and tried to scoop them up out of 89 the water, but she could not do it. By chance she happen­ ed to look up and saw the boys up in the tree. She tried to climb up after them, but she kept slipping back down the tree. "How shall I get up in the tree?" she screamed, and the boys became so frightened that they told her to cut notches in the tree. The "yamauba" went to the store­ room and got a sickle. Cutting notches in the tree, she climbed up toward the boys. The two brothers became so frightened that they didn't know what to do. They prayed, "Deotyu of the sky, let down an iron chain or something! " Immediately from up in the sky a golden chain descended, "suru suru," smoothly down to where they were. They grabbed hold of the chain and climbed up it. When the "yamauba" saw that she prayed, "Deity of the sky, let down a chain or a rope," and immediately a rotten rope came down. The "yamauba" grabbed the rotten rope and started to climb up to the sky, but the rope broke and she fell to the ground. When she fell her blood gushed out and flowed onto a buckwheat plant that was nearby. It is said that the roots of the buckwheat are red now because of what happened then. The brothers climbed on up into the sky; there the older brother became the moon and the younger brother a star (Seki 1963:55-57). "The Goat, the Kids, and the Wolf" (France) 90 There was a nanny goat who had broken her leg. She had to go and have it set at Saint Jard. She had to leave her little kids behind, and she said to them, "I am going off to have my leg set at Saint Jard. Don't open the door to anyone. When I come back I shall say to you: Little kid and she kid. Open the door for your mother. Who comes from St. Jard, Where she's had her leg and ankle set. Up you get, as if straw tickled your bottoms! And then I shall show you my white leg. You'll know it's your mother, and you will open the door." The kids knew quite well that they mustn't open the door. However, the wolf heard what the nanny goat said to her kids. He came to their door and said to them: Little kid and little she kid. Open the door for your mother. Who comes from St. Jard, Where she's had her leg and ankle set. Up you get, as if straw tickled your bottoms! But the nanny goat had said to her kids that a white leg must be shown. The little kids shouted through the door, "Show your white leg!" The wolf put his leg through a hole, perhaps it was through the cat hole. (You know, of course, that there were cat holes in the doors in the old days.) The kids saw that he had a black leg. "Oh," they said, "You have a black leg! You are not our mother." The wolf went and dipped his leg in flour, which was 91 nice and white, and he came back and knocked on the little kids' door, saying once again: Little kid and little she kid. Open the door for your mother. Who comes from St. Jard, Where she's had her leg and ankle set. Up you get, as if straw tickled your bottoms! The kids said, "Show us your leg!" So then he had a beautiful white leg. The little kids opened the door, and the wolf was in their home. "If you have something to eat, give it to me at once, or else I shall eat you." The kids were so frightened that they did not know what to do. The wolf asked them if they had any "froumajhe" (cheesecake) in the dough bin to give him to eat. Now it so happened that the nanny goat had just made cheesecake, which she had put into the dough bin next to the cheeses so that the cakes would keep cool. Well, now, you won't believe this. The wolf leaped into the dough bin, the greedy thing, intent on eating the cheesecake. So then the little kids had closed the lid of the dough bin, and the wolf was so busy eating that he took no notice. When the nanny goat arrived, she knocked on the door, saying; Little kid and little she kid, Open the door for your mother. Who comes from St. Jard, Where she's had her leg and ankle set. Up you get, as if straw tickled your bottoms! The kids ran to open the door for her. 92 "Do you know, the wolf came. He showed us a white leg, so we opened the door, and then he wanted to eat cheesecake. He went into the dough bin, so we closed the lid on top of him."

The nanny goat said they had done the right thing. "Wait a minute! We must put some water on to boil in the stew pot," The wolf began yelling, "Open the lid of the dough bin!" "Make some holes in the dough bin," said the nanny goat to her kids. The little kids pierced the lid, and the wolf was able to breathe more easily. As soon as the holes v/ere finish­ ed, the water began to boil over the fire. Then the nanny goat took the handle of the kettle and poured water through the holes in the lid. The wolf tried to get out of the way, first one side then the other, but he could not escape. Try as he might, in the end he was scalded by the nanny goat. When they had poured out the whole kettle, the nanny goat lifted the lid of the dough bin and the wolf hurled himself out. Then the nanny goat stood on the threshhold and shout­ ed: The running wolf is on his way! Watch out, shepherdesses in the hay! The scalded wolf is on the run! 93 Watch out, shepherdesses every one! (Massignon I968: 131-133). Activities Pass the mimeographed tale to the pupils and have them read it out loud. The teacher should tell the other tale to the pupils (remember folktales are in oral trad­ ition). Discuss the contents of each tale, pointing out on a world map or globe where each tale is from. Discuss the similarities and differences of each tale. Ask the pupils to tell a similar tale from memory. Use the study questions. Interpretation The children should recognize these tales as variants of "^e Three Little Pigs." What is important in this lesson as in the others in the next two weeks is to have the pu­ pils recognize on their own that there are similarities and differences among the tales from three different cul­ tures and to pin-point these similarities and differences. Study Questions 1. What is a folktale? A short story transmitted orally for entertainment with a truth or moral. 2. What are the four types of folktales? 1. animal; animals behave like humans; 2. ordinary; 3. jokes and anecdotes; 4. formula. 3. In "The Golden Chain from Heaven" who are the main characters? Three boys, their mother, and a "yamauba." 94 4. What is an ogress? A female ogre which is a giant or monster.

5. In "The Goat, the Kids, and the Wolf" what are the kids? Young goats, not children. 6. What story do these two tales remind you of? "The Three Little Pigs."

7. How are the two tales similar? A parent leaves, giv­ ing the children a recognition sign to insure their safety. And the children are tricked into admitting the villain into their house. 8. How do these two points differ from "The Three Little Pigs?" There is no parent involved and the pigs do not let the wolf in voluntarily. 9. How do the three tales differ in respect to how the children are saved? In "The Golden Chain from Hea­ ven" they pray for help and it is given. In "The Goat, the Kids, and the Wolf" the kids take care of themselves by trapping the wolf. In "The Three Little Pigs" they heat water for the wolf to fall in when he comes down the chimney. 10. Compare how the "yamauba", the wolf, and the wolf in "The Three Little Pigs" get into the house. The "yamauba" shaves the hair off her hand and drinks a liquid to make her voice soft like the mother's and thereby deceived the children. The wolf dips his leg in flour to make it white like the mother's and re- 95 cites the proper identification chant. The wolf in "The Three Little Pigs" comes down through the chimney. 11. Compare the Villains of the three stories: The "yamauba" is not very smart but is very ferocious and scares the heroes into making mistakes. The wolf is clever but greedy. The wolf in "The Three Little Pigs" is a big talker and seems ferocious but does not succeed in talking his way into the house.

12. Compare the heroes of the stories: The three child­ ren are first deceived and then so frightened that they don't use common sense. They are finally saved by their faith. The three goats are deceived by ap­ pearances but trap the wolf in the bin by remaining calm in a threatening situation. The three little pigs gather in the strongest house and are not deceiv­ ed by the wolf's tricks. They heat water for the wolf to fall in when he comes down the only possible en­ trance, the chimney. 13. Compare the settings of the three tales. How can you tell that they take place in different countries? The stories are all set in isolated settings where the heroes cannot summon help from others. "The Gol­ den Chain from Heaven" is located in the mountains; there is a tree and a pond near the gate. Several unfamiliar words are used: yamauba, ton, kori, and suru. We know that these are not words in the English 96 language. The shepherdesses and the making of cheese places "The Goat, the Kids, and the Wolf" in the coun­ tryside. Saint Jard (a place of healing) indicates that the story takes place in France. The only foreign word used is frouma.ihe which means cheesecake.

Lesson Two: Ordinary Tales

Background Material Ordinary folktales constitute about one-half of the entire collection of folktales catalogued by folklore schol­ ars. The setting is often an unnamed kingdom in a remote time. The characters often include royalty or wealthy individuals and the tale tends to be structured on three­ fold repetition. There are sometimes imaginary creatures such as dragons and giants, transformations, magical ob­ jects, helpful animals and supernatural powers or knowledge in these tales. The hero, in these tales, is frequently a poor or mistreated person who rises to wealth, power, and authority through a combination of his own ingenuity and supernatural aid (Brunvand I968). Resources Mimeograph the following two tales. The tales are from Israel and China. "A Miser and a Generous Man" (Israel) There was a certain grocery shop belonging to two 97 partners: one was a miser and one a generous man. Whenever the miser used to weigh sugar, flour, or any other food, he always took away a quantity from the scales, while the generous man always added to the scales. "Why do you do it?" asked the miser. "Because it is forbidden to steal, and in the future, too, I shall continue adding to the scales," came the an­ swer. "If that is so, we will split up, each of us working for himself from now on," decided the miser. Whereupon they both settled their accounts, each one receiving his share. The miser received the shop laden with goods, and the generous man the money. He decided in his heart, "I shall not live in this stingy man's town." He took money and food with him for the way and set off. In those days there were no trains or cars, and peo­ ple used to go from place to place on foot. The generous man was out in the open for days and nights; by day he walked, and by night he slept in a field. At last he ar­ rived at a certain town, and when he drew near its walls, night fell. He said in his heart, "I shall sleep here for the night, and tomorrow I shall enter the town." Catching sight of a nearby pit lined with straw, he crept inside. In the night, sons of shedim held a meeting near the pit. "Do you know, friends, what has happened in the near­ by city?" one of them asked. "A king whose son is very ill 98 lives there, and all the doctors have given up hope of saving him,"

"He will live because I have a remedy," cried out one shed, "What is the remedy?" asked one of them, "The remedy is take some oil, heat it, and rub the son's body. At once he will get up, strong and well." In the morning the generous man entered the city and found it in mourning. He asked passers-by, "Why are you mourning?" "The king's son is very ill," came the answer. "The king has proclaimed that if the child dies, he will give orders to kill every child of the same age as his son, as well as every child bearing the same name." "Do not worry. I have a remedy!" said the newcomer. Hearing this, the townsmen took him to the king saying, "Our lord and king! Here is a man who is ready to cure your son." "Are you ready to cure my son?" asked the king in as­

tonishment. "Indeed, I am," came the answer. "If you succeed, I shall make you greater than all the citizens in my state," declared the king. He brought the guest to the child's room. The man warmed some oil and rubbed the child's body with it. Immediately the child stood up on his feet, strong and healthy. 99 The king was overjoyed and ordered those who loved him to bestow a gift on the man who cured his son. Half an hour went by, and with the many gifts, the man became wealthier than he had ever been before in his life. He opened a big shop, and people came from near and far to buy provisions because the prices were very low. The stingy man heard of that shop in the far-off coun­ try where goods were sold so cheaply, and he decided to go and buy there. Of course the two partners recognized each other. The miser asked, "How did you get so much money?" "Stay here as my guest for seven days, and then I shall tell you the story," retorted the generous man. The miser agreed. Seven days passed by, and the miser was told of the straw-lined pit and of all that had befal­ len his former partner. The stingy man decided to do as the generous man had done. "Look after my money until I return from the pit," he said. Three days passed, and the shedim held another meeting near the pit. Before it began, one of them said, "We must not taO-k too much. The day has eyes, and the night has ears," The shedim did not understand this, and he explained, "Do you remember the king's sick son? Here in this very well I revealed the remedy; but someone hiding inside over­ heard it and cured the boy." One of the shedim got up and said, "Give me a match 100 to search the pit." Then lo! What did he see? A man - the miser, of course - lying there. The shed lit the straw, and the man was burned. May all stingy men have the same fate!

Of course, as you have already guessed, all the miser's money was left with the generous man, (Noy I963: 51-53).

"The Gossiping Animals" (China) There were once two brothers. The elder had a wife, but the younger had had no chance to marry; since he was a simpleton.

The younger brother sowed a field of barley, but in the whole field only one barley plant came up; it was right in the center of the field. He thought it was so beautiful that he weeded it and fertilized it several times a day. It grew so well that soon it bore an enormous head of barley, which the simpleton used to fondle and caress all day long. Unfortunately, just as the barley became ripe, it was carried away by a large bird. This was too much for the simpleton, who pursued the thief, waving his hands in the air, until night fell. Then the bird disappeared, and he was left in the wild mountains, surrounded by howling wolves and roaring tigers. Feeling nervous, he looked a- round till he found a flat piece of ground, where he clam­ bered up into a tall tree and hid in its branches. 101 At the foot of the tree brother wolf, brother tiger, and brother monkey gathered. Brother tiger said, "It is so comfortable here this evening. Do tell us another of your stories, brother monkey." The monkey replied, "I don't know any stories, but I have a piece of gossip for you." The wolf and the tiger were naturally intrigued, and the monkey continued, "To the southeast, about fifty miles from here, there is a small village. In it there is a young girl with an unknown disease, which no one is able to cure, and her father has announced that the person who cures her shall have her as his wife. It is really a very simple matter, because the doctor needs only to scratch a little dirt off his spine and make three pills out of it, and the young girl will be cured the moment she eats them J' The tiger and the wolf heaved a deep sigh, "What a pity that we are not men and cannot have such luck!" But the simpleton thought to himself in delight, "There ought to be enough filth on my back for thirty thousand pills," The three animals exchanged some more gossip and then went back into the woods. The next morning, the simpleton climbed down from the tree, rolled three big dark pills out of the dirt on his back, and set off toward the southeast. He kept on asking the way, until he arrived at the village of the sick girl, where he heard everyone saying, "She is to marry the person who cures her." Then the simpleton produced his pills and 102 gave them to the girl, who was cured at once. Her father was filled with joy, and gave orders to prepare the mar­ riage at once. While the simpleton was celebrating his marriage, his brother met his death, which came about in the following manner. The elder brother's wife had always loathed the simpleton, but he was strong and could do heavy work, so that on his failure to return she said to her husband, "The simpleton is wandering around somewhere. He ought to come home and do some work," Her husband agreed and went out to search for him. He searched until nightfall, by which time he had arrived at the tree in which his brother had spent the previous night. He also was frightened by the cease­ less roars of the wild animals, and climbed up into the tree. Brother tiger, brother wolf, and brother monkey soon appeared, and the tiger said, "It is so pleasant here. Do tell us the day's gossip, brother monkey." The monkey re­ plied, "Yesterday someone was sitting in this tree and made his fortune by listening to us. Today we had better make sure there is no one up there before we begin." When the elder brother heard that, he cowered back and trembled so violently that the branches began to shake, and the animals saw him at once when they looked up. All three of them wanted to climb up and seize him, but the monkey said, "Let me go. Neither of you can climb half so 103 quickly as I,"

He jumped into the tree and flung the elder brother

to the ground. He called out to the tiger, "Eat him up."

But the tiger refused. Then he called to the wolf, "Eat

him up." But the wolf refused. As none of them wanted to

eat him there, they carried him into the hills. The wolf

took a piece, the tiger a piece, and the monkey a piece.

Nothing remained of the brother except the head (Eberhard

1965:127-129).

Activities

Pass the two tales out to each pupil. Have them read

both tales, one of them out loud. Have some pupils give

their version orally of the second tale. Point out the

origin of the tales on a world map or globe or have two

pupils do it and discuss the tales using the study ques­

tions.

Int er pr e t a t i on

Begin in this lesson and continue it through to the

last lesson on folktales to compare and contrast the folk­

lore from all the countries that have been used in this

unit. By the end of the unit on folktales, the pupils

should be able to see that although there is considerable

diversity, there is also considerable uniformity. And

that even where there are differences, those differences

are traditional. 104 Study Questions

1. Why are these two tales ordinary folktales? They are located in a remote time, contain repetition, and the poor, mistreated hero gains wealth or power. 2. Compare the settings of the two tales. Tale 1: The country is ruled by a king, transportation consists of walking from place to place and sleeping in the fields. Reference is made to the sons of shedim. Tale 2: It is located in a small village near a woods with wild animals. 3. Compare the plots of these two tales. Tale 1: A traveler overhears a cure for the king's son's ill­ ness. He cures the son and is richly rewarded. Tale 2: A simpleton overhears a cure for the wealthy man's daughter. He cures her and gains a wife and prosperity. 4. How are the two main characters similar? The gener­ ous man is willing to give rather than take all the time, but he recognizes an opportunity to do well for himself. The simpleton has worked hard for his brother with little in return. He also recognizes the opportunity to better his position. Both are capable of acting for their own benefit. 5. What cultural values are expressed in these two tales? Tale 1: It is emphasized that it is wrong to steal. 105 The death of the stingy man shows this. Also the king has great power for the people accept his de­ cision that if his son dies he will kill their sons. Tale 2: The value of hard work is repaid by good for­ tune.

Lesson Three: Ordinary Tales

Background Material See the preceding lesson for background material on ordinary tales. Resources Mimeograph the following two tales. The tales are from Japan and Mexico. "The Skeleton's Song" (Japan) Long ago there were two good friends named Kami Shi- chibe and Shimo Shichibe. They decided to go to another country and find work, and so they set off. Shimo Shichibe worked very hard and earned a great deal of money, but Kami Shichibe fell in with a bunch of bad companions and did no­ thing but waste his time in evil pleasures. In this way the days and months passed until three years were gone, and Shimo Shichibe decided to return to his home country. He asked Kami Shichibe if he wanted to return, too, and he replied, "I want very much to return, but I have no clothes to wear." 106 Now since the two of them had left their home village together, Shimo Shichibe did not want to leave Kami Shi­ chibe and go home alone. He gave him clothes and travel­ ing money so that they could return together; then the two of them set out. However, when they got to the mountain pass which marked the border of their home country, Kami Shichibe attacked Shimo Shichibe and killed him. He took his money and pretending that nothing had happened, return­ ed to his home village. When he got home he told all the villagers: "Shimo Shichibe changed into a completely different person after he left the village and went to another country. He did nothing but evil, so he had no money for traveling expen­ ses and could not return home." Soon after this Kami Shichibe began to gamble and play dice. In a short while he had lost all the money he had taken from Shimo Shichibe. He could no longer stay in the village, so he set off for another country. On his way he passed through the mountain pass where he had killed Shimo Shichibe. As he was going through the pass, he heard a voice calling, "Shichibe, Shichibe." Wondering who it was, he turned around and looked, but there was no one there. Thinking that he had only imagined that he had heard some­ thing, he started off again, but the voice came again, "Shichibe, Shichibe." "Well, this is surely something strange," he thought 107 and, listening carefully, found that the voice was coming from a thicket by the side of the road. Wondering what strange thing it was, Kami Shichibe peeked into the thicket and saw a skeleton there; its white teeth were turned toward him, and it was laughing loudly. While Kami Shichibe looked on in surprise, the skeleton said: "Well, my friend, it's been a long time. Have you forgotten me? I am Shimo Shichibe, whom you killed and robbed here three years ago. I kept thinking that I might meet you again sometime and have been waiting here day af­ ter day for you to come. Today my wish has been fulfilled, and I have the chance to see you again. I have never been so happy before." Kami Shichibe was very much surprised and tried to run away, but the skeleton seized the skirt of his kimono in its bony hand and would not let go. "Where are you going now?" asked the skeleton. Kami Shichibe had no choice but to tell the truth. "I went home to the village but the money soon disappeared, and so I set out to look for work, and here I am. I want to hurry on now, so please let me go." "Really? Well, I see that you haven't changed; you are always in trouble. Now how about my doing dances for you? Why don't you take me along with you? You can put me in a box and carry me with you. I won't need anything to eat or anything to wear. There is no other job like 108 this where you can earn so much with so little expense. You are probably wondering what sort of dances I can do. Well, I'll show you right away: please watch me awhile," and the skeleton began to dance. Rattling and banging his bones together, waving his arms, and lifting his legs, he performed various dances,

"Well, Shichibe, that's how I do it. If you sing and call the tune, I can dance any kind of dance you want. What do you say; we could make a lot of money, couldn't we?" Kami Shichibe agreed that it would be a good way to make a lot of money, and so he took the skeleton as it had requested and continued on his journey. Reports of Kami Shichibe and his dancing skeleton spread from town to village, and even the lord of the coun­ try heard of it. Kami Shichibe was called to the lord's castle, and there he was told to make the skeleton dance in the great reception room of the castle. However, for some reason, the skeleton would not do a single dance before the lord. Kami Shichibe turned blue, then red; he sang various songs, called various tunes, played various accompaniments, but the skeleton would not dance a step. Becoming angry, Kami Shichibe took his whip and began to beat the skeleton. It then got up and went before the lord. "My lord, I have been performing dances about the country just so that I could come into your presence. This 109 fellow killed me and robbed me of my money at the pass on the border of this country," and the skeleton told every­ thing that had happened.

The lord was very surprised. "There are certainly some things in this world that are very strange," he said, then cried, "Quick, bind that fellow with a rope and take him to be tried!" Kami Shichibe was taken and tried. He confessed to all his sins; then he was crucified (Seki 1963:145-148). "The Flower of Lily-Lo" (Mexico) Once there was a family consisting of the parents and three sons. The youngest was loved the most by the parents and by the whole town as well, but the two older ones were very envious of him. One day the mother fell sick, and no physician could cure her. They didn't know what was wrong with her until a witch told them they must look in the for­ est for a flower called "The Flower of Lily-Lo." And she would be cured with it. The father sent his three sons to look for the flower. The two big ones hid among the trees. The smallest, when he saw that he was lost, began to run this way and that and to cry out. He walked a long way, and he finally found the flowers; he took several and came back. The others came to where he was, and when they saw the flowers, they fell into a fury, and they beat him. They dragged him to a hole in the ground, and they threw rocks over him until the hole 110 was covered up.

Then they went home with the flowers. When they got there, the father took the flowers, made a potion out of them, and gave it to the mother, and she was cured instant­ ly. But since the smallest one did not return, he asked what had happened. They said he must have lost his way. The parents got many people together to go look for him, but two or three weeks passed, and the little one was not found, so they gave him up for dead. He must have been eaten up by wild beasts, they thought. Meanwhile, a boy was going through the woods, coming back to his native town, and on the way he came to a tree covered with flowers. He was curious enough to pluck one and blow on it, and it made a little song that said. Oh, little boy, don't blow on me; Don't blow again, no, no. My brothers they have killed me For the Flower of Lily-Lo. At first the boy was frightened, but then he blew again and the flower sang the little song again. So he decided to fill his pockets with the flowers and sell them in town. He did so, and fate willed it that the boy should come and stand close to the house where the parents of the lost child lived. He began to blow and to offer the flowers for sale, and people crowded around him out of curiosity. The parents of the lost child recognized the voice of their son, and they came out on the street to see where the voice was com- Ill ing from. So they called the boy and asked him for a flower. The father blew on it, and the flower sang. Oh, father dear, don't blow on me; Don't blow again, no, no. My brothers they have killed me For the Flower of Lily-Lo. The father was frightened, and he gave the flower to his wife. She blew on it and heard the flower say. Oh, mother dear, don't blow on me; Don't blow again, no, no. My brothers they have killed me For the Flower of Lily-Lo. They called the brothers at once and made them blow. The flower said, Oh, brothers mine, don't blow on me; Don't blow again, no, no. My brothers, you have killed me For the Flower of Lily-Lo. The parents were furious, so they took the wicked boys and shut them up in a room. They lighted a fire inside and threw a lot of chili peppers on the flames so they would choke to death. They also asked the boy to take them where he had found the flowers. They went with him, followed by many people from the town. When they came to the place, they took away the rocks and found the little boy asleep under the tree trunk. They took him out, and he woke up at once, and this made everybody happy, and there was much merrymaking. And colorin so red, my story is said, and yours is still to tell (Paredes 1970:125-127). 112 Activities

Assign each pupil a part to enact in one of the tales. Stage each play as many times as necessary to enable each child a turn to act. At the completion of all the plays, discuss each tale using the study questions as a guide. Study Questions

1. What cultural values are shown in these tales? Tale 1: Greed is the root of much trouble, do not harm or kill those who befriend you, and justice will befall wrongdoers. Tale 2: Envy is a bad characteristic. Killing is wrong and those who attempt to kill are punished. 2. What are the settings of these tales? In tale 1 there is an atmosphere of magic as the skeleton comes to life. The story takes place in the countries on eith­ er side of a mountain. In tale 2 there is also a ma­ gical atmosphere as evidenced by the witch, the talk­ ing flowers, and the boy who sleeps unharmed under a pile of rocks for several weeks. 3. What are the plots of these tales? Tale 1: Shima be­ friends Kima by giving him money but Kima in his greed kills Shima and takes all his money. Shima plays on Kima's greed and they go to the court where Kima is killed for his crime. Tale 2; Two brothers envy their younger brother who has found the cure for their sick mother. They throw him in a pit and cover him 113 with rocks. Later their crime is discovered, they are killed, and the younger brother survives. 4. Describe the main characters in each tale. Tale 1: Shima is a generous man who is also clever enough to trap his killer in order to receive justice. Kima is a man without honor who kills Shima for his money but he is later killed because his greed allows him to be trapped. Tale 2: The two brothers are so jealous that they try to kill their younger brother who has never done them any harm. They die for their crime. The younger brother survives because he is too good to die unjustly.

Folklore Unit: Third Week

Lesson One: Jokes and Anecdotes

Background Material There are no real differences between jokes and anec­ dotes although some jokes may consist of only one line. Both are humorous stories characterized by short and fairly simple plots, and by realistic settings. Some typical cha­ racters in these stories sire numbskulls, married couples, parsons and religious orders, ethnic groups, and shaggy dogs. The two tales to be assigned concern married couples in which the wives contest each other to prove which has 114 the stupidest husband (Brunvand I968). Resources Mimeograph the following two tales; the tales are from Israel and Norway.

"The Two Husbands" (Israel) In an Eastern town lived a clever woman named Shafika. She had a stupid husband, and his name was Hangal. Shafika was a good housewife and she ran her home with knowledge and skill. She bore her fate in silence and with her own deeds covered up her husband's stupidity, without disclos­ ing his shame in public. One day a neighbor named Rahama visited her, and the two of them discussed the role of the man in the family. Rahama talked about courage and cleverness and the wealth of men. At this moment Shafika recalled her stupid husband, and she burst out in silent tears over her fate. Crying she spoke bitterly of the matchmakers who had not found her a good man as a husband. Then she decided to tell her neighbor all her troubles. As it is written: "A worry in the heart of a man has to be talked about." "OhI my dear neighbor," began Shafika, with a heart­ breaking sigh. "What shall I say and what shall I recount? The Almighty has cursed me with a heavy curse and given me a husband who has in him all the stupidity of the entire world. He has caused me many misfortunes, and he doesn't know how to earn even a single pruta, all because of his 115 exaggerated simpleness and because he does not know how to get on with people." "The entire burden of the family rests on my shoulders and I am forced to work and to sweat out the day so as to earn some pruta for our very existence. And when the night comes, I have to arrange all the household needs. Woe is me! Woe is my fate! If you don't believe me, I shall call him here and show you an example of his stupidity." At once Shafika called her husband and said, "Hangal, my husband, go to the roof and bring down a loaf of bread so you will have something to eat for lunch." "As you wish, my wife," answered Hangal. "I am going immediately." Hangal went to the ladder and climbed up. When he was halfway up, he began to shout, "Shafika, Shafi­ ka! I am standing halfway up the ladder, and I don't know if I have to climb up or come down." "Alas! Alas! stupid one!" answered Shafika. "If you have nothing in your hands, it means that you have not yet taken the loaf of bread and you must climb up. If you have a loaf of bread in your hands, it means that you have al­ ready been up and now you must climb dov/n." Hangal looked at his hands but did not find anything in them. Following his wife's advice, he climbed up to the roof, took the bread, and came down. When he was halfway down the ladder he stopped and shouted, "Shafika, Shafika! Again I'm in the middle of the ladder, and I don't know 116 whether to climb up or to come down."

Again Shafika gave him the same advice. Hangal looked at his hands, found the bread, and came down. "Did you see, my neighbor, my husband's stupidity?" asked Shafika and added, "That is my luck. I weep about it day and night, and there is no help." Her neighbor consoled her and said, "My dear Shafika, do not become sad and do not let your husband's deeds seem so bad in your eyes. Those who make proverbs have said, "Man is as black as coal, but he is also merciful. It is better to have a husband like that than no husband at all. You know that a woman who has not a husband is not able to dress well, and she is forbidden to talk to other people. And now come close to me and I shall reveal a great secret to you. If you only knew the stupidity and foolishness of my husband, Shimon, you would be satisfied with what you have. You would lift up your eyes to the heavens and give thanks to. the Almighty that He gave you a husband like Han­ gal. My husband is worse than yours. If you don't believe me, come to my home and I shall show you an example of his stupidity. So they went together to Rahama's house. Rahama took a jug, filled it with water, and then called her husband and said, "Here is a jug full of grain. Take it to the miller and ask him to grind it immediately because my noic h bor will not leave until you return." 117 Shimon took the jug of water and went to the miller, saying to him, "My wife sends her greetings and says that we have a guest at home, so please will you grind the grain in this jug immediately so that I won't be late returning home." When the miller saw the water in the jug and heard the way Shimon was speaking, he knew this was a stupid man in front of him. He decided thereupon to make a joke and have some fun on his account. In a comer of the miller's house a Hindu was sleeping, and the miller said to Shimon, "Go and sleep next to the Hindu. When I have finished grinding the wheat, I shall wake you up and send you home peacefully." Shimon did as the miller suggested. He went to sleep near the Hindu. When he was sleeping soundly, the miller approached him and cut off his beard. Then he took off his hat and put the Hindu's hat on his head. Then the miller woke Shimon, handed him the jug, and said, "I have ground the grain. Go home in peace." Shimon arrived home looking so strange that Shafika and Rahama were amazed when they saw him. His wife Rahama asked him, "Who are you? Where do you come from?" Answered Shimon, "I am the husband of one of you, but

I do not remember of which one." "We don't know you," answered Rahama, and she handed him a mirror. When Shimon saw how he looked, he realized 118 immediately that this was not his face. He had never worn a Hindu's hat like that and he always had a beard. Shimon shook his head and cursed bitter curses against the miller saying, "That dog the miller! Instead of waking me up and giving me the flour, he woke up the Hindu and sent the flour with him, while leaving me to sleep there. I shall run back to him immediately and ask him to wake me up, because if I stay there and sleep in the heat I might get sunstroke, God forbid." Shafika turned to Rahama and said to her, "You were right, my friend, I am happy in comparison to you. May the Almighty help you.' (Noy 1963:187-190). "Stupid Men and Shrewish Wives" (Norway) There were once two wives who were always quarreling, the way some wives do now and then, and, as they had no­ thing better to quarrel about, they started bickering about their husbands: about which one was the stupidest of the two. The longer they quarreled, the angrier they grew, and at last they were on the verge of coming to blows. For one thing is certain: "A quarrel is more easily stirred than stilled, and it's a bad thing when common sense is lacking." The first wife said that there was not a thing she could not make her husband believe if she but said it was true, for he was as gullible as the trolls! And the second wife said that no matter how wrong it might be, she could make her husband do anything if she said it should be done. 119 for he was the kind who could not see through a ladder. "Well, let's see which one of us can fool them the best. Then we'll find out which husband is the stupidest," they said, and this they agreed to do.

Now when her husband came home from the woods, the first wife cried, "Heaven help me! Why, this is awful! You must be sick, if you're not already dying!" "There's nothing wrong with me that food and drink won't cure!" said the man. "God save me if it isn't true!" sobbed the wife. "It's getting worse and worse all right; you look as pale as a corpse. You'd better lie down! Oh, you won't last long at all!" Thus she carried on until she got the man to believe that he was at death's door. She got him to lie down, fold his hands, and close his eyes. Then she stretched him out, put him in a shroud, and laid him in a coffin. But, so he would not suffocate while he was in there, she made some holes in the boards so he could breathe and peek out. The other wife, she took a pair of carders, sat down, and started carding. But she had no wool on them. Her husband came in and looked at what she was doing. "It helps little to spin without a wheel, but to card without wool, a wife is a fool." said the man. "Without wool?" said the wife. "Why, of course, I have wool, but you can't see it because it's the finest 120 kine!"

When she had finished carding, she got out the spin­ ning wheel and started to spin. "Nayl This is going right to the dogs!" said the man. "Why, you're sitting there whirling and spoiling your wheel without anything on it!" "Without anything on it?" said the wife. "The thread is so fine that it takes better eyes than yours to see it." When she had finished spinning, she set up the loom and threaded it and wove the cloth. Then she took it off the loom, and cut it out, and sewed clothes out of it for her husband. And when they were finished she hung them up in the stabbur loft. The man could see neither cloth nor clothes, but now he had come to believe that they were so fine that he could not see them, and so he said, "Well, well, as long as they're so fine, it's lucky I am to have them." But one day his wife said to him, "Today you must go to a burial feast. The man at the North farm is getting buried today, so you have to have on your new clothes." Well, well, go to the burial feast he should, and the wife helped him on with the clothes, for they were so fine that he would tear them to pieces if he did it himself. When he came up to the farm to the burial feast, they had already been drinking hard and fast, and their grief was not any greater when they caught sight of him with his 121 new church going clothes on, I dare say. But as they were on the way to the graveyard, and the dead man peeked out through the breathing holes, he almost split his sides laughing. "Well, now I have to laugh!" he said, "If it isn*t old Ola South Farm at my burial feast as naked as the day he was born!" When people in the funeral procession heard that, it did not take them long to get the lid off the coffin. And the one with the new church-going clothes on asked how it could be that he lay in the coffin, tsilking and laughing, when they were holding a burial feast for him. Why, it would be more fitting if he cried. "Tears never dug anyone up out of the grave," said the other. But the longer they talked together, the more clear it became that the wives had arranged the whole thing be­ tween them. So the husbands went home and did the wisest thing they had ever done. And if anybody wants to know what that was, then he'd better ask the birch rod! (Chris­ tiansen 1964:206-208). Activities Have the stories read in class and point out their origin on a map or globe. Divide the class into two sec­ tions and assign each group a tale. Have each section re­ write the tale, placing the tale in an American setting. Then have each section choose from among themselves sever­ al pupils to act out their tale for the entire class. Dis- 122 cuss the tales using the study questions. Study Questions

1- What are jokes and anecdotes? Humorous stories with short plots and realistic settings. 2. How are these tales similar? They are both about stupid husbands-

3. How are the tales different? In the first tale both men are proven stupid, one more than the other. The wives are right about their husbands. In the second tale the husbands are stupid, but they are smart enough to see that their wives have tricked them and they punish their wives for doing so. 4. Compare the settings of the two stories. How do we know that each story takes place in a different coun­ try? In tale 1, there are words like pruta and the mention of the possibility of heatstroke. In tale 2, trolls, stabbur, birch rod, and the woods are mention­ ed. 5« Are there any particular customs that we learn about in these tales? In tale 1, bread is stored on roof tops, grain is ground at a mill rather than at home by hand, matchmakers are used to arrange marriages, and widowed or unmarried women are not allowed to talk to other people. In tale 2, women card, spin, and weave wool into cloth for their own use, burials are accompanied by a feast and general merrymaking. 123 6. In tale 1 what are values that Rahama and Shafika state are important in their culture? Courage, cleverness, and wealth.

Lesson Two: Formula Tales

Background Material

These tales represent a very ancient category of folk­ tales, usually based on a strict pattern of development involving repetition. There are three major types of for­ mula tales: cumulative tales.; catch tales; and endless tales (Brunvand I968). Cumulative tales are often based on adding a further detail to the story with each repetition. The "House that Jack Built" is a good example (Burnvand I968). In catch tales the listener is tricked into asking a question to which the story teller returns a foolish an­ swer. An example of this is a long, boring story in which the teller consistently repeats the line, "Patience, little burro, patience." When the listener finally tires of the tale and demands the point of the story, the teller admon­ ishes him, "Patience, little burro, patience" (Brunvand 1968). Endless tales are formula tales which could continue indefinitely, depending on the will of the teller. These stories set up an action which is then repeated ad infini- 124 turn such as sheep jumping over a fence (Brunvand 1968). Resources

The instructor may wish to use his own stories. If not, the following tales are good examples; the tales are from Japan, France and the United States. "An Endless Story" (Japan) Long ago all the rats in Nagasaki got together and decided that since there was nothing left to eat in Naga­ saki, they would cross over to Satsuma. They boarded a ship and set out. It happened that on the way they met a ship on which all the rats in Satsuma had gone aboard, in­ tending to go to Nagasaki. They asked one another how things were and discovered that there was nothing to eat in either Satsuma or Nagasaki. There was no use in going to Nagasaki nor any use in going to Satsuma, so they de­ cided to jump into the sea and drown. The first rat began to cry, chu chu, and jumped over with a splash. Then another rat cried, chu chu, and jumped over with a splash. Then another cried, chu chu, and jumped over with a splash (Seki 1963:30). "The Black One, the White One, and the Plucked One" (France) Once upon a time there were three ewes- There was a black one, and a white one, and the plucked one. They had been together in the same pen for a long time. They went to the fair - the Geadrey fair - and when they reached the 125 comer of the wood there was the wolf waiting for them. ^Oh!" said he to the black one, "Black ewe, you black one, I must eat you!"

"Oh, poor wolf, help yourself to the white one who is behind me, for I am too thin!"

"White ewe, you white one, I must eat you!" "Oh, do eat my sister who is behind me!" (This was the plucked one).

"Oh, plucked one, plucked one, I must eat you!" "Oh, poor wolf, eat me if you like! I am nothing but skin and bone." "Oh, really? Well, I'll wait for you to come back." So they went off and reached the fair at Geadrey. There they began browsing in a field of clover. Oh, they really ate well for eight long days! They were much more plump than when they had set off. Now they were on their way back. They were no longer thinking of the wolf, but he still had his mind on them. "Hey, black ewe, I must eat you!" "Oh, wolf, let me by! Eat my sister who is behind me!" "Hey, white ewe, I must eat you!" "Oh, wolf, let me by! Eat my sister who is behind me!" (The narrator stops at this point, and the audience asks, "And what about the plucked one?" "Scratch behind her ears so her feathers v/ill grow back again!" (Massignon 1968:193). 126 "The House That Jack Built" (United States) This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the cat that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the dog that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built, This is the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the man all tattered and torn that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that kill­ ed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, 127 that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack Built. This is the cock that crowed in the morn, that waked the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

This is the farmer sowing his corn, that kept the cock that crowed in the morn, that waked the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that wor­ ried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the horse and the hound and the horn, that belonged to the farmer sowing his corn, that kept the cock that crowed in the morn, that waked the priest all shaven and shorn, that married the man all tattered and torn, that kissed the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog, that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built (Izawa and Hijikata I969).

Activities Tell the three tales to the pupils, in the one repeat­ ing it long enough to make the point and in the other, tel­ ling the tale in such a way that the vital question is 128 asked. Solicit from the pupils any stories they might know in this genre. Refer to the study questions. Study Questions; 1. What are formula tales? Tales which use repetition. 2. What is a cumulative tale? A tale which is told over and over, adding another detail with each verse. 3. What is a catch tale? The listener is tricked into a question to which the teller returns a foolish answer. 4. What is an endless tale? A tale where the teller keeps repeating the ending. 5. What kind of tale is tale 1? Endless. 6. Can you think of a proverb that fits tale 1? The grass always looks greener on the other side. 7. Could tale 1 be told in another land? This tale could easily occur in any land situated near bodies of water. 8. What kind of tale is tale 2? Catch tale. 9. Could tale 2 be told in another land? It would pro­ bably appear in any area where herds of any kind were threatened by predators. 10. What kind of tale is tale 3? Cumulative tale.

Lesson Three: Review

Background Material Review the entire unit to this point. Now that the nature of variation in folklore has teen 129 illustrated, the teacher might wish to discuss why there is variation. The important point is the difference be­ tween oral and written traditions. Folklore is passed on by means of person to person contact. An item of folklore may be changed by different individuals in accordance with their own individual needs, the demands of a particular social context such as the composition of the audience by sex, age, and interests. So it is that each item of folk­ lore is passed through time, sometimes remaining the same, sometimes changing. Activities Try the old game of whispering a phrase to one pupil and having that pupil pass it to another pupil until it has gone through the entire class. This should point out nicely how folklore can change through oral transmission. Study Questions Refer to the questions at the end of each lesson for

review material.

Folklore Unit: Fourth Week

Lesson One: Folksongs: The Black Experience

Background Material Although many scholars have emphasized that folksongs 130 are perpetuated in oral tradition, they need not have orig­ inated there (Dorson 1959; Dundes I965; Brunvand I968). School children as well as many adults know and sing folk­ songs whether or not they recognize them as folksongs. During the later 1950's and the I960's, so-called folksongs became very popular in this country. However, songs from this period cannot be used as definitive of what a folk­ song is because many songs were written in the folk tra­ dition purely for economic gain. On the other hand, many songs performed by popular artists were true renditions of folksongs. A great many of the best known folksongs in this coun­ try came from the Black population. Our children do not generally recognize such distinguised Americans as Daniel Hale Williams, who performed the first successful open heart surgery in 1893; Perry Julian, who invented a pro­ cess for making cortisone (a medication that relieves the pain of arthritis); Matthew Henson, codiscoverer of the North Pole with Admiral Peary; and Charles Drew who pio­ neered research in the development of blood plasma (Vah Doren and McHenry I97I). All these men were Black and Black history until recently has been severely neglected in American schools. By contrast, school children often do recognize songs such as "John Henry" (about a Black man - real or imaginary) and "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot." These 131 songs, both true folksongs, originated in the Black exper­ ience and have become a part of the cultural heritage of all Americans,

The Black Americans' ancestors came from the African continent and their heritage included songs, dances, arts, and crafts as an important part of their culture. Africans were brought as slaves to the United States during the per­ iod of 1617 to around I850 and many becam.e Christians (Van Doren and McHenry I97I). The slaves added African rhythms and melodies to the religious songs they learned from their owners as well as creating their own Biblical songs. These songs, full of deep religious feelings were called spirit­ uals. Spirituals (sorrow songs) tell the stories of op­ pressed people who yearn to be free. Black Americans com­ posed many songs about Moses because he led the Hebrews out of Egypt to freedom. These were songs which expressed their own desire to be delivered from bondage. "Go Down Mose^' is such a song and was chanted in their cabins and in the fields and at secret meetings when the slaves plan­ ned escapes to the Free Northern states, "the other shore,"

"the freedom land." "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" expressed the hopeful feel­

ings of the Blacks after the abolishment of slavery at the

end of the Civil War: I'm sometimes up and sometimes down. Coming for to carry me home. 132 But still my soul feels heavenly bound Coming for to carry me home.

Resources Mimeograph the words to the two folksongs on pages I32-I35. Instrumental accompaniment is not needed. The musical score for "Swing Lov\^ Sweet Chariot" came from Jack­ son 1943:183 and the lyrics came from Johnson and Johnson 1954:62-63. The musical score and lyrics for "Go Down Moses' came from Downes and Siegmeister 1943:198-199. Lyrics for "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot:"

If you get there before I do. Coming for to carry me home, Tell all my friends I'm coming, too. Coming for to carry me home. Chorus: Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, etc.

The brightest day that ever I saw. Coming for to carry me home. When Jesus washed my sins away. Coming for to carry me home. Chorus: Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, etc

I'm sometimes up and sometimes down. Coming for to carry me home. But still, my soul feels heavenly bound. Coming for to carry me home. Chorus: Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, etc. 133

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Zet- my pc^opic- 135 Lyrics for "Go Down Moses:" 2 Thus saith the Lord, bold Moses said; Let my people go; If not I'll smite your first bom dead. Let my people go. Chorus: Go down Moses, etc.

No more shall they in bondage toil. Let my people go; Let them come out with Egypt's spoil. Let my people go. Chorus; Go down Moses, etc.

The Lord told Moses what to do. Let my people go; To lead the children of Israel thro', Let my people go. Chorus: Go down Moses, etc.

When they had reached the other shore, Let my people go; They sang a song of triumph o'er, Let my people go. Chorus: Go down Moses, etc. Activities Pass out a sheet with the words to both songs to each pupil and let them sing each song. After singing the songs, discuss what a folksong is and discuss the background to the two songs sung. Also discuss the literal meaning, i.e., the meaning the Blacks placed on the songs. The study questions will be helpful in doing this. Interpretation America is a pluralistic society, composed of many 136 ethnic groups of which the Black Americans are probably the most obvious. In the past and even today there is much prejudice directed toward ethnic groups. This prejudice has resulted in violence against property and people and has threatened and in fact still threatens to seriously divide the United States. Prejudice is basically rooted in ignorance, and the best way to combat racial ignorance is to make ourselves familiar with the history and contri­ butions of the various groups that compose this society. This is the purpose of the three lessons on Black folk­ songs this week. As was discussed in a previous lesson, folklore is an excellent medium for gaining an understand­ ing of a group's customs, passions, values, and contribu­ tions. Black folksongs can demonstrate that no matter how different in appearance Americans may appear, some of their yearnings, values, and beliefs are the same as those of all Americans. It is this last point that by the end of the last lesson the pupils should be able to express by them­ selves. Study Questions 1. What is a folksong? A song created and passed on orally as opposed to being written out. 2. What is the Black experience? The events and lives of Black people in the United States. 3. What part of their African heritage did the Blacks keep when they arrived as slaves in America? Songs, 137 rhythms, arts, crafts, dances. 4. What part of American culture did the slaves acquire? Christianity. 5. What are spirituals? Sorrow songs, tell stories of oppressed people, often from Bible stories. 6. Why did the slaves admire Moses? Because he led his people to freedom. 7. When was slavery abolished in the United States? I863. 8. In the song "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" where is home? Heaven. 9. The songs "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Go Down Moses" show us several cultural influences. What are they? Christianity, belief and desire for freedom, oppression felt by Blacks. 10- What is prejudice? An unfavorable opinion formed a- bout something (especially minority groups) because of some easily identifiable characteristic such as physical appearance.

Lesson Two: Folk Heroes

Background Material One of the most famous American folksongs concerns a Black American railroad worker named John Henry. Many peo­ ple thought he was a living hero while others thought of 138 him as a symbol of endurance, strength, and courage. Whe­ ther he was a legendary figure or a real man, he lives in the folklore of almost all Americans, white, black, red, or brown. Around I870 steel driving men hammered long steel drills into mountainsides resulting in narrow holes into which blasting charges were placed to help construct a tun­ nel. John Henry supposedly worked for the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad when its rails were being laid along the New River in the West Virginia . mountains and the Big Bend Tun­ nel, then the longest tunnel ever drilled by man, was being built. During this two-year span of time John Henry's strength and deeds became legendary (Johnson 1929). Around 1873 the railroad brought to the Big Bend Tun­ nel const27uction site a steam drill which supposedly could do the drilling cheaper and faster than could men and which would eventually replace many of the men (Johnson 1929). John Henry challenged the machine to a contest. The contest would last thirty-five minutes and if John Henry was able to beat the machine he would receive one hundred dollars. John Henry used two hammers, one in each hand and by the end of the contest, John Henry had drilled two holes, each seven feet deep, a total of fourteen feet. The steam drill had drilled only one hole, nine feet deep (Johnson 1929). 139 Resources Mimeograph for each pupil the song, "John Henry", which is on pages 139-140. The musical score came from Southern 1971:246 and the lyrics came from Greenway 1971; 107. Lyrics for "John Henry:"

When they brought that new steam drill They thought it was mighty fine; John Henry made his l4 feet While the steam drill only made 9, While the steam drill only made 9,

Now John Henry swung his hammer around his head. He brought the hammer down on the ground; Man in Chattanooga 300 miles away Heard an awful rumblin' sound, He heard an awful rumblin' sound.

Now John Henry had a pretty little wife. Name was Polly Ann; When John Henry was a-sick and lyin' in his bed His Polly drove steel like a man, His Polly drove steel like a man.

When John Henry died they hadn't no box Big enough to hold his bones, So they buried him in a box car deep in the ground. And let two mountains be his gravestones, And let two mountains be his gravestones. Activities Let the pupils sing the song. Then have five pupils read each verse out loud. Discuss the background informa­ tion given. Discuss the text of the song. The study ques­ tions should be helpful. 140

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^ 0 de-ad CO* I "Ma Ki\5 /aaf>»m^n in his ha yid , 141 Interpretation The story and song present a classic tale of man ver­ sus machine. Machines have replaced many workers, although automation has often created more jobs than it initially replaced. John Henry has often been a hero to the working man - white or Black - because John Henry beat the machine. It is interesting that John Henry is a hero to white and Black alike - even to those whites who are prejudiced a- gainst the Black man. Why should this be? Very simply it is that John Henry has not been generally recognized as a Black man- The lesson to be taught here is that once an individual's appearance is forgotten or ignored an individ­ ual can be judged by his deeds and his values and not by his appearance. Study Questions 1. Who was John Henry? A Black American railroad work­ er who challenged a machine and won. 2. Why did the railroad workers object to the steam drill? They would lose their jobs if it worked well. 3. Analyze the song by verse; a. What did John Henry say about the hammer in the first verse? That it would cause his death before he would let the steam drill beat him. b. What did John Henry mean in his comments to the Captain in verse one? That he had to beat the machine to keep his way of life. 142 c* What does John Henry do in verse two? He beats the steam drill in a contest. d- How is John Henry described in verse three? As big and strong - almost superhuman. e. In verse four who is Polly Ann and what does she do? She is John Henry's wife and she drives steel like a man when John Henry is ill, f. What happened to John Henry in verse five? He dies, but is too "big" a man to bury normally. 4. Why was John Henry admired by whites who were pre­ judiced against Blacks? They did not realize he was Black and therefore admired him for his deeds and values only.

Lesson Three: Civil Rights Movement

Background Material Rosa Parks, a Black lady, boarded a bus in Montgomery, Alabama on December 1, 1955 and seated herself immediately behind the white section. When the seats were all occu­ pied, six additional white passengers entered the bus. The bus driver, as was customary, asked some Blacks to give their seats up to the whites. Three Blacks did so immedi­ ately," but Rosa Parks was tired, and she refused. The driver again ordered her to give up her seat and when once again she refused, he summoned the police. The police ar- 143 rested Miss Parks, took her to jail, and fined her ten dollars for violating that city's segregation ordinance (Van Doren and McHenry 1971),

Within a few hours of her arrest, an old friend had posted bond and she was released. In a meeting the next day Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (a Black minister) and church leaders decided to boycott the city's bus lines. The Montgomery Improvement Association was formed and Dr. King was elected it president (Van Doren and McHenry 1971). The boycott was scheduled to begin December 5. On the preceding day, all the Black community ministers urged their congregations to boycott the bus lines. The follow­ ing morning, 10,000 Blacks did boycott the bus lines by walking, riding bicycles, forming car pools, or traveling in buggies drawn by donkeys (Van Doren and McHenry I97I). The boycott nearly bankrupted the bus company because seventy percent of their income came from Black passengers. The owner of the company, with city officials helping, re­ taliated against the Blacks by bombing Dr. King's home and by arresting many Blacks on made-up charges. For the most part the Black community refused to fight violence with violence for the duration of the boycott which lasted for 381 days (Van Doren and McHenry 1971). The Alabama bus segregation laws were ruled unconsti­ tutional by the United States Supreme Court on November 13. 1956. From then on Black Americans would receive equal 144 treatment with whites on buses. After this victory the Southern Christian Leadership Conference was formed to test other discriminatory laws and Dr. King was elected its first president (Van Doren and McHenry 1971). Many public restaurants refused to serve Blacks and civil rights workers (Freedom Riders) marched against such discrimination. As the Freedom Riders worked together they sang songs which gave them spirit and courage- A song that passed into folklore during this era and which char­ acterized the Blacks' struggle for equal rights was "We Shall Overcome," On August 28,1963 over 250,000 people from all over the United States and also foreign countries gathered in Washington, D.C. to urge Congress to pass legislation which would insure equality for all Americans. From a platform at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C, Dr. King addressed the gathering, declaring, "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character" (King 1971). He concluded the speech: When we let freedom ring,.,from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up the day when all God's children, black and white, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing the words of the old Negro spiritual, "Free at last, free at last, great God Almighty, we are free at last!" (King 1971 Oob;. "Free at Last" had been sung nearly one hundred years ear- 145 lier, January 1, I863, when President Abraham Lincoln, signed into law the Emancipation Proclamation which freed the slaves. However, a hundred years later. Black Ameri­ cans "were still the victims of prejudice. They have been denied equal opportunity in jobs, housing, restaurants, schools, public service, and in some Southern states were even denied the right to vote. On January 3f 1964, Presi­ dent Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act which helped in correcting racial injustice- However, even to­ day the struggle continues.

Resources Mimeograph the lyrics from the songs on pages 146-14? The musical score and lyrics for "Free at Last" came from Mcllhenny 1933:95. The musical score for "We Shall Over­ come" came from Southern 1971:491 and the lyrics came from Rosen 1972:111-112. Lyrics for "We Shall Overcome:" 2 We'll walk hand in hand. We'll walk hand in hand. We'll walk hand in hand someday. Deep in my heart, I do believe that We'll walk hand in hand someday.

We are not afraid, We are not afraid. We are not afraid today. ^ Deep in my heart, I do believe that We are not afraid today.

Activities Have the pupils read these songs and learn them. Then 146

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The story of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States is a vital piece of American history that every child should know about. It also offers opportunities for assessing values. Every American considers the freedom he enjoys to be a basic value. Many Americans would and have willingly given their lives in the name of freedom. Yet in this country individuals are denied this basic value (freedom) because of their appearance. Many invalid rea­ sons are given for this denial; "they" are inferior; lazy; irresponsible; happy to be "taken care of" and so forth. The history of the Black experience in this country emphatically demonstrates that Blacks do want to be respon­ sible for themselves; they do want the same opportunities open to them as to all men, and they have been fighting for these liberties ever since they were brought to this country as slaves over two hundred years ago. In short, they hold freedom as a basic value just as do most Ameri­ cans and they ask why it should be denied. And how can men who value freedom so greatly as to give their lives for it deny it to others because of their appearance? There is no scientific basis for racism, although there is a basis for it or it would not exist. The purpose in this lesson, however, is not to reinforce racism, but to 149 work against it and the matter will not be discussed further, Study Questions

1. Who was Rosa Parks? A Black woman who was arrested for not giving her bus seat to a white person- 2. What did the Black community do about the law that stated that Blacks had to ride in the back of the bus? They refused to use the buses for over a year. Such a refusal is called a boycott. 3. Who was Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.? President of several groups formed to aid the Blacks in their fight against discrimination. 4. What is discrimination? Acting against a certain person or group; setting a certain group aside for special treatment. 5. What did the bus company and city officials do when the Blacks boycotted the buses? They bombed Dr- King's home and arrested Blacks on false charges. 6. What was the Supreme Court's ruling on the segregation laws? They were ruled unconstitutional, that is, as laws which deprived United States citizens of their rights, 7. What is segregation? Separation of one group from

another. 8. Who were the Freedom Riders? People who worked to remove discriminatory practices. 9. What were some of these discriminatory practices? 150 Denial of the right to vote; unequal job opportunities; segregated housing schooling and public service. 10. When was "Free at Last" first sung at a large gather­ ing? When President Lincoln signed the bill (Eman­ cipation Proclamation) to abolish slavery, 11. When was "Free at Last" next sung at a large gather­ ing? August 28,1963 in Washington, D.C, when many people met to urge Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act. 12. Why is "We Shall Overcome" such a good folksong? We sometimes forget that all people have problems to overcome and this helps us remember to have courage and keep trying.

A Unit on Folklore: Its Rationale

The lesson plan in folklore developed in the preceding section could easily be reduced to three weeks or as easily expanded. The rationale in including a lesson plan was to demonstrate the versatility of folklore and the effective­ ness of using folklore in a social studies curriculum. This writer knows of no commerically available teaching units employing folklore on the pre-collegiate level. It may be that individual instructors have designed their own folklore curriculum; if so, they are not widely publicized.

The materials of folklore, as Gearing (1970) and 151 Dundes (1974) have argued, is an excellent medium for teach- ing the social studies, especially at the elementary level. However, folklore is literature and, as such, could be most usefully employed, also, in a literature curriculum for the secondary schools. The purpose of this final chapter, as stated in the introduction, was to resolve the seven problems discussed in Chapter III using folk material. The remainder of this chapter will, therefore, be devoted to a comparison of the preceding folklore unit with the seven problems and a con­ cluding statement.

Folklore and Different Learning Styles

The Concept of Culture and Regions Around The World, which were analyzed in Chapter III, offered only one medium for learning; reading. In a brief folklore unit, which included only five genres of folkloristics, reading was also an important medium. However, also included was phys­ ical dexterity (string figures), recitation (riddles, pro­ verbs, tales), singing (folksongs), listening (tales), and writing (tales). In all, this short unit provided six dif­ ferent media for learning. Reflecting on the definition of folklore provided on page 65^ it is easy to discern many more folklore genres and many more instructional media. 152 Folklore and Change

Walk into any elementary school and listen to the sounds from the classrooms. The sounds would be children singing, children reciting, children reading, children listening (the teacher telling or reading a story), and children playing educational games and making objects (string patterns?). The introduction of folklore into a curriculum implies no drastic change and allows the same kinds of activities to take place.

And what of the content? An instructor completely ignorant of folklore would not need an in-service training program to familiarize himself with the concepts and ter­ minology. The information is easy to understand and can be easily transmitted to the pupil. Moreover, the teach­ ing aids are either included or readily available (globe, ball of twine).

Folklore and Prejudicial Attitudes and Behaviors

The emphasis in Chapter III was to get the teachers to deal openly in a classroom with the subject of prejudi­ cial attitudes and behaviors. Using folk material, the subject is difficult to avoid, yet its introduction into a curriculum is natural. 153 Folklore and Values

The question of teaching values was another problem discussed in Chapter III. It was said that values could not be taught, only the child himself could clarify, test and refine his own values and it was the instructor's re­ sponsibility to provide him with the opportunities to do so. The section on Black folksongs and the treatment of the Civil Rights Movement in the unit presents an oppor­ tunity to examine values. In addition, it deals with and forces the pupil (and teacher) to deal in the classroom with the subject of prejudice as was briefly discussed in the preceding section.

Folklore and Ethnic Studies

Not much need be said here for folklore is, in one sense, the study of ethnicity. The Black experience was used in the unit; however, that section could easily be substituted and/or additions could be made with material on Mexican-, Native-, German-, Polish-, Oriental-, or Irish-Americans. The folklore of any American ethnic group could be used in combining the study of their lore with the study of the folk. 154 Folklore and Teacher Attitudes and Expectations

In Chapter III part of the discussion centered around the problems teachers had when they misunderstood the "culturally different" paradigm. Teachers, especially those observed by Kleinfeld (1975) in the Bureau of Indian Affairs schools, forgot that although people are different, they are also remarkably similar in many respects. The study of folkloristics makes the similarities (and the differences) very clear.

Folklore and Resource Material

The resource material needed for the unit was ade­ quately included with the unit. In addition, almost any library has folklore material. If, however, the library is inadequate and an instructor desires material addition­ al to that included in the unit, he need only go as far as the school playground- This writer has observed elementary pupils constructing string patterns more complicated than any he could learn from a text. Additionally, pupils are prime sources for jokes, tales and sayings. The sayings and rhymes chanted during the school-yard games are tradi­ tional. They vary among ethnic groups, age grades, and even from region to region within one ethnic group. The resource material for folklore is always available and it irf!

155 can be collected without a great amount of time and ex­ pense invested-

CONCLUDING STATEMENT

Teaching school, at best, is difficult. Teaching the social studies is especially difficult. In social studies, human beings are the primary subject and are imperfectly understood, even by scholars whose entire lives are de­ voted to such study. It cannot be hoped to teach a child what we ourselves do not fully understand and comprehend, yet we must try. A child to become an adult, needs to understand himself and others; he needs to know the beauty and ugliness; the strength and weakness; the similarity and difference; the grandeur and depravity of that creature called Man. And he needs to know it about himself. Anthropology can be instrumental in processing and in transmitting such know­ ledge, but it has to be made comprehensible and more im­ portantly, relevant to the child. However, at this point in time, anthropology's potential is far from being rea­ lized. Transmission of such knowledge to an elementary school child is very difficult and involves many problems both practical and non-idealized. A suggestion for the solution has been made twice (See Gearing 1970 and Dundes 1974), but it remained just a suggestion. This thesis has 156 been an attempt to transform those suggestions into a working reality. NOTES 1 The material and price information is available from Marion J. Rice, Anthropology Curriculum Project, University of Georgia, 107 Dudley Hall, Athens, Georgia 30602. 2 Further information and prices available from Ameri­ can Science and Engineering, Inc., 20 Overland Street, Bos­ ton, Mass. 02215. ^Available through the Curriculum Development Asso­ ciates, Inc., 1211 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Suite I4l4, Washington, D. C. 20036. Materials are available from Selective Educational Equipment, Inc., 3 Bridge Street, Newton, Mass. 02195. ^In practically every society there are discrepancies between the ideal expectations and the actual behavior ex­ hibited by its members. A non-idealized value is synony­ mous to actual behavior. ^The decision to review The Concept of Culture as op­ posed to other project units was (a) based on a considera­ tion of the costs involved in obtaining the materials for review and, (b) on it being a unit designed for the fourth grade. ^The decision to review Regions Around The World as

opposed to other social studies textbooks was (a) based on

its easy availability and, (b) on it being a fourth grade

textbook.

157 REFERENCES CITED Anonymous

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1963 Folktales of Israel. Chicago; The University of Chicago Press. Paredes, Americo, ed. 1970 Folktales of Mexico. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Redfield, Robert 1941 Research in the Social Sciences: Its Significance for General Education. Social Education 5(8):568-574. Rice, Marion J. 1975 The Georgia Anthropology Curriculum Project - A Ten Year Retrospect: 1964-1974. In Pre-Collegiate An­ thropology: Trends and Materials. Thomas Dynneson, comp, Pp. 21-26. Athens, Georgia: Anthropology Curriculum Project. Rosen, David M., comp. 1972 Protest Songs in America. Westlake Village, Cali­ fornia: Aware Press. Rosenthal, R. 1966 Experimental Effects in Behavioral Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Rosenthal, R. and L. Jacobson 1968 Pygmalion in the Classroom; Teacher Expectation and Pupils' Intellectual Development. New York: Holt, Rine- 166 hart, and Winston. Seki, Keigo, ed.

1963 Folktales of Japan. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Sexton, Patricia Cayo 1967 The American School: A Sociological Analysis. En­ glewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Skretting, J. R. and J. E. Sundeen 1969 Social Studies Education. In Encyclopedia of Educa­ tional Research. Fourth Ed. Robert L. Ebel, ed. Pp. 1231-1241. New York: The MacMillan Company. Southern, Eileen, comp. 1971 The Music of Black Americans: A History. New York; W. W.. Norton & Company, Inc. Taylor, Bob L. N.D. Issues and Trends in the Social Studies for the 1970's. In New Directions: Social Studies Curriculum for the 70's. B. L. Taylor and J. D. Haas, eds. Pp. 6S-67, Boulder, Colorado; Center for Social Science Education, University of Colorado, and Social Science Education Consortium, Inc. Tylor, Edward Burnett I87I Primitive Culture. London; J. Murray. Van Doren, Charles, and Robert McHenry, eds. 1971 Webster's Guide to American History. Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company. 167 Wells, H. G. 1971 (1920) The Outline of History. 2 Vols. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc. Wesley, Edgar B. 1942 Teaching the Social Studies. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, Inc. Wesley, Edgar B. and Stanley P. Wronski 1958 Teaching Social Studies in High School. Fourth ed. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Company. 1964 Teaching Social Studies in High School. Sixth ed. Lexington, Mass.; D. C. Heath and Company. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Becker, Howard S. 1972 A School is a Lousy Place to Leam Anything In. American Behavioral Scientist 16(1):85-105. Ben-Amos, Dan, ed. 1976 Folklore Genres. Austin: University of Texas Press Bohannan, Paul 1966 Anthropology Publication I06. Boulder, Colo.: So­ cial Sciences Education Consortium, Inc. 1968 Field Anthropologists and Classroom Teachers. So­ cial Education 32(2);l6l-l66. Chance, Norman A. 1972 Minority Education and the Transformation of Con­ sciousness, American Ethnological Society Proceedings. Pp. 175-184. Collier, Malcolm 1971 The Forgotten Discipline: Anthropology. In Social Science in the School: A Search for Rationale. Irving Morrissett and W. Williams Stevens, Jr., eds. Pp. 86- 92. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Cox, Benjamin C. 1974 Secondary Social Studies Curriculum and Pedagogy in the United States. International Social Science Journal. 26(3):498-508. Ellison, Jack i960 Anthropology Brings Human Nature into the Class- 168 169 room. Social Education. 24(7):313-3l6,328. Pent on, Edwin 1966 Teaching the New Social Studies: An Inductive Ap­ proach. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. Foster, George 1969 Applied Anthropology. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Gibson, John S. 1969 Selecting and Developing Social Studies Instruc­ tional Materials. In Social Studies Curriculum De­ velopment: Prospects and Problems. D. McC. Fraser, ed. Pp. 174-205. Gonzalez, Nancie L., John H. Haefner and Robert M. Fitch 1973 Applied Anthropology and the Grade Schools. Human Organization 32(3):295-304. King, David C. 1974 The Pros and Cons of Using Case Studies. Social Organization 38(7):657-658. Levin, Henry M. 1974 Educational Reform and Social Change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 10(3):304-320. Lunstrum, John P. 1968 Anthropology;Pre-service Teacher Education and Certification. Social Education 32(2);135-141. Morrissett, Irving and W, Williams Stevens, Jr. eds. 1971 Social Science in the Schools: A Search for Ration- 170 ale. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Seidman, Laurance I,

1973 Teaching About the American Revolution through its Folksongs. Social Education 37(7):653-664. Spindler, George D. ed.

1974 Education and Cultural Process. Tov/ard an Anthro­ pology of Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win­ ston, Inc. Taylor, Bob L. and John D. Haas N.D. New Directions; Social Studies Curriculum for the 70's. Boulder, Colo.: Center for Social Science Educa­ tion, University of Colorado and Social Science Educa­ tion Consortium, Inc. Publication #l6l. Wilson, Clyde H. 1972 On the Evolution of Education. American Ethnolo­ gical Society, Proceedings. Pp. 211-241.