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Dicerorhinus Sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814) - in the GUNUNG LEUSER NATIONAL PARK, SUMATRA, INDONESIA; ITS DISTRIBUTION, ECOLOGY and CONSERVATION

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Dicerorhinus Sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814) - in the GUNUNG LEUSER NATIONAL PARK, SUMATRA, INDONESIA; ITS DISTRIBUTION, ECOLOGY and CONSERVATION NICO J. VAN STRIEN THE SUM ATRAN RHINOCEROS - Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814) - IN THE GUNUNG LEUSER NATIONAL PARK, SUMATRA, INDONESIA; ITS DISTRIBUTION, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION CENTRALE LANDBOUWCATALOGUS 0000 0089 5140 Promotor: dr. C.W. Stortenbeker, hoogleraar natuurbehoud en -beheer ^o?tol, (oH* NICO J. VAN STRIEN THE SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS - Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814) - IN THE GUN UN G LEUSER NATIONAL PARK, SUMATRA, INDONESIA; ITS DISTRIBUTION, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor in de landbouwwetenschappen, op gezag van de rector magnificus, dr. C.C. Oosterlee, in het openbaar te verdedigen, op vrijdag 21 juni 1985 des namiddags te vier uur in de aula van de Landbouwhogeschool te Wageningen. 15i L l^ Ws^3 Privately published, Doorn, 1985 © 1985, Nico J. van Strien BIBLIOTHEK fôCH001 TANDBOU^ ' LA W WAGKNINGB« ^H o2Z0\) IOH-3 STELLINGEN 1- De veelgehoorde opvatting dat de Sumatraanse neushoorn door verstoring vanuit het laagland naar de bergen zou zijn gedreven is onjuist. 2- Laurie's veronderstelling dat bij de vrouwelijke Sumatraanse neushoorn de oestrus lang op zich laat wachten en dat het mannetje het wijfje ge­ durende een tamelijk lange periode voor de oestrus begeleidt, dit om com­ petitie tussen mannetjes te bevorderen, wordt tegengesproken door de resul­ taten van dit onderzoek. Ref: Laurie, A.W., 1978. The ecology and behaviour of the greater one- horned rhinoceros. Thesis University of Cambridge. 3- Het relatief snelle uiteengaan van de moeder en haar kalf is een aan­ passing van de Sumatraanse neushoorn aan het leven in het tropische bos. 4- Borner's schatting van het totale aantal neushoorns in Gunung Leuser -20 tot 40- is niet in overeenstemming met de gegevens die hij heeft ver­ kregen in zijn studie gebied. Ref: Bomer, M., 1979. A field study of the Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Fischer 1814; ecology and behaviour conservation situation in Sumatra. Zurich, Juris. Thesis Univerity of Basel. 5- Het bestuderen van voetsporen is een waardevol hulpmiddel bij onderzoek aan grote zoogdieren in het tropische bos, maar om bruikbare gegevens op te leveren dient dit nauwkeuriger te geschieden dan in het verleden gebruike­ lijk was. 5- De regel in de zoologische nomenclatuur dat de spelling van de uitgang van soortsnamen afgeleid van latijnse bijvoeglijke naamwoorden, grammaticaal in overeenstemming moet zijn of moet worden gebracht met het geslacht van de genusnaam waarmee hij wordt geassocieerd, dient geen enkel weten­ schappelijk doel en schept verwarring, en is als zodanig strijdig met de doel­ stelling van uniformiteit en stabiliteit in de zoologische nomenclatuur, uit­ gedrukt in de preambule van de International Code of Zoological Nomen­ clature. 7- Bij het vaststellen van beheersmaatregelen betreffende diersoorten in de tropische bosgebieden, is het verstandig er rekening mee te houden dat de in de relevante literatuur vermelde aantallen en dichtheden van deze soort­ en in veel gevallen een zeer ruime onderschatting zijn van de werkelijke getallen. 8- De bijdrage die Nederland kan geven aan de discussie over het wereld­ bevolkingsvraagstuk zou aanmerkelijk waardevoller en zinvoller worden als daarbij de extreme bevolkingsdruk en daarmee gepaard gaande uitputting van de natuurlijke hulpbronnen in het eigen land zouden worden betrokken. Ref: Kouwen, J., 1984. Minister Schoo: aandacht voor vrouwen en milieu in het kader van bevolkingsbeleid. Internationale Samenwerking 14, 7. BIBLIOTHEEK DÏ-:K LANDBOUWHOGESCHOOL WAGENINGKN 9- Voor de bescherming op de lange termijn van de Australische kangoeroes is het beter de handel in kangoeroevlees en -huiden te stimuleren dan te proberen deze te beperken of te stoppen. Ref: Daly, T. & A. Pickaver, 1984. Kangoeroe zit te springen om bescher­ ming. Greenpeace 6(2), 7. 10- Door de uitdrukkelijke stellingname in de World Conservation Strategy dat 'conservation' een aktiviteit is met het doel de mens te dienen, kan dit document niet gezien worden als een nuttige bijdrage aan het streven natuur­ lijke levensgemeenschappen en niet-menselijke levensvormen te behouden. 11- Er dient in Nederland niet alleen aandacht te worden besteed aan een betere verdeling van de beschikbare werkgelegenheid, maar vooral ook aan een betere verdeling van de werkeloosheid. behorende bij: Nico J. van Strien. The Sumatran rhinoceros - Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Fischer, 1814) - In the Gunung Leuser National Park, Su­ matra, Indonesia; its distribution, ecology and conservation. V CONTENTS 1 - INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Aims of the study 1 1.2 Initiation of the study 4 1.3 Execution of the programme 4 1.4 Previous research 5 2 - THE STUDY AREA AND GENERAL -METHODS 7 2.1 Selection and establishment of the study area 7 2.2 Organization of the expeditions 8 2.3 Description of the study area 9 2.3.1 The Gunung Leuser National Park 9 2.3.2 Physiography of the study area 9 2.3.3 Climate and weather in the study area 13 2.3.4 Plant cover of the study area 15 2.3.5 The other mammal fauna 16 2.4 The patrolling system 18 3 - THE STUDY OF THE RHINO'S TRACKS 19 3.1 Morphology of the rhino's foot 19 3.2 The art of plastercast making 24 3.2.1 Finding the tracks 25 3.2.2 Selection of the prints 25 3.2.3 Preparation of the selected prints 26 3.2.4 The casting 26 3.2.5 Preservation of the casts 27 3.3 Aids for comparison of the casts 27 3.3.1 The stereophotographs 28 3.3.2 The outline drawings 28 3.3.3 The standard measurements 28 3.4 Procedure of the sorting and identification of the casts 31 3.5 Characteristics and variability shown in the casts 34 3.5.1 General characteristics 34 3.5.2 Influence of the soil 35 3.5.3 Influence of the type of movement 43 3.5.4 Gradual changes in size and shape 48 3.6 An illustrative example 57 3.6.1 Formation of an exemplary series 57 3.6.2 Comparison with other series 58 3.7 Final results of the plastercast identification 73 3.8 Evaluation of the method of plastercast analysis 73 3.9 Recommendations for future use 75 4 - GROWTH AND AGING 76 4.1 Growth of the foot of the calf 76 4.2 Age classes 81 4.3 Sex classes and sexual differentiation in footprint 82 5 - DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY 84 5.1 Distribution of the age and sex classes 84 5.1.1 Distribution of the females and their calves 84 5.1.2 Distribution of the sub-adults 90 5.1.3 Distribution of the males and other adults 90 5.1.4 The overall distribution pattern 92 VI 5.2 Analysis of the individual ranges 97 5.2.1 Female home ranges 97 5.2.2 Home range of the calves after weaning 99 5.2.3 Home range of the other sub-adults 99 5.2.4 Male home range 100 5.3 Density of the rhino in the study area 105 5.3.1 Density calculations based on distribution 105 5.3.2 Density calculated from the number of individuals per expedition 107 5.3.3 Density calculated from the number of direct observations 108 5.4 Comparative occurrence in parts of the area 110 5.4.1 Counts of fresh tracks 110 5.4.2 Frequency of use of the game trails 111 5.4.3 Comparison of different areas 113 5.5 Other methods to record the use of the trails 114 5.6 Frequency of visits to the saltlicks 114 6 - THE LIFE CYCLE 116 6.1 The sex ratio of the population 116 6*2 The mating system 116 6.3 Birth of the young 117 6.4 The breeding interval 118 6.5 Development of the calf 119 6.6 The sub-adult phase 119 7 - DAILY ACTIVITIES OF THE RHINO 121 7.1 The system of trails 121 7.2 The daily movements 122 7.3 Wallows and wallowing 125 7.3.1 Location and form of the wallows 125 7.3.2 Pattern of use of the wallows 127 7.4 Marks and marking behaviour 127 7.5 Faeces and defaecation 129 7.6 Urine and urination 132 8 - FEEDING AND THE MINERAL BALANCE 133 8.1 The food 133 8.2 Availability of food 134 8.3 The mineral balance 135 8.3.1 Mineral contents of the foodplants 135 8.3.2 Mineral contents of the saltlicks 137 9 - SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS 139 10 - RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES 142 10.1 Plastercast in comparison to print measurements 142 10.2 Usefulness of different measurements for censussing 147 rhino populations 10.3 Track counts for estimating rhino density 151 10.4 Censussing rhino 152 10.5 Recommendations for further ecological study 153 11 - CONSERVATION OF THE SUMATRAN RHINO 154 11.1 The chances for survival 154 11.2 Design and management of rhino reserves 156 11.3 A strategy for survival of the Sumatran rhino 157 VII APPENDIX A: Hoofs of Sumatran rhino 159 APPENDIX B: Present status of the Sumatran rhino 167 B.l The situation in Sumatra 167 B.2 The situation in Borneo 171 B.3 The situation in Malaysia 172 B.4 The situation in other countries 172 B.5 Summary of the present status of the Sumatran rhino 173 APPENDIX C: Rhino poaching in the Gunung Leuser reserve 175 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 178 REFERENCES 179 PLATES 183 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 - Aims of the study. At present the world is seeing an exponential increase in numbers, together with a rapid increase in the per capita usage of matter and energy, of several taxa in the genus Homo, modern man. The taxa that show this technology-induced population explosion, rapidly increase the land area they occupy and the share of the world's primary production that they consume, at the expense of other species and races that cannot cope with this pressure on space and natural resources.
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