The METALLURGICAL HISTORYof MONTREAL

AN ONLINE SERIES by H.J. McQueen, Concordia University

PART 1 THE VICTORIA TUBULAR (1859) — WROUGHT IRON The METALLURGICAL HISTORYof MONTREAL BRIDGES

THE VICTORIA TUBULAR BRIDGE (1859) — WROUGHT IRON

Abstract Despite difficulties with travel and the transportation of 3. The Quebec Bridge (1917) carried both rail and road goods, especially during freeze-up or spring thaw, there was high above the channel, near the start of tidal brackish no bridge across the St. Lawrence until 1859. It was only in water, and allowed for the passage of ocean liners this year that railroad development reached a stage that beneath it. This bridge furthered the development of the ensured it would be economically successful to build a Canadian steel industry through failure analysis of the bridge. Building a long bridge across the non-navigable initial collapsed bridge and the development of high- Lachine rapids was relatively easy for pier construction. The strength nickel steel. bridge was a wrought iron design, which had The advance of metals technology generally followed been developed recently in England. Wrought iron, which incremental improvements that either led up to or followed had been economically produced by the puddling of coke- significant breakthroughs. Such developments had seeming- reduced pig iron, was the only material of suitable strength ly little impact on social history until they enabled applica- and ductility at the time. It had to be imported from Britain tions that altered people’s way of life. One such landmark, because of very low production in Canada, although there the steam-powered passenger railroad, depended on was sufficient pig iron capacity in Canada. The bridge wrought and cast iron combined with more dimensionally proved a technical success for 50 years, carrying up to 100 accurate machining, thereby reducing leakage between pis- trains per day, providing passenger traverse and enabling ton and cylinders. Rolled iron sheets were fabricated into product delivery that enhanced industrial production in riveted boilers and tubes were produced by hot pressure Montreal. welding; these made possible higher specific power in mobile engines. Increased speeds, loads and travel miles Introduction demanded iron frames, forged iron axles, couplings and In this series of papers, the history of metallurgy is cast iron wheels (replacing spoked wooden wheels). Iron approached through an application of Canadian engineer- straps on wooden rails were soon replaced with rolled iron ing, namely the construction of bridges about a century ago. rails of greater strength and wear-resistance. Multi-wagon These bridges are still in use today by a public that does not trains, which required gradual hills and curves, greatly realize their historical significance, nor the metallurgical increased the need for longer and stronger bridges. and engineering creativity that made them possible. In the The need and support for the construction of a bridge current series, three bridges are considered in as many near Montreal is discussed in the present paper, as is the site installments: selection of the bridge. In addition, this paper explores the 1. The Victoria Tubular Bridge (1859) was the first bridge design possibilities for the structure, which were the out- across the St. Lawrence between the Thousand Islands growth of international developments in bridge technology and the gulf (1,200 kilometres), was single-track rail and and were very much dependent on restricted material avail- was constructed out of wrought iron. The bridge provid- ability. The significant features of the Victoria Bridge con- ed an important contribution to the evolution of struction are then presented, followed by a discussion of its Canadian industry. successful operation and its impact on industrial growth 2. The Victoria (1898), built upon the same near Montreal. piers as the Victoria Tubular Bridge, had double rail tracks and also provided roads for pedestrians and car- Reasons for the Bridge riages. The construction of this bridge highlights the con- There was general demand for a crossing of the St. version to steel throughout the metallurgical industry and Lawrence near Montreal to replace steam ferries that ran in the significance of hot driven rivets, essential for building summer and the ice road in winter (Ball, 1987; Victoria large structures. Jubilee Bridge, 1898; Hodges, 1860; McQueen, 1992; Ponts

| 2 | The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges du Québec, 1975; Szeliski, 1987; Triggs, Young, Graham, & used if long spans were not needed (in North America, Lauzon, 1992; Wilson, 1999). The need was greatest during wooden trestles were more common). Wrought iron girders late autumn freeze-up and the spring ice break-up, when with riveted flanges and ribs were used for bridges up to 9.5 crossing was hazardously attempted in hand-rowed cutters metres (31 feet) in length, but truss design had not been that had to be pulled across the ice flows by the crew. adequately developed. For intermediate spans, arches fabri- Moreover, there was a desire to connect with the network of cated from cast-iron segments were often suitable; however, short rail lines that ran along the South Shore and extend- many of these failed in railroad service and often resulted in ed into the Eastern Townships; these rail lines had sprung disasters under unexpectedly adverse conditions. For long up to replace the inadequate road system (Boot, 1985). spans, suspension bridges with wrought iron chain, or eye- Furthermore, the Inter-Colonial Railroad, which began in bars with pins, filled the need for carriage roads (Pantydd the Maritimes, was under construction and would need a Menai, The Menai Bridges, 1980; Plowden, 1974; Rosenberg link across the St. Lawrence. However, the greatest driving & Vincent; 1978; Smith, 1964; Steinman & Watson, 1957; force for the construction of a bridge was the Grand Trunk Watson, 1975). Conversely, they proved insufficiently stiff Railroad, which was intended to connect a line from the for the heavy, swaying, live loads of multi-carriage trains; Atlantic ice-free port of Portland, Maine, to the western line several suspension spans were shaken to pieces in spectacu- which ran to Toronto and, later, Chicago (Victoria Jubilee lar disasters. A new design was developed in England Bridge, 1898; Triggs et al., 1992). around 1848 that would prove suitable for use across the St. In light of the extensive railroad system that had spread Lawrence. across the United Kingdom and Europe in the period In order to complete a contract by 1850 for a rail line between 1825 and 1850, both the general public and busi- from Manchester across Wales to the port of the Dublin nesses shared the opinion that a continuous rail network was ferry, R. Stephenson needed to span the deep gorge of necessary to usher Eastern Canada into the modern world (Triggs et al., 1992). A bridge at Montreal was essential for attracting passengers from the very slow, but interconnect- ing, network of steamboats and stagecoaches. Furthermore, a continuous rail network was needed to hasten freight ship- ments, which were faster than boats across rivers, lakes and canals. These included not only the Lachine and Rideau canals, but also the Erie Canal from the Hudson River to the Great Lakes. In addition, politicians saw gap-free railroads as iron bands that would greatly strengthen the spirit of national unity; this vision culminated in Confederation about a decade later (Triggs et al., 1992). The site for the bridge was selected by two brothers, T.C. and S. Keeffer, who were later to become prominent builders and founders of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineers (Ball, 1987; Hodges, 1860; Ritchie, 1968). The brothers selected a site at the eastern end of the Lachine Rapids. This location was chosen, in part, to connect with the lines to the Fig. 1. The site of the Victoria Bridge, at the eastern limit of the Lachine Rapids, was to the west of ferry terminal, but mainly to avoid any obstruction to ocean the Old Port. It was also south of the Lachine Canal, which required several swing bridges; these Figureare seldom 1. The opened site oftoday, the Victoriathereby facilitatingBridge, at the present eastern heavy limit ofrail the traffic. Lachine Although Rapids, there was are to sev- the west of the Old shipping into the port of Montreal (Fig. 1). While this loca- Port.eral more It was recent also road south bridges, of the theLachine Victoria, Canal, which which was reconstructed required several in truss swing in 1898, bridges; is still these heav- are seldom opened today,ily used. thereby Adapted facilitating from map the of presentMontreal heavy (2005) rail published traffic. Although by JDM GEO, there areles publicationsseveral more Map recent Art road bridges, the tion for a bridge crossing would be quite long (2,010 metres Victoria,in Montreal. which was reconstructed in truss in 1898, is still heavily used. or 1.3 miles), it would have the advantage of secure pier footings on shallow bedrock. The spans could be relatively short and low (Fig. 2), allowing sufficient height for the pas- sage of log rafts from the Ottawa River and for the occasion- al shallow draft steamers that shot the rapids and carried excursion crowds down river after an ascent via the Lachine Canal (Hodges, 1860; Triggs et al., 1992). A wooden bridge was out of the question because of inadequate durability for railroad service and a stone of such magnitude was beyond Canadian skilled manpower capability.

Railroad Bridge Requirements Rail transportation required extensive bridging and put Fig. 2. Victoria Tubular Bridge, viewed from the northwest, showing the gradual incline towards the centre span and the prows on the piers for breaking ice floes. The thick protective abutment walls older technology to severe trials because of the large active Figurewere removed 2. Victoria when Tubular reconstructed Bridge, viewedin 1898 from(Notman the northwest,photograph, showing McCord the Museum,gradual inclineMontreal; towards the center loads. In England, multiple arch of masonry were spanTriggs and et al., the 1992). prows on the piers for breaking ice floes. The thick protective abutment walls were removed when reconstructed in 1898. (Notman photograph, McCord Museum, Montreal; Triggs et al., 1992).

3 The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

Menai Straits. The gorge was spanned successfully in 1815 iron was used in wind or water mills that sometimes powered by Telford’s suspension road bridge, which was 174 metres forge bellows and tilt, or helve hammers (Fisher, 1963; long and made of multiple iron eyebars with pins Habashi, 1994; Smith, 1960; Tylecote, 1992). (McQueen, 1992; Plowden, 1974; Rosenberg & Vincent; In Europe, during the Middle Ages, liquid pig iron con- 1978; Smith, 1964; Steinman & Watson, 1957; Triggs et al., taining three to five per cent carbon was produced in 1992; Watson, 1975). Due to constraints imposed by tall sail- improved high-blast furnaces. This inherently brittle mate- ing ships, arches were out of the question. A convenient cen- rial was readily cast and easily molded during solidification; tral rock made possible two centre spans of 138 metres and such products are referred to as cast iron. Cast iron bars two side spans of 69 metres. With the assistance of a ship- could be decarburized by long heating in a forge, or finery, builder, W. Fairbairn, Stephenson tested tubes composed of with excess air, and the process could be further accelerated two ship hulls, one of which was inverted (McQueen, 1992; by hammering the iron into thin strips (Fisher, 1963; Rosenberg & Vincent, 1978; Watson, 1975). Wrought iron Habashi, 1994; Samson, 1998). An experienced blacksmith plates (approximately 2 by 0.5 metres in size) reinforced by could produce various grades of steel and iron. Different ribs of bent angles had been used in hulls for several grades of iron could be distinguished by their fracture decades; the riveted joints were beneficial as crack arrestors. appearance, which is related to the quantity of combined Multiple rows of rivets, properly spaced, provided watertight carbon (Fe3C, high in white iron) or of free carbon joints due to the high clinching forces developed by hot (graphite, grey iron; Smith, 1960). In contrast to the specu- driven rivets as they cooled (Fisher & Struik, 1974). Large- lar (or facetted) fracture surfaces in those brittle materials, scale testing over two years showed that buckling in com- wrought iron had a silky appearance related to the forma- pression regions and fatigue in tension could best be avoid- tion of voids at the slag that created what are now referred ed with a rectangular tube, which was reinforced on the top to as dimples (Fig. 3). Such low magnification fractography and bottom by a row of six square tubes; the 10 per cent was the first step in developing an understanding of the increase in weight more than doubled the load-bearing microstructure of iron alloys, as introduced by Rèaumur in capacity. This design was so successful that it gave birth to 1722 in France (Fig. 3a; Metals Handbook, 1987; Smith, beam theory and provided satisfactory service for much 1960) and by Kirkaldy in 1862 in Scotland (Fig. 4; Brick, heavier trains. The bridge was only replaced when damaged Gordon, & Phillips, 1965; Smith, 1960). Wrought iron had by fire in 1970 (Pantydd Menai, The Menai Bridges, 1980). high ductility in the longitudinal direction due to the duc- Before considering the transfer of this wrought iron tube tile low-carbon iron grains, as well as to the blunting of design to the Lachine Rapids site in Montreal, the technol- cracks by bifurcation along slag stringers; the longitudinal ogy and capabilities of wrought iron are explained in the splitting gave wrought iron a failure behaviour, somewhat next section. like wood (Fig. 3c; Brick et al., 1965; Smith, 1960). In the early 18th century, the industrial revolution essen- Wrought Iron tially began with the replacement of charcoal with coke from Wrought iron was discovered to be the only suitable mate- coal (a technique developed by A. Darby in 1750; Habashi, rial in the mid-19th century for long-span bridges because 1994; Tylecote, 1992). The plentiful supply of harder fuel of its tensile strength and ductility, coupled with its econom- ic mode of fabrication. In fact, wrought iron was the materi- al that had introduced the Iron Age in about 2000 BC (Fisher, 1963; Habashi, 1994; Tylecote, 1992). In low-stack furnaces (i.e., the Catalan forge), a mild air-blow upon char- coal reduced the iron oxide. However, because the temper- ature was too low, the iron did not melt, but instead formed a sponge mixed with slag that had to be dug out of the fur- nace. Through hot forging, much of the slag (possibly lique- (a) (b) fied) could be eliminated to produce long strips that consist- ed of bands of iron phase with thin slag stringers (compris- ing approximately three per cent of the strips). Because the slag served as a flux to facilitate welding, the strips could be piled together and consolidated by hot hammering. Such lamination refined both the phases and also redistributed any defects alongside good material. Steel strips of 0.4 to 0.8 per cent carbon (made either by melting in crucibles or by carburizing iron in a forge or in sealed ceramic containers) could be incorporated as a cutting edge reinforced by the (c) (d) tough iron. Because of its good hot workability, iron was Fig. 3. Wrought iron fracture surfaces: (a and b) fractographs by optical microscopy (5X; the first is parallel and the second is normal to the slag stringers; Metals Handbook, 1987); (c) sketches drawn used for armor, chains, straps for barrels, reinforcements in by Réaumur in 1722, after C.S. Smith (1960); and (d) macroscopic splitting along the slag stringers farm implements and machine components. For example, Figurein a Charpy 3. Wroughtspecimen (Metals iron fracture Handbook, surfaces: 1987). (a and b) fractographs by optical microscopy (5X; the first is parallel and the second is normal to the slag stringers; ASM International, 1987), (c) sketches drawn by Réaumur in 1722, after C.S. Smith, 1960 (Smith, 1960), and (d) macroscopic splitting along the slag stringers in a Charpy specimen (ASM International, 1987). 4 The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

(a) (a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 4. Etched microstructures of wrought iron showing slag stringers: (a) elongated, parallel in rolled bars on left and irregular from primary hammering on right, as prepared by Kirkaldy in 1862, (b) Figure 4. Etched microstructures of wrought iron showing slag stringers: (a) elongated, parallel in rolled bars on after C.S. Smith (1960); and (b and c) elongated slag first lying between recrystallized ferrite grains left and irregular from primary hammering on right, as prepared by Kirkaldy in 1862, after C.S. Smith, 1960 (X50) and then exhibiting FeO and Fe O (X500, bar 10 Ìm; Brick et al., 1965). Fig. 5. At the Forges St. Maurice, (a) a water-powered shaft with four teeth raised the tilt or helve (Smith, 1960); and (b and c) elongated2 3 slag first lying in recrystallized ferrite grains (X50) and then exhibiting Figure 5. At the hammerForges for St. beating Maurice, the slag (a) out a ofwater-powered finery iron muck bars shaft and with welding 4 teeth themraised into bundles. the tilt Except or helve hammer for FeO and Fe2O3 (X500, bar 10 m; Brick et al., 1965). for the hammer and anvil, the hurst frame was constructed mainly of wood reinforced with iron beating the slag outstraps; of thefinery projecting iron muckhorizontal bars wooden and welding spring safely them limited into bundles.the upward Except throw of for the the hammer hammer and anvil, the permitted taller blast furnaces and stronger blast, hurstdelivered frame was(Samson, constructed 1998). mainly Similar iron-framed, of wood reinforced steam-powered with hammers iron straps; were used the up projecting to about 1900; horizontal (b) the wooden spring from steam blowing-engines. With these improvements,safely limited as thehydraulic upward system, throw as designed of the hammer by Chaussegros (Samson, de Lery, 1998). drove the Similar bellows iron-framed, for the blast furnace steam-powered “A” hammers well as with the introduction of heated blast air, thewere output used up to about(high-carbon 1900. iron) (b) andThe for hydraulic the finery furnaces system, associated as designed with the by two Chaussegros forging hammers de “B“Lery, and drove “C” the bellows for the blast furnace to“A” work (high the low-carbon carbon iron) iron (Samson, and for 1998).the finery furnaces associated with the two forging hammers “B“ and quality of pig iron were increased and the unitand cost “C” wasto work the low carbon iron (Samson, 1998). reduced. Later, it became the practice to break the pigs in slag content; the slag was elongated into stringers between order to separate them by carbon content and match them the iron grains. To improve the quality, the bars were once with materials most suitable for either foundry use (cast grey more bundled and forge-welded into billets or slabs of suit- or white iron) or for transformation into wrought iron able dimensions to be used as feedstock for rolling mills (Smith, 1960; Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 1957). In (Gale, 1965; Smith, 1960; Making, Shaping and Treating of about 1780, H. Cort developed the puddling process, in Steel, 1957). Large blooms could be created and manipulat- which a mixture of suitable pig iron, slag and mill scale was ed by derricks for the purpose of forging the blooms into melted in a reverberatory hearth in which the roof reflected large shafts for steam ship engines. hot gasses from a separate fire box (Fisher, 1963; Gale, Mechanical shaping processes were increased in force, 1965; Habashi, 1994; Tylecote, 1992). Air was forced into speed, shape intricacy and dimensional control by the intro- the liquid as it was being stirred and gradually transformed duction of steam power and by improved mechanical link- into solid, low-carbon iron. In about two hours’ time, a ages. Forging hammers changed from the helve type skilled puddler could gage the reduction in carbon and (hinged at one end and raised by a rotating cam; Fig. 5) to work the charge into balls of sponge and slag of about 200 the post or C-frame type, which allowed the hammer either kilograms. After rapid transfer to the forging hammers, to be dropped by a board with rollers after being raised or much liquid slag was ejected in the form of fiery sparks and to be forced down by a double-acting steam cylinder that elongated rectangular muck bars were produced — these also raised it (Fisher, 1963; Habashi, 1994; Samson, 1998; were usually finished by rolling (Fisher, 1963; Gale, 1965; Tylecote, 1992). Rolling mills, although steam driven, Habashi, 1994; Tylecote, 1992; Making, Shaping and Treating depended on manual manipulation of the material; in a of Steel, 1957). The muck bars were piled and bound togeth- two-high mill, the plate had to be lifted over the top rolls, er with wire for further consolidation and reduction of the whereas, in the three-high mill, less of a lift was required and

5 The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

the plate was pulled in for further size reduction. Due to 1989; Samson, 1998). A high fraction of the plant’s 2,000 inadequate transfer equipment, the size of plates was limit- ton per year output was converted into bar iron, which was ed to about 2 by 0.5 metres. By pack rolling, up to eight thin sent to France for the navy; after 1760, the British Navy also sheets could be produced for tin coating, to be used for recognized the high quality of the iron, but the world mar- household implements and food containers (Fisher, 1963; ket was in flux. In the century before Quebec changed Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 1957). Grooved rolls hands, the iron industry in Britain had been in crisis because were developed for rolling bars, rods for wire drawing, sim- charcoal had become increasingly scarce and costly. Iron ple shapes and rails. Sheets could be longitudinally slit and production there had been reduced to about 17,000 tons, bent into angles. Narrow strips (i.e., skelp with beveled requiring imports from the American colonies of as much as edges) could be progressively curled into tubes with longitu- 4,000 tons per year (Fisher, 1963). This demand encouraged dinal butt seams and hot pressure welded by forcing them the production of over 10,000 tons per year in the American through conical dies (or bells; McQueen, 2005). iron industry so that it was able to provide the needed arma- ments for their revolutionary war. Although it suffered much Iron Production in Canada damage, it quickly recovered with improved equipment. In the new colony, iron was always in strong demand, The British industry was surging forward because of their both in cast form for stoves and pots, and in wrought form conversion to coke (in 1750) and to hot blast in order to pro- for plows, axes, scythes and nails. The first, longest running duce pig iron and the puddling process for bar iron (in and most successful iron-producing plant was the Forges St- 1780); as a result, Britain became an increasingly strong Maurice (1729-1883), which was put into operation by iron exporter of iron (Habashi, 1994; Tylecote, 1992). master P.-F. de Vezin. This plant had a blast furnace and two Nevertheless, the American industry underwent renewed forges for finery production of wrought (bar) iron, as well as growth. By 1840, it was producing 316,000 tons of pig iron tilt hammers (Samson, 1998). To reach full production, the and 217,000 tons of bar iron; yet 102,000 tons were still engineer, G.-J. Chaussegros de Lery, redesigned the water imported from Britain (Fisher, 1963). Compared to what was system to drive the bellows for the blast furnace and forges, occurring in Canada, the American production and its ratio as well as to drive the two-tilt hammers (Fig. 5; Berube, to imports were gigantic. Britain’s ability to export wrought iron discouraged expansion of iron works in Canada. Between 1793 and 1836, the Forges St-Maurice was leased to a very competent iron master, M. Bell, who turned production increasingly to iron casting, needed by settlers (Berube, 1989; Samson, 1998); its high-quality and steady production allowed it to compete with imports, although new iron works often failed after a brief period of operation. During the two decades following M. Bell’s ownership of the Forges, it was sold sev- eral times to not-so-competent entrepreneurs, except for one who rebuilt the blast furnace in 1854 with doubled capacity (4,000 tons per year). Each time the Forges was sold, it eventually reverted to being owned by the Crown (Samson, 1998). In 1863, after a few years of being idle, it was purchased by the McDougall family, who also had a foundry in Montreal. They brought the Forges to a high state of productivity, mostly producing pig iron intended for foundries in industrial centres, as well as some rail car wheels and a limited quantity of finery bar iron for axes (Berube, 1989; Samson, 1998). A big problem was fluctuat- ing demand and prices, which depended on business cycles and changes in tariffs (McNally, 1992). Despite technical success and good productivity, certain loan problems forced G. McDougall into bankruptcy at about 1883; the Forges St- Maurice closed, never to re-open. At the time of the closure, production of charcoal iron had declined to about 2,500 tons per year, while production of coke iron rose to 15,000 tons per year (Fig. 6; Inwood, 1989). In Canada, between 1760 and 1900, many iron produc-

Fig. 6. Canadian production of pig iron was primarily by charcoal up to about 1872; this came to a tion facilities were built in locations neighbouring both iron sudden end in about 1911 due to high costs and removal of tariffs. The utilization of coke for reduc- ore natural resources and potential markets (Fig. 7; tion grew rapidly after 1900 (Note that the scale of production for the latter is ten times larger; Inwood, 1989). Andreae, 1989; Gale, 1965; Michael, 1989; Tarassoff, 1989).

Figure 6. Canadian production of pig iron was primarily by charcoal up to about 1872; this came to a sudden end in about 1911 due to high costs and removal of tariffs. The utilization of coke for 6reduction grew rapidly after 1900. (Note that the scale production for the latter is 10-times larger; Inwood, 1989.) The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

could certainly not compete with the experienced and high- capacity construction of the (Hodges, 1860; Triggs et al., 1992). Canada never developed such capacity because most pig iron production was devoted to other aspects of railroad technology and because wrought iron was increasingly replaced after 1865 by steel, as explained further in the next paper. Though a rolling mill, Canada’s first, was set up in Montreal by M. Holland to roll sheet for nail making, the feedstock was largely imported, except for the little that was produced by the two puddling furnaces (Day, 1864; Kilbourn, 1960; McNally, 1992).

Victoria Tubular Bridge Construction Fig. 7. Map of eastern Canada showing the location of iron works and their dates of operation; the The Victoria Tubular Bridge required 9,000 tons of ForgesFigure St. 7. Maurice Map of Eastern(1729-1883) Canada in showing Quebec, the was location the first of and iron the works longest and theirlived. dates Grantham, of operation; Quebec, the Forges St. Radnor,Maurice Quebec, (1729-1883), Londonderry, in Quebec, Nova was Scotia, the andfirst Ferrona, and the Novalongest Scotia, lived. continued Grantham production Quebec, Radnoruntil Quebec,wrought iron sheets and angles that were not available theLondonderry end of the Novacharcoal Scotia era (Tarassoff,and Ferrona 1989). Nova Scotia continued production until the end of the charcoalfrom era Canadian sources. As called for in the plans, the iron (Tarassoff, 1989). plates were sheared, bent and punched at the same works Operations were strongly dependent upon waterpower, in England that had fabricated the Britannia Bridge which was often interrupted by winter freeze or summer (Fisher, 1963; Hodges, 1860). A tubular bridge like the drought, and upon the availability of charcoal that general- Victoria was not extraordinary for the time because cov- ly demanded longer haulage when timber was in low supply. ered wooden bridges were common; however, the wooden The success of iron production facilities was also very bridges were comprised of simple trusses with a roof and dependent on the experience of the iron master and the walls for preservation (Harrington, 1976). Under the lead- skills of the workers, who often had to develop quality prod- ership of R. Stephenson, A. Ross transformed the ucts from raw materials with varying and unmeasured com- Britannia Bridge design (which had two 138 metre-long positions. Most had short life spans relative to today’s stan- spans) to suit the new application of 24 spans of 75 metres dards, such as Marmora, Ontario (Michael, 1989) and each and one central span of l00 metres (Fig. 2). The tube Woodstock, New Brunswick, known for its high strength of dimensions were reduced to 5.6 metres high by 4.9 metres manganese pig iron (Potter, 1989). The Grantham Iron wide (from the nine metres in height of the Britannia Works, near Drummondville, Quebec, produced 4,000 to Bridge) and the reinforcements at the top and bottom of 6,000 tons of pig iron per year under R. McDougall’s super- the tubes were made of layers of plates that increased near vision between 1853 and 1910 (McDougall, 1989). In this span centres, instead of small square tubes (Pantydd Menai, period, much charcoal pig went to foundries to make rail car The Menai Bridges, 1980; Hodges, 1860; Plowden, 1974; wheels, as charcoal pig wheels enabled much longer service Smith, 1964; Steinman & Watson, 1957; Triggs et al., (approximately 150,000 miles per wheel) than did coke- 1992). Like the Britannia Bridge, the tube was continuous reduced iron wheels (McDougall, 1989; Samson, 1998). (rather than comprised of independent spans) in order to Coke blast furnace production depended upon the easy decrease deflections. Only one train at a time was permit- transportation of ore, limestone and fuel that also provided ted. Unlike the much shorter Britannia Bridge, the steam power for the machinery; the production of coke blast Victoria Tubular Bridge had small diamond or trefoil- furnaces increased rapidly from 1870 to 1910, at which shaped windows. Because of the bridge’s lower height, a point it surpassed the output of the charcoal furnaces (Fig. slot was opened in 1870 to let out smoke following the 6; Inwood, 1989). introduction of coal-fired engines. The foregoing account demonstrates that the production The box-girder, short span design of the Victoria Tubular of wrought iron in Canada near 1850 to 1855 amounted to Bridge was criticized by Roebling, who suggested that much only hundreds of tons per year, which was very different longer suspension spans be built instead. However, the tubes from the situation in the United States. Furthermore, there of the Victoria Tubular Bridge cost only $285 per foot, com- was little production by means of the puddling process (i.e., pared to the $375 per foot cost of the Niagara railroad sus- there were only two furnaces in Montreal; Day, 1864; pension bridge. Note that the Niagara deck truss was made McNally, 1992); puddling allowed for much larger produc- of wood, which meant that several extensive strengthenings tivity and by extension, financial growth compared to finery were required before the bridge was finally replaced in 1883 methods. The associated forge capacity was also insufficient. due to inadequacy (Plowden, 1974; Szeliski, 1987; Smith, Finally, there was almost no hot rolling capability to produce 1964; Steinman & Watson, 1957). Though the many piers high-quality plate, nor was there the capacity for slitting and built near the Lachine Rapids were expensive, simple timber angle bending. The construction of the Victoria Tubular caissons, which were weighted down with stone and which Bridge required 9,000 tons of wrought iron over a period of did not require compressed air chambers, reduced the cost two years. It is quite clear that Canada was in no position to (Hodges, 1860; Triggs et al., 1992). In addition, one of the produce the material for the bridge and that the country

7 The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

innovations introduced by the site engineer, J. Hodges, was Irish workmen and their families who died from cholera on steam-driven excavating and hoisting equipment. their passage over. Many Irish ironworkers had initially come to Montreal to The centre piers of the Victoria Tubular Bridge rose 18 work on the construction of the tubular bridge at Ste. Anne, metres above normal water level and extended nine metres where the Toronto rail line crossed the Ottawa River. For the below it (Figs. 2 and 10). Despite the considerable rise (taller construction of the Victoria Tubular Bridge, these same than any building then in the city), the bridge did not workers were responsible for fitting together the pieces and appear massive because of its great length (Fig. 7). In 1898, driving in about 1.5 million rivets (270 per day for each the piers were used, without any reconstruction except team; Fig. 8). Note that this valuable technology is discussed widening at the top, for the foundation of the Victoria Truss in more detail in the subsequent paper about the Victoria Bridge (Victoria Jubilee Bridge, 1898). After widening, the Truss Bridge. Under J. Hodges’ supervision (the chief site piers were 8.5 metres wide at the upper vertical section and engineer), the spans were fabricated progressively from both had 45 degree prows extending up the river in order to river banks; timber trusses, built efficiently by French break massive ice floes that could press heavily upon them. Canadian woodsmen, were used to construct the spans (Fig. A century after construction, the piers were stabilized by 8). The centre span was built on a trestle in mid-winter so pressure grouting during reconstruction to permit passage that material could be transported over the ice (Fig. 9); it of ocean ships in the St. Lawrence Seaway (Szeliski, 1987). was touch-and-go to finish the span before an early spring break-up (Hodges, 1860; Triggs et al., 1992). Out of a work Success and Impact of the Bridge force of 1,000 men, 26 were killed during the three-year In terms of railway traffic, the bridge fulfilled all the construction period. A gigantic boulder lifted from one site dreams of the builders (Triggs et al., 1992). The transit of up is still located on the Montreal approach in memory of the to 100 trains per day led to the need for double tracking, which is examined in the next paper because it took place in the Age of Steel (Victoria Jubilee Bridge, 1898; Szeliski, 1987). The location of the bridge proved suitable over time; heavy rail traffic continues even today as part of the Canadian National Rail Network, which absorbed the Grand Trunk circa 1930. Another railroad bridge from the South Shore to the island at LaSalle was built by CPR in 1888 in order to con- nect the “short” line from St. John, New Brunswick, through Maine, to the western part of the network (Ponts du Québec, 1975; Wilson, 1999). This CPR bridge was a wrought-iron continuous-truss design that was replaced by a stronger steel Pratt truss in 1910. While initially considerable train traffic was comprised of simple passenger trains, the Victoria Bridge would become much more useful in its second gen- Fig. 8. Laying the floor beams of the tube, workmen are aligning holes in preparation for the rivet- eration when roadways were added. These roadways are still ing team, which is seen standing by the forge at the right. Rivets joining web and flange angles are clearly seen in the lithograph (Hodges, 1860; Triggs et al., 1992). heavily used, despite construction of three highway bridges and a tunnel (Ponts du Québec, 1975; Wilson, 1999). Figure 8. Laying the floor beams of the tube, workmen are aligning holes in preparation for the riveting team, which is seen standing by the forge at the right. Rivets joining web and flange angles are clearly seen in the lithograph (Hodges, 1860; Triggs et al., 1992).

Fig. 9. Construction of the tubular (box-girder) centre span with a travelling gantry crane on a tem- porary timber truss over winter ice, as captured in a Notman photograph with the South Shore in Fig. 10. The Victoria Bridge centre span frames Mount Royal and the city as a lumber raft from the the distance (McCord Museum, Montreal; Triggs et al., 1992). Ottawa Valley passes (Notman photograph, McCord Museum; Hodges, 1860). Figure 9. Construction of the tubular (box-girder) center span with a traveling gantry crane on a temporary timber truss over winter ice, as captured in a Notman photograph with South Shore in the distance (McCord Museum,Figure 10. The Victoria Bridge center span frames Mount Royal and the City as a lumber raft from the Ottawa Montreal; Triggs et al., 1992). Valley passes. (Notman photograph, McCord Museum; Hodges, 1860).

8 The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

Table 1. Industrial development from Victoria Railroad Bridge (Ball, 1987; Triggs et al., 1992) 1852 1861 1871 1881 Montreal population 50,000 100,000 170,000 Industrial employees 9,000 21,000 32,000 Average number of employees per factory 13 20 30 Foundries and machine shops with more than 20 employees 12 25 Metal workers in foundries and machine shops 693 2001 % of total metal workers in foundries and machine shops 23% 40% Shoe making (pairs) 3 million Garment workers 5,000 Clothing textile workers (diminishing imports, rising exports) 1,197 3,658 8,941 Notes: 1871: 13 shops > 100 employees, 66 shops <4 employees, 108 in between. Metal working greater than Toronto and Hamilton. Wood industry grew enormously — saw mills, barrels, boxcars, furniture. Ste. Anne district in 1871: 5,186 men and women in workshops; more than half of these in one of 13 factories, including Grand Trunk shops with more than 100 employees each. 1875–1878: Lachine Canal widened and locks refurbished. 1880: Francophones total 30 per cent of total workers; 14 per cent of metalworkers at $1.60/hr (many from the Saint Maurice Region.); 13 per cent labourers at $1.00/hr; 35 per cent of carpenters; 52 per cent of painters.

The influx of Irish workers led to the establishment of new metres at the piers to two metres at the mid-span) was built in residential districts in Montreal: Little Burgundy and Point St. Germany (Smith, 1964; Steinman & Watson, 1957). A box-gird- Charles. The Irish immigrants became permanent residents er with an air foil section have been used as light, but rigid, and their numbers grew considerably due to work in the con- decks for suspension bridges across the Severn River in Britain. tinually extending rail network and in maintenance shops (Triggs et al., 1992). The increased flexibility of transport into Conclusion and out of the city gave rise to many new industries. The The single-track Victoria Tubular Bridge, designed as a growth in population was very large (as shown in Table 1) and box-girder tube and based upon the recent construction of was associated with marked growths in the number of indus- a long-span British bridge, provided a vital link in the trial employees and in the number of large factories. In 1861, Canadian rail network. Its site at the foot of the Lachine there were 12 foundries that employed 700 persons (23 per Rapids provided good foundation for piers and avoided cent of all metal workers) and, in 1871, there were 25 obstructing ships entering the Montreal harbour. The foundries that employed 2,000 employees (40 per cent of all bridge was constructed of wrought iron, which was econom- metal workers; Ball, 1987; Day, 1864; Kilbourn, 1960; ically prepared by puddling from coke-reduced pig iron and McNally, 1992; Triggs et al., 1992). The foundries utilized pig shaped by steam-powered forging and rolling. Because of its iron from rural charcoal iron works and were mainly produc- fibrous structure that contained about three per cent slag, ers of railroad components. The metal-working capacity in the bridge had great strength and ductility. Relatively small Montreal was greater than in either Toronto or Hamilton rolled iron plates and angles bent from slit plate were joined (Ball, 1987; Day, 1864; McNally, 1992; Triggs et al., 1992). by hot-driven rivets into a unified box-girder. In 1859, there The box-girder design, in which one of the horizontal was almost no Canadian capacity for puddling or rolling, so flanges (usually the top one) serves as an element of the deck, materials for the first bridge across the St. Lawrence were could not compete with trusses built by riveting. The welded fabricated in England. The Victoria Tubular Bridge success- box- has been more successful; one such applica- fully carried large volumes of rail traffic, as well as many tion is the Concorde Bridge, which runs across the main branch local passengers from the South Shore, for almost 40 years of the St. Lawrence from Montreal to Ile Sainte-Hélène and was (Ball, 1987; Triggs et al., 1992). As a critical link for the rail- built in 1965 (Ponts du Québec, 1975; Wilson, 1999). In 1953, a roads, the bridge contributed to a marked increase in indus- 203 metre-long box-girder of variable height (from seven trial production around Montreal.

9 The metallurgical history of Montreal bridges

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