Vol. 7 · No. 4 Winter 2003 The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

Editor-in-Chief: Counseling and Christian Ministry R. Albert Mohler, Jr. Editorial: Stephen J. Wellum Executive Editor: Taking Every Thought Captive to Christ Daniel L. Akin 2 Editor: Paul David Tripp Stephen J. Wellum A Community of Counselors: The Fruit of Good Preaching Book Review Editor: 4 Chad Owen Brand David Powlison Associate Editor: 14 Human Defensiveness: The Third Way Christopher W. Cowan Eric L. Johnson Assistant Editors: Randall K. J. Tan 26 How God Is Good for the Soul Brian Vickers Robert C. Roberts Advisory Board: Timothy K. Beougher Psychotherapy and Christian Ministry Daniel I. Block 40 John B. Polhill Mark A. Yarhouse Thom S. Rainer 48 Applied Integration of a Sibbesian View of Assurance Esther H. Crookshank Mark A. Seifrid Sam Williams Mark E. Simpson 58 Toward a Theology of Emotion Design: Jared Hallal John Piper Typographer: John Rogers Sermon: Today’s Mercies for Today’s Troubles; Editorial Office & Subscription Services: 74 SBTS Box 2388 Tomorrow’s Mercies for Tomorrow’s Troubles 2825 Lexington Rd. Louisville, KY 40280 The SBJT Forum: Applications of Counseling in Ministry (800) 626-5525, x4413 78 Editorial E-Mail: [email protected] 92 Book Reviews Yearly subscription costs for four issues: $20, individual inside the U. S.; $30, ATLA Religion Database on CD-ROM, published by the American Theological individual outside the U. S.; $35, institutional inside the U. S.; $45, institutional Library Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., 16th Flr., Chicago, IL 60606, E-mail: outside the U. S. Opinions expressed in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology [email protected], WWW: http://atla.com/. are solely the responsibility of the authors and are not necessarily those of the THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY is published quarterly by editors, members of the Advisory Board, or The Forum. We encourage the sub- The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2825 Lexington Road, Louisville, KY mission of letters, suggestions and articles by our readers. Any article submis- 40280. Winter 2003. Vol. 7, No. 4. Copyright ©2003 The Southern Baptist sions should conform to the Journal of Biblical Literature stylistic guidelines. Theological Seminary. ISSN 1520-7307. Second Class postage paid at This periodical is indexed in Religion Index One: Periodicals, the Index to Book Louisville, KY. Postmaster: Send address changes to: SBTS Box 2388, Reviews in Religions, Religion Indexes: Ten Year Subset on CD-ROM, and the 2825 Lexington Road, Louisville, KY 40280. 1 Editorial: Taking Every Thought Captive to Christ Stephen J. Wellum

Stephen J. Wellum is Associate Pro- The apostle Paul summarizes the heart of in our present-day world. This observation, fessor of Christian Theology at The the theological task—indeed the heart of unhappily, can be verified in a number of Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. the Christian ministry—in the memorable areas in which Christians have sought to Dr. Wellum received his Ph.D. degree words: “We destroy arguments and every correlate their Christian faith with per- in theology from Trinity Evangelical lofty opinion raised against the knowl- ceived “non-theological” disciplines. Thus, Divinity School and has also taught edge of God, and take every thought for example, methodological naturalism is theology at the Associated Canadian captive to obey Christ” (2 Cor 10:4-5 ESV). viewed as a given in much of contempo- Theological Schools and Northwest Crucial to developing a Christian world- rary philosophy, science, and historical Baptist Theological College and Semi- view is to conform all of our thinking, research, including even biblical and theo- nary in Canada. He has contributed to attitudes, and behavior to the authority logical studies, thus guaranteeing and several publications and a collection of and teaching of God’s Word. Thus, in biasing the discussion from the outset. essays on theology and worldview order to learn how to think and live bibli- But it is not only in the above areas that issues. cally, godly, and faithfully in today’s Christians have let secular thought drive world, it is imperative that we learn how the agenda; it has also been in the area of to evaluate all ideas, thoughts, and view- psychology. In fact, over the last century points in light of Scripture. we have seen massive shifts in the outlook Sadly though, we have to admit that too of our culture that have been largely driven many times the Christian community has by the revolution that has occurred in the not carried out Paul’s example and exhor- burgeoning study of psychology. The tation consistently. Instead, more times language of “self-esteem,” “self-actualiza- than not, we have followed what liberal tion,” “projection,” “neurosis,” “defense theologian Paul Tillich dubbed “the mechanisms,” and so on, has changed how method of correlation.” This method our society thinks about humans and thus attempts to correlate “equally” the teach- how people now view the world. And we ing of Scripture with contemporary must quickly add: the church has not been thought (whether that is the latest from exempt from the impact of this revolution, science, philosophy, or history) with the both positively and negatively. That is why admirable goal of taking every thought it is imperative that Christians, whether at captive to Christ. However, as employed the lay level or those who serve the church by most of its practitioners, it normally as professional counselors, carefully and leaves the authority of Scripture far behind self-consciously learn how to bring every and instead places center-stage whatever thought captive to Christ, including the is current in contemporary secular thought. ideas that have been shaped by the psy- In the end, rather than teaching Christians chological revolution. If we do not, then to bring all thought under the Lordship of we will inevitably face the danger of accom- Christ, it encourages us to re-interpret modating the authority of Scripture to alien Scripture in the categories, structures, and ideas that in the end will undermine the values of whatever is deemed acceptable truthfulness and integrity of the gospel. 2 With this in mind, we devote this edi- on its head by taking the insight of John tion of the journal to the theme of Coun- Calvin that the true knowledge of the self seling and Christian Ministry. What unites and God are intimately related so that we our diverse contributors and contributions know ourselves truly and we receive psy- is the conviction that Christian theologians, chological healing in our lives, only when pastors, and professional counselors must we first view ourselves in light of who God do what Paul commands us to do: Take is—in all of his grace, beauty, and glory. every thought captive to Christ, including Robert Roberts, in his article, adds an the thoughts, ideas, and perspectives of important observation that the Christian contemporary psychology and counseling. ministry has always been in the psychol- And we must do so in such a way that the ogy business in the sense of promoting full authority and integrity of the gospel is people’s wholeness, but he warns us that preserved, while at the same time seeking we must be careful not to wed ourselves to apply and utilize valid insights from the to current therapies without first applying discipline of psychology, as viewed a thorough critique from Christian theol- through the worldview grid of Scripture. ogy, which includes for him both Scripture Paul Tripp begins our discussion by and the whole theological tradition. Mark showing the important relationship Yarhouse picks up this latter point by between preaching and counseling. He applying some crucial insights from the argues well that true biblical preaching and Puritan, Richard Sibbes, in relation to counseling is committed to the same goal helping people think through the issue of of calling people to view their lives in rela- assurance in their Christian lives. Finally, tion to our great Creator and Redeemer Sam Williams reflects on the neglected but God and to help them live in joyful sub- important area of a biblical psychology of mission to the counsel of God’s Word. Fur- emotions and feelings as it relates to our thermore, the goal of both preaching and lives as Christians and the whole discipline counseling is to see the church not merely of Christian counseling. In addition to our become a place where ministry takes place, articles, the sermon from John Piper and but a ministering community for God’s our excellent Forum contributions serve glory and for the good of the church. David as superb models for us, in a variety of Powlison helps us evaluate current psycho- ways, of how to apply the Scriptures to all logical thought regarding the important of life, including the important areas of psy- discussion of “defense mechanisms” by chology, counseling, and pastoral ministry. first describing how these mechanisms are As you read the various contributions, viewed in secular thought, and then evalu- it is my prayer that we, as God’s people, ating this contemporary conversation in might learn better how to fulfill the calling light of Scripture. He concludes that Scrip- of our ministry of taking every thought ture, in describing our human problem as captive to Christ so that we will be firmly that of sin in relation to God, gives us a rooted and grounded in Christ. better and more accurate psychology of both our problem and the solution to it found in the Lord Jesus Christ. Eric Johnson, in his contribution, seeks to turn much of contemporary psychology 3 A Community of Counselors: The Fruit of Good Preaching1 Paul David Tripp

Paul David Tripp is a counselor and I love Sundays. Even when I am out of and my behavior is challenged. I am led to faculty member of the School of Bibli- town, I often fly home on Saturday nights gaze on the glory-laden beauty of the cal Counseling at the Christian Coun- just to be with my family, to worship, and Redeemer. Sunday after Sunday, the invis- seling and Educational Foundation and to be taught the Word. ible Kingdom is made visible for me, and also serves as lecturer in Practical I love the moment when our preacher my selfish agendas shrink against God’s Theology at Westminster Theological stands to deliver God’s Word to God’s wise and wonderful plan. Seminary in Glenside, Pennsylvania. He people. I love the stunning wisdom of Yet, with all the glory and power of the is the author of Age of Opportunity: A God’s Word and the remarkable depth and public preaching of the Word, I am con- Guide to Parenting Teens (Presbyterian practicality of what God says. No matter vinced that, too often, something is miss- and Reformed, 1997), War of Words: how deep you dig, the Word always runs ing. A significant part of God’s plan for the Getting to the Heart of Our Communi- deeper. No matter how familiar the road, proclamation of the Word lacks the promi- cation Struggles (Presbyterian and the Word always surprises you from nence that it should have in the public Reformed, 2000), Instruments in the around the next corner. I love how the moment of exposition. This remarkable Redeemer’s Hands (Presbyterian and Word understands both the infinitely weekly moment of truth declaration must Reformed, 2002), and numerous detailed textures of human experience and be shaped by a recognition of the church’s articles. the labyrinthine motives of the human call to both a public and private ministry heart. The Word is a light, a rainstorm, a of the Word. Good preaching should cre- mine, a mirror, a garden, a hammer, a fire. ate a community of counselors. Consider I love God’s Word. for a moment the kinds of people who have Most of all I love the fact that the Truth gathered to listen. revealed in the Word is more than a theol- Sue sits in the fourth row next to her ogy or a set of principles, but a Person: thirteen-year-old daughter. Sue is power- Jesus Christ. Truth is Emmanuel, God with fully aware of how the world has magne- Us. Truth is the Shepherd, the Lamb, the tized the attention of her daughter in the Wonderful Counselor, the Way and the last six months. She and Suzy have talked Life, our Redeemer King. He is the one I a hundred times about true identity, true need to see and hear and love. He gives character, and true beauty. But the battle is me reasons to get up in the morning that far from over. far transcend any purpose that I might Jon is an elder with shepherding respon- cobble together in some moment of great sibilities over twenty families. He is insight or inspiration. increasingly aware that he simply is not I go to worship with God’s people with attracted to his wife anymore. He wonders hunger and expectancy. I am a man in des- why he ever married her and what would perate need of help, and the preacher is one happen if his peers in ministry knew. He of God’s primary helpers. Sunday after has not told a soul. Sunday, I am made to see what I had not Josh had planned to serve the Lord in seen before. My convictions are strength- some way since he was a little boy, but now ened—and reversed. My heart is exposed, that he is a teenager, his parents drive him 4 crazy. He spends much of his time at home, context, method, and process. Let’s first isolated and angry. Who will help him? consider four propositions about the pur- Sally has just sung “Great Is Thy Faith- pose and practice of preaching that show fulness,” but she wonders where God was us how good preaching should create a when she was diagnosed with multiple community of counselors. sclerosis. The pulpit prayers for “the sick in our midst,” even when they mention her Four Propositions about Preaching by name, seem far away and general. What The Purpose of Preaching Is to if God does not heal her and MS slowly Proclaim the Counsel of the Creator kills her? What about her eroding trust that The need for preaching is rooted in the God is good? nature of God. The God who creates the These are the sermon-listeners. They are world in Genesis 1 and 2 is not only a God also the counsel-needers and counsel- who does, but also a God who says. In fact, givers. They are God’s advancing army, God’s speech is actually the instrument of bringing the Kingdom to real people in real his creating work! What he has to say is situations. They desperately need to know vital to everything that humans are to the “Kingdom come,” yet they sometimes think, desire, and do. He is truth! His words unwittingly follow and offer the counsel alone are able to define what is beautiful, of another kingdom—the counsel of dark- right, and true. His words literally ness, confusion, and falsehood. They are “exegete” what he has made. He is the counselee/counselors, people in the pro- Great Preacher and the Great Counselor. cess of sanctification who need both to Preaching also has its roots in the nature grow and to equip others to grow. of people. Who are these creatures, anyway? Generally speaking, the church brings They are thinkers. They have been given God’s Truth to God’s people in two pri- the ability to analyze and interpret their mary ways: through public preaching and experiences. They do not live life based on private counsel. This article will examine the facts, but on their interpretation of those the relationship between these two truth facts. God designed people to be revelation ministries. Much of what has been said and receivers, giving them conceptual and com- written about this relationship tends to be municative abilities so they could know, based on weak definitions of both preach- hear, and understand him. Without God’s ing and counseling. Preaching is reduced words they would not be able to make to doctrinal instruction, exegetical exposi- proper sense out of themselves or his tion, and moral exhortation. Counseling is world. So God in his creative wisdom shrunk to the size of people’s perceived blesses Adam and Eve with his words. problems and to dispensing problem-solv- God’s counsel in Genesis 1 and 2 speaks to ing techniques, relational cures, and situ- the deepest issues of the human existence: ational fixes. identity, meaning and purpose, relation- It is important, therefore, that we take a ships, and worship. fresh look at preaching as one aspect of the People are also worshipers. Worship is whole counsel of the church. By doing this not just an intention or an action; it is a state we can begin to understand how preach- of being. We were uniquely designed for ing and counseling are identical in content worship, and every thought, desire, choice, and purpose, but significantly different in decision, word, and action expresses wor- 5 ship. According to Romans 1, there are only ing light on the glory of the Creator, who two possible objects of our worship: either alone is worthy of commanding and con- the Creator or the creation. If God is not trolling our worship. He accepts the high the object of my worship—and thus func- and holy calling of bringing the Creator tionally ruling my heart—then something near enough to produce a life-shaping, in the creation is calling the shots. heart-gripping awe in all who listen. People Formal worship in the church must be who awaken to the worship war in every shaped by an acknowledgement of the war heart start to become wise counselors, even that is taking place every day on the field as they see more clearly their own need for of functional worship. No war could be the help of brothers and sisters. more important, because this war is fought for control of the human heart. One of the The Purpose of Preaching Is to Give primary purposes of formal worship is to Voice to the Wonderful Counselor recapture and redirect functional worship. Preaching is also rooted in Isaiah 9:6 and Good preaching will not only reinterpret the promise of the coming Messiah, the life in light of the glory of God, but it will Wonderful Counselor. As we consider this expose idolatry and encourage a joyful, promise, we must resist the mental mono- practical, robust worship of God. tone that often afflicts us when we encoun- Every congregation is full of these ter an all-too-familiar portion of Scripture. interpreter/worshipers. Pete is polite and Allow yourself to be amazed by what is friendly in public, but he seethes with being promised. This is not a promise of a anger when he reflects on his life: single, wonderful counselor who is wise. Rather, forty-five years old, recently jobless. the Wonderful Counselor is Wisdom! Wis- Martha simply does not know how to help dom came to earth in the person of the her mother to see God amid experiences Messiah, the Redeemer, Jesus Christ. Why of the ravages of old age. These people sit is this so important? Because sin reduces in the pews, not just as worshipers in the people to fools. Sinners regularly get lost formal sense, but also as interpreter/wor- in the woods of their own foolishness. We shipers in the most functional, life-shap- all need to be rescued from ourselves, and ing sense that Genesis describes. this is the promise of our rescue. Wisdom Every week the preacher incarnates the is coming! Wisdom is coming! And his Great Speaker. As God’s representative name is Jesus. wielding God’s Word, he stands at the por- Preaching is weekly rescue. We are all tal of people’s lives. Every one of them, just fools by nature. We all tend to be magne- like Adam and Eve, needs to hear the tized by what is foolish and repelled by words of God. If they are ever to under- what is wise. We need to be led to recog- stand their lives, they must first hear and nize and confess how comprehensive and understand God. Any attempt to live with- profound our foolishness actually is. out the words of God will curse them to a Remember the interpreter/worshipers sub-human existence. in the pews. George thinks that angrily The preacher also stands powerfully getting in his teenage son’s face really is a aware of the great worship war that rages way to motivate him to do right. Paula on the battlefield of every heart (including believes that the self-image-enhancing his own). He shines a bright and penetrat- strategies of her self–help books really will 6 cure her depression. Sally has an MA in ment of self–revelation. God’s eternal rev- Child Psychology but does not know how elation of himself does not culminate in a to discern whether the “wisdom” she has logical syllogism, a philosophical treatise, learned is really wise. Each of these people or a theological outline. In the grandeur of needs to be fed the finest morsels of the his redemptive love, God does not argue; Wonderful Counselor’s wisdom as they sit he comes! It is a mind-bending historical expectantly at his table. They need to know moment. God actually lives, breathes, that true wisdom is not the product of walks, and speaks on earth. The eternal, research, intellect, or experience; it comes invisible One is made visible. through a relationship to the One who is Why was such an awesome miracle nec- Wisdom. essary? Because sin not only reduces us to A wise and faithful preacher speaks as fools, but also inflicts us with a profound an ambassador of the Wonderful Counse- blindness. This spiritual blindness affects lor, incarnating Wisdom. He skillfully us in many ways, but ultimately it obscures exposes and exegetes the foolishness that our God as he has revealed himself. Yes, masquerades as true wisdom. He lovingly God as a Spirit is physically hidden, but teaches people to live in close communion sin blinds us from him in a much more pro- and humble dependence on him who is foundly spiritual sense. Like the people in Wise. He is a shepherd–counselor, rescu- the days of Christ, we do not see God even ing the stray sheep who are trapped in the when he is right in front of our eyes. The thorn bushes of their own foolishness and troubling thing about Sara’s story of her feeding the skinny sheep who are wisdom- divorce is not just that it is a sad story of starved. rejection and abandonment. It is that her Preaching makes the One who is Wis- recounting of the story is utterly godless. dom visible and audible. In that moment, In her heart-wrenching narrative there is truth silences the background clamor of our no recognition of God’s presence, plan, or fallen foolishness. And at the center of this active love. Sara suffers not only from the weekly wisdom banquet is the cross of consequences of a nasty divorce, but from Jesus Christ. Only there will I understand a fundamental inability to see God. This my true identity and see the profundity of aggravates and distorts the impact of the my need. The cross alone bridges the divorce on her heart and behavior. The chasm of foolishness and transports me hope and help that Sara really needs begins into the Kingdom where Wisdom himself with seeing God. sits on the throne. If preaching is weekly Listen when people tell you their sto- rescue, mutual counseling is daily rescue. ries. Usually their stories will be devoid of “See to it, brothers, that none of you has a any functional recognition of God’s pres- sinful, unbelieving heart that turns away ence, power, goodness, and grace. When from the living God” (Heb 3:12). they do not see God, they become dazzled and captured by other glories—the fading The Purpose of Preaching Is to glories of relationships, position, posses- Incarnate the Word Made Flesh sions, appearance, and achievement. They The roots of preaching pass through get worried or depressed or terrified by the John chapter 1: the Word has come in per- wrong things. When they do not see the son. Jesus is the Word, God’s ultimate state- glory of God, they treat their problems with 7 more problems! Failures in human wisdom, tional, and situation adjustments. They character, and strength will be treated with need to be rescued, reconciled, empow- another dose of human wisdom, charac- ered, accepted, adopted, and loved. ter, and strength, rather than a cry to the What we need can only be found one God of real rescue. place: the Redeemer Christ. That Redeemer Fran has been to a long list of counse- intends to make us his living representa- lors. Some have been friends, some have tives to each other. Preaching brings Jesus been professionals, but they have all told Christ to our human struggles. It ought to her the same thing: “Get more insight teach us to come to each other as small and try harder!” Yet Fran has a basic lack Christs, incarnating in a real way God’s of personal motivation. In her honest mercy, compassion, patience, and steadfast moments she will tell you that she would love. Preaching brings Jesus in word to all much rather avoid life than live it. Much of us, so each of us can bring Jesus in deed of what she does is an attempt to avoid and word to each other. trouble any way she can. Her life lacks the courage that seeing God before her eyes The Fundamental Content of would give her. Preaching Is a Story People often see the difficulty of their In the most basic sense, the Bible gives situation, the magnitude of their suffering, us a narrative. Our problem is that much and the sin of others. They may even see of our preaching does not sound like we their own sin, but they usually fail to see are expounding a story. It often seems like God. In the incarnation we see the glory of we are exegeting abstract concepts, and God’s truth that exposes, reveals, illumines, then applying principles to everyday life. convicts, encourages, and makes wise. But the gospel is not a concept. It is the most Preaching is a weekly unveiling of God’s important story ever lived, written, or told. glory before those who have a hard time The goal of preaching, therefore, is to seeing. The purpose of the sermon runs embed the stories of the listeners in the deeper than handling the text properly, or larger story of redemption. Good preach- even applying it cogently. It runs deeper ing calls people to a “God’s Story” mental- than expounding doctrines, commands, ity. Theological concepts and outlines and principles. The central purpose of simply provide a shorthand way of every sermon is to reveal God in all the describing the plot. glory of his grace and truth. At the center Think about it for a minute: What is the of this purpose is Christ, who is truth and hope of the person in the pew? It cannot who is grace. The fire in the belly of every rest in terms, principles, formulations, and good sermon is a deep desire to make abstractions. The hope of the believer is Christ seen, known, and loved. entirely relational. It rests on a living Christ, Geena simply wants a way to turn her who has acted and will continue to act on daughter into a “responsible human behalf of his own. In the Story we see Christ being.” Frank is just tired of being discour- in action, faithfully fulfilling his redeem- aged. Jane is willing to do just about any- ing rescue mission. I will only understand thing to get her husband to be tender and my identity as a believer when I daily see affectionate. But the cross reminds them my story embedded in his Story. that they need more than personal, rela- Preaching needs to be narrative preach- 8 ing, for at least three good reasons. First, what it all means! My story doesn’t make narrative preaching addresses the real sense.” Every living person is a hermeneu- struggles of the person in the pew. Suppose tician; that is, one who works to make sense you are in the middle of Manhattan. You out of his life. In my lostness I generate all get off the subway at 34th Street and 7th kinds of interpretations, but nothing really Avenue with the intention of going to seems to fit. In the middle of my own life I Rockefeller Center, but you quickly get lost. have felt at times like the impatient child Now, you are not totally lost. You know who is trying to force the puzzle piece into you are a human being in the universe. You a place where it does not really fit. Yet, my know that you are in the United States, in interpretations are significant, for they set New York State, and in Manhattan. You the direction of my life. What I do is not have loads of “theological” (geographical) based on what I have experienced, but on knowledge, but you are seriously lost, how I have made sense out of what I have because you do not know how to get where experienced. Many people in our churches you need to go. on Sunday are in a personal state of herme- I propose that vast numbers of people neutic disorientation. to whom we preach are “lost in Manhat- Lost people also experience spiritual tan.” They may not seem like they are lost, claustrophobia: “It’s all about me! My story because they talk with such knowledge is about ME.” When I am lost, the world about where they are. But with all that tends to shrink to the size of my lostness. knowledge, living in the middle of their On that corner in Manhattan I become con- own story, they do not know how to get cerned with only one thing: that I am lost. from where they are to where God wants I do not see the sights or hear the sounds. I them to be. In fact, unlike being literally do not notice the people who pass by me. lost in Manhattan, they do not even know In that moment I hope for only one thing: that they are lost. They have not under- to find my way. This is one way that my stood that the Story gives them a whole experience of lostness distorts my world. different destination. It makes me more central, more significant, Sally is lost in the middle of her own than I was ever meant to be. In my lostness, story. Her marriage is cold and distant, but the only relationships I want are those that under the surface there is anger. She does might help me become “unlost.” I care not understand it, and so she does not about others, but in a deeper sense, I really know what to do about it. Sam sits at night only care about myself. and thinks about his teenage son, Josh. We were never created to live in the Once again he did not come home from deoxygenated confines of a self-defined school. Josh has lost his way, but Sam has world. We are meant to live in the “big sky” no idea how to help him find it again. country of a God-inhabited, God-defined Joanie is waking up again to overwhelm- world. Often preaching that talks about the ing waves of discouragement. Nothing Kingdom of God feels like a “bait-and- significant happened today, yet she feels a switch” to lost people. They come to darkness that she cannot lift. church, thinking the pastor would talk In their lostness these people experience about “them,” but instead he talks about many significant things. They experience “it.” They have lived so long in the claus- hermeneutic disorientation: “I don’t know trophobic confines of their own needs that 9 they find it hard to relate to the grandeur Corinthians 5:15 says that Jesus died so that of the now-and-then Kingdom. “those who live should no longer live for They also experience spiritual blindness: themselves, but unto him who died for “Where is God? My story unfolds with no them and was raised again.” The primary God in view.” “There is no God!” People thing God saves me from is myself! The who are lost simply quit seeing. If I am lost most fundamental form of human idola- in Manhattan, I do not notice the sky- try is the idolatry of self. Sin renders me scraper across the street with silver-blue hopelessly enslaved to myself. Because of windows reflecting the whole New York sin, what means most to me is me. skyline. I do not see the vendor hawking When preaching disengages the doc- roasted nuts. My vision is clouded by my trines and principles of Scripture from the plight. The most important vision system grand story, we offer people life without of a human being is not the physical eyes, calling them to lay down their lives. When but the eyes of the heart. You can be physi- I look for answers in Scripture with only a cally blind and live quite well. You cannot sense of my own need, self remains unchal- be spiritually blind and live well. lenged at the center. But God is not prima- What does the person lost in Manhat- rily in the business of meeting needs. He is tan really need? It is tempting to respond, in the business of displaying his own glory “Directions!” But think for a moment. If and calling a people who are functionally you give him excellent directions and he committed to live for him. As Paul says in gets from point A to point B, he will get Titus 2, God is calling to Himself “a people lost again as soon as he tries to get to point for his own possession, zealous for good C. What he needs is a helicopter view of deeds.” Topical, principle-filled, need– New York City in his head. If you have the driven preaching may appear to be practi- big picture, you are able to orient yourself cal and helpful, but it distorts the message and move in the right direction. of the Bible and therefore harms people in This is what we all need every Sunday— the long run. What good does it do a per- the helicopter view of life that only the son to be less depressed or to have a better grand story of redemption can give. marriage when they remain, in subtle and Preaching must pull us out of our confus- not so subtle ways, a rebel against the very ing little corners and enable us to see the thing for which they were created? grand vista of life. Only this kind of “whole It would be easier for Sally if her struggle story” preaching can enable us to orient were just with her husband, Bill. But there ourselves in every new situation. Only is a deeper struggle: she wonders why she God’s Story can confront the blindness and ever worked so hard to be a good, biblical claustrophobia that continually weaken wife. Maybe God isn’t so good after all? our functional spirituality. Do you see how Sam had always dreamed of effective preaching that finds us when we are lost Christian parenting, but he ended up with in our own story equips us to enter other a son who, frankly, is an embarrassment. people’s stories to help find them? He battles the desire just to kick him out of There is a second reason to be commit- the house. He walks by his stack of ted to narrative preaching. It confronts parenting books and says to himself, “It’s the core issue of redemption: the battle just not that easy.” between self–rule and God’s rule. Second An even deeper problem with the Sun- 10 day listener is that as a self-absorbed sin- give us a methodology for life, but it is not ner he will tend to try to write his own a Steven Covey manual (“The Seven Daily story. He will quietly, perhaps uncon- Habits of the Highly Effective Image sciously, hope that God will enter his story Bearer”). If all we needed were insights and and make it work. But the reality is that principles, Jesus would never have come. long before he was born—literally before The biblical drama puts Christ alone on the foundations of the earth—he was center stage. Every mini-drama within the already part of God’s Story. His life has grand drama points to him and our need never belonged to him. It was always the of him. Every good principle looks to him Lord’s. for its wisdom, and to him for grace to carry The person in the pew needs a grander it out. Every promise is rooted not in reason for living than the establishment of mechanical natural law, but in his redemp- his own happiness. He needs to be con- tive acts for his people. Narrative preach- fronted with the fact that the essence of true ing says with Paul, “For I resolved to know humanity is not found in retaining one’s nothing while I was with you except Jesus life, but in being willing to die for the glory Christ and him crucified” (1 Cor 2:2). The of Another. Every biblical principle must grand story is—his Story. be attached to this death-life-glory drama. As preachers bring the grand Story to The commands and principles of the Bible people Sunday after Sunday, they begin to are not mechanical maxims for personal see Christ in every moment of their own success, but invitations to die to self and story as well. When this happens, not only live for God. Good biblical preaching does their formal theology become more does not solve every listener’s immediate Christocentric, but their everyday living in problems. Rather, it teaches people how to this fallen world does as well. Preaching live within the plot of God’s Story. As they that makes us say, “I love Christ!” will cre- deal with the realities of life in the fallen ate counselors who bring that same Jesus world, they respond in ways that are con- to others. sistent with what the Bible says the drama So how do I take all these great truths is about. and have them affect the way I listen to The plot of God’s Story is a “glory” plot. preaching and, if I am a pastor, the way I It is about God rescuing us from terminal preach? enslavement to our own glory, to a life pro- ducing commitment to his glory. Yes, he is Preaching and Counseling committed to our ultimate happiness, in Share the Same Purpose: that he knows that true human happiness Equip the Counselors is only to be found in the defeat of our glory Now consider this: These four roots of and the victory of his. When preaching biblical preaching are the roots of all sound opens your eyes to the question—self-rule counseling as well. or God’s rule?— counseling will go after In a fundamental way, biblical preach- the same key question. ing and biblical counseling are committed Third, narrative preaching will always to doing the very same thing. Both incar- lead to Christ. Since the biblical story is a nate the Creator, the Wonderful Counse- redemptive story, it will always point to lor, and the Living Word in God’s Story. In and highlight the Redeemer. The Bible does preaching, this counsel occurs in a public 11 forum and is broadcast widely to reach all sermon ought to produce faith that works who listen. In personal ministry, this coun- through love. sel is given with specificity so that it speaks The biblical model of change distributes with concrete detail into the life of the one the responsibility for ministry to every who is listening. member of the body of Christ. We are called The preacher must do more than dis- to a “total involvement paradigm” where pense the theological truths of the text. He each person in the church understands his must help people to see God, to hunger for responsibility to be part of God’s ongoing his Word, to be amazed at the hugeness of work of redemption in the lives of those the Redeemer’s grace, and to live every day around him. Therefore we come to the ser- within his counsel. Similarly, the counse- mon needing to hear not only how the lor must be more than a mechanic, a car- work of grace impacts our own lives, but ing friend, an explorer of experiences, or a to understand how to minister that same life strategist. He or she must confront spiri- grace to those around us. Every word we tual blindness and help people own their say is meant to be “constructive, accord- desperate need for God’s words. The coun- ing to the need of the moment, giving grace selor teaches people how to live in a way to those who hear” (Eph 4:29). Sermons that is joyfully submissive to the counsel that preach that way will create people who of the Redeemer. talk that way. Preaching and counseling exist in fun- God has ordained the church to become damental unity as two aspects of the an unending redemptive conversation. It church’s call to zealously and unceasingly is a workroom in which Christ continues incarnate the Wonderful Counselor on to rescue, restore, and conform his people. earth. Their basic content and purpose are The public sermon should equip the body the same; both find their reason for being of Christ for the innumerable private in the God who speaks, the Counselor who moments of life transforming ministry to has come, and the Word who has spoken. others that occur every day. In particular, At the same time they differ radically in the preacher must always do two things. context, method, and process. The more First, he must inform and remind people familiar you become with the story of of their place in the ongoing work of redemption, the more you realize that it redemption. Second, he must teach people is a community story. God is not just call- how to do what God has called them to do. ing isolated individuals. He is calling a The sermon is a wonderful place to “people” to himself—not only to be recipi- examine how to be part of what God is ents of his grace, but instruments of it as doing in the lives of others. For the Word well. Solid biblical preaching must always to be practically applied, it must always be be shaped by these two agendas. applied to people’s life and ministry. By Most preaching attempts to show “ministry,” I do not mean only the formal, people their need for the grace of Christ scheduled ministries of the local church. I and calls them to receive it. But how many mean the whole web of dynamic relation- sermons also are crafted with a second com- ships in the body of Christ. Every relation- mitment, to help people know more fully ship is meant to express God’s ongoing what it means to function as an instrument redemption by encouraging personal, pro- of that grace in the lives of others? Every gressive sanctification. From God’s per- 12 spective, the husband, wife, parent, friend, daily. But will their conversations emerge and neighbor are all “ministry” positions. from a “God’s Story” mentality? Are they Good biblical preaching grows out of the learning how to help one another live realization that there is no way you could inside of the plot of God’s Story? Does this ever hire enough paid ministers and coun- company of counselors know how to build selors to meet the ministry needs in a concrete bridges of understanding from the church. God has ordained the church not themes of God’s grand drama to the raw simply to be a place where ministry takes details of their neighbor’s life? Every place, but also to become a ministering preacher is called not only to give wise, community. The preacher is called to biblical counsel from the pulpit, but also counsel the counselors, to comfort the com- to train the company of counselors that sits forters, to teach the teachers, to encourage before him. God, help us in our preaching the encouragers. not only to comfort people with the coun- Good preaching extends the arms of the sel of the Word, but also to train them to pastor through the ministries of those who give that counsel to others. hear it. Every week the preacher sharpens these instruments in the hands of the ENDNOTE Redeemer. Biblical public ministry is inter- 1This article was first published in the dependent with private ministry. The Journal of Biblical Counseling 21 no. 2 pulpit prepares people to receive private (2003): 45-53. Used by permission. counsel as it brings to people the grand themes of the biblical story. The friend or counselor will apply these same themes to the person’s individual life by embed- ding their drama in the larger drama of redemption. Public ministry needs private ministry. Private ministry carefully builds bridges of understanding from the broad themes of preaching to the particular circumstances of an individual’s life. Preaching is the formative discipline of the church. It is paradigm building, foundation-laying work. Private ministry, counseling, is the repairing, sustaining, correcting, protecting discipline of the church. It is the work of hands-on restoration. Personal ministry has been ordained by God to be built on the firm foundation laid by the public ministry of the church. The preacher must recognize that he is the counselor of the counselors. Everyone to whom he speaks is a person of influence. They are all giving and receiving counsel 13 Human Defensiveness: The Third Way1 David Powlison

David Powlison serves as editor of Introduction revolutionary psychological systems of the the Journal of Biblical Counseling. He Change is brought about, not by new twentieth century: they changed the terms also teaches at the Christian Counsel- observations or additional evidence in the first instance, but by transpo- in which we think about people and their ing and Educational Foundation and at sitions that were taking place inside problems. A reawakened biblical world- Westminster Theological Seminary in the minds of the scientists them- view will engage our culture in its termi- selves. In this connection it is not Glenside, Pennsylvania. Dr. Powlison is irrelevant to note that of all forms of nology; we must offer something more the author of numerous articles and mental activity the most difficult to clear-headed, comprehensive, fruitful, eco- several books including Power Encoun- induce, even in the minds of the nomical, and true. young who may be presumed not to ters: Reclaiming Spiritual Warfare (Baker, have lost their flexibility, is the art Lavoisier’s goal was to improve science 1995) and Competent to Counsel? The of handling the same bundle of data by improving its nomenclature: History of a Conservative Protestant as before, but placing them in a new system of relations with one another Anti-Psychiatry Movement (Powlison, by giving them a different frame- However certain the facts of any sci- 1996). work.2 ence may be, and however just the ideas we may have formed of these facts, we can only communicate false This article will introduce no new impressions to others while we want observations and evidence. Indeed, it will words by which these may be prop- erly expressed.3 work with some of the oldest and most familiar pieces of both “psychological” and Our goal is to improve both the “sci- “theological” data. But it is a transposition ence” of understanding people and the of that data, for it presents a new frame- “technology” of trying to help them. Chris- work—a new system of relations. It asks tians often have been virtually forced to for a flexible mind to relate what often func- discuss human problems in the distorted tions as two discrete “departments” in the terminology of secularized psychology. For minds of Christians. It aims to portray such example, how common—and insidious— a tight relationship between biblical data is the use of the nomenclature for and psychological data—between these “improved self-esteem.” Yet the very ter- two “departments”—that neither one can minology casts our insight into people in a ever remain the same. framework that is severely constricted and In some ways we are simply reassess- warped; false impressions are inevitably ing the nomenclature with which familiar communicated, and false counseling impli- things are discussed. The French chemist cations are drawn from false impressions. Antoine Lavoisier revolutionized chemis- Language about “more accurate self try in the 1780’s, and the core of his achieve- knowledge, both causing and caused by a ment was the introduction of a new set of higher esteem for Christ” is a far more terms. Subsequent to Lavoisier, even those accurate and comprehensive way to handle who wished to dispute him were forced to the observations made of people who fight on turf defined in Lavoisier’s terms. experience futility and a deep sense of fail- Something very similar happened with the ure. It also handles observations of people 14 who are cocky and confident about their accuses us. Bandura interprets these same abilities and successes. things as behavior that is both internally This article, however, is not about self- represented (i.e., cognitive behavior) and knowledge but its obverse: self-deception. outwardly expressed. These psychological We will examine nomenclature related to and verbal activities (“self-exonerating the ways people hide from themselves and mechanisms”) are designed to protect from others. We will seek to redefine the ourselves from the unpleasant experience turf of “defense mechanisms” in such a (“self-contempt”) that arises when our way that will markedly “improve the sci- behavior transgresses internalized stan- ence,” as well as improve the counseling dards of performance that we have learned which flows by implication from one’s from people we respect (“models”). The framework of interpretation. This article is parallels between these two interpretations in two parts. First, we will generally dis- are obvious: both are psychic “mecha- cuss human “defensiveness” as it has nisms;” both deal with failure to attain been seen and analyzed by ego psychol- standards we have for ourselves; both ogy and by behavioral psychology. The describe some process of internalizing classic studies of “ego defense mecha- standards from others; both describe nisms” are rooted in the Freudian tradition; aversion to unpleasant emotions that the more contemporary behaviorist discus- threaten to destroy our sense of integrity sion of “self-exonerating mechanisms” has and “OK-ness.” The differences in interpre- been initiated by Albert Bandura. Second, tive framework are also obvious: the one we will comment and interact from the bib- is a psychodynamic paradigm; the other is lical world-view. The topic is vast, and the a behavioral paradigm. Different as they paper is short; hence, the discussion will are, each is persuasive in its own way for be in broad strokes. each “covers the facts.” But each is also a serious distortion of Human “Defensiveness” in Ego how people work. We want to reinterpret and Behavioral Psychology their data. People do the things that are Much of the persuasive power of described, but the correctness of the termi- Freud’s and Bandura’s analyses of human nology and the theoretical system in which motivation rests on their explorations of those terms function are highly debatable human hiding and self-justifying: they see matters. Freud and Bandura differ seri- many ways that we all put on a “good ously with one another, but they are united front” both to ourselves and to others. Ego in this: they attempt to account for human psychologists interpret these things as aris- “defensiveness” without seeing human life ing from an inner dynamic process; they in its totality—behavior, psychological are intrapsychic mechanisms. Put in sim- dynamics, interpersonal relations, physi- plest terms, these psychological activities ology—as related to God. Accuracy about (“ego defense mechanisms”) are designed human defensiveness is anchored in one’s to protect ourselves (“ego”) from invasive understanding of the relationship between anxiety, which arises when our desires man and God. Defensiveness cannot be (“id”) contravene the image we have of reduced to psychosocial mechanisms. The ourselves (“ego ideal”) and in turn our biblical view drastically differs with both internalized conscience (“super ego”) Freud and Bandura. 15 Before we get to the biblical view, we sexual lust, and desire to control others are want to look briefly at the bundle of data. frequently covered. For example, a woman What follows is a representative sample of exudes a kind of sticky-sweet love and a number of “defense mechanisms” (1-10) piety, with great verbal protestations of the and “self-exonerating mechanisms” (11- same, when she is extremely frustrated and 15). I have attempted to recast each in more angry with her husband. This has been descriptive and less technical language termed “reaction-formation” because the because, as we have noted, nomenclature truth is concealed from consciousness by incarnates a theoretical framework. Secu- an “opposite reaction.” lar psychologists often have observed 3. People misdirect their attention from people doing these things. Psychologists important issues to secondary matters. Any bring an interpretation to the observed area of failure or guilt can be avoided in behaviors, seeking to distinguish among this way. For example, a Christian is pre- the many varieties of defensive behavior. occupied with minutiae of eschatology and But the interpretive categories are distor- continually boosts the necessity of Chris- tions—we might even say they are coun- tians carrying tracts, while all the time he terfeits—of the truth. has very poor relations with family and 1. We fear that others harbor the same co-workers (because of his perceived sinful motives we harbor and have not judgmentalism and hypocrisy) and visits dealt with. We often accuse others of these prostitutes about once a month. This has things. Lust, anger, greed, and competitive been termed “substitution” because all pride are things often attributed to others. sorts of secondary preoccupations are For example, a man has persistent fears that substituted for attention to personal and his wife is unfaithful to him, and he grills interpersonal problems (i.e., issues of sin). her about the slightest seeming inconsis- 4. People fantasize rather than face their tency in her behavior, often making up problems biblically. Fantasy can cover wild interpretations. In fact, the man has failed hopes, laziness, unrealistic ideals of an active sexual fantasy life, an ongoing success, unforgiven hurts, loneliness, etc. problem with masturbation, and guilt over It can also express directly sexual, finan- premarital sexual intercourse that he has cial, or status lusts, as well as a fundamen- never acknowledged. This has been termed tal thanklessness. For example, a lonely “projection,” and extreme cases of such single woman with a job she considers bor- fear, accusation, hostility, and pride are ing reads romance novels, watches soap termed “paranoia.” operas, and daydreams about being glam- 2. People cover up their failures, sin, and orous, successful, and beloved. This has guilt by trying to be good or to make up been termed “fantasy” for obvious reasons. without genuine repentance to God and 5. People whitewash or candy-coat real- others. They deny the truth about them- ity about others rather than facing things selves to God, to others, to themselves. honestly and responding constructively People try to manipulate and control others (i.e., biblically). For example, a widow with niceness and great demonstrations of whitewashes the memory of her deceased “love,” at the same time hiding from them- husband in her own mind and in conver- selves all awareness of what they are doing. sation with others. He was a drunk, adul- Judgmentalism, anger, disappointment, terer, and deadbeat, but she reiterates that, 16 “He was really a good man.” This has been tations constructively and realistically. For termed “inversions” because the truth is example, a woman with a bad marriage turned inside out. pours herself into her children and volun- 6. People generate physical symptoms of teer work. This has been termed “compen- problems rather than face them. Pride, sation” for obvious reasons. unreal images of oneself, anxiety, anger, 10. People rationalize, make excuses, and and a host of other things can be expressed shift blame to put themselves in the best in “psychosomatic” ways. For example, a light. For example, a man and woman ra- man who has an image of crying as a sign tionalize their fornication by saying, “We of womanish weakness will get intense really love each other. Society’s standards headaches whenever he thinks of his wife’s are wrong, and people need to be free.” A death. A pastor who will not face that he is woman says she is justified in her bitter- afraid of what people think of him tends ness at her husband because he is an alco- to get sick on Saturdays and is developing holic. A homosexual says God made him an ulcer. This has been termed “conver- that way, and Romans 1 only applies to sion” because a genuine addressable prob- natural heterosexuals who engage in lem is converted into physical symptoms. homosexuality. This has been termed 7. People scapegoat, blame, and attack “rationalization” and, like denial, can serve innocent, helpless, or even guilty parties as a catch-all for many of the masks people (or inanimate objects) rather than face and put on. solve problems biblically. For example, a 11. People use euphemisms about them- man yells at his wife, kids, and dog after a selves and others to avoid guilt or any tough day at work. He throws an ash tray attribution of responsibility for something. through the television screen when his For example, “I’m just irritated, not angry.” football team loses; he perpetually “I just had a few drinks.” “He acts that way grumbles and rages at minor injustices because he has a low self-esteem.” “When done against him—drivers who tailgate you said to me, ‘You have a problem with him, a mechanic who ripped him off—and anger,’ you became fused with a primitive never recognizes the fundamental pride and punitive part of my super-ego and that that rules his life. This has been termed made me very angry with you.” This has “displacement” because the emotion is been termed “euphemistic labeling.” directed away from its genuine object. The 12. People compare themselves to others problem that needs to be solved is avoided. to try to look good and justify themselves. 8. People deny or avoid reality to save face, For example, “I know I have my faults, preserve their pride, or hide from but I’m not as bad as a lot of other people.” consciousness of guilt. For example, a “Well, I might have slacked off some on mother excuses her son’s drunkenness and my job, but at least I didn’t smoke dope in troubles with the law by saying, “He’s the bathroom like most of the employees.” really a good boy; he just got in with a bad This has been termed “advantageous crowd.” This has been termed “denial” and comparisons.” can serve as a kind of catch-all for the whole 13. People shift blame from themselves gamut of defensive behavior. to others, God, circumstances, sickness, etc. 9. People cover failures with other suc- For example, “It’s only human to get angry. cesses instead of facing problems and limi- It’s just the way God made me. If my wife 17 would only treat me with respect I ures and to keep others at bay. 3. We live or die vicariously with a wouldn’t get angry.” “My life is messed up sports team. because my parents got a divorce.” This has 4. We “run from problems” by been termed “attribution of blame.” watching TV, drinking, smoking, promiscuity, work-alcoholism, com- 14. People spread around responsibility to pulsive eating. avoid culpability. If everybody does it, the 5. We mock or “put in a box” others law allows it, or society accepts it, then it is whose opinions or problems would threaten our own commitments and OK. For example, “Everyone cheats on his behavior. income taxes.” “The Supreme Court deci- 6. We “get defensive” and testy, talk loud or get accusatory, try to bully sion makes abortion all right, and 68% of others to defend ourselves and make the American people agree we ought to be a show of competency. free to choose.” This has been termed “dif- 7. We overdo penance by, “Poor me; I’m so horrible and such a failure,” fusion of responsibility.” express maudlin repentances, and 15. People ignore and minimize conse- wallow in failures. quences of their actions. For example, “I sup- 8. We minimize the seriousness of problems—”It’s nothing”—or the pose my wife is hurt when I curse her out difficulty of change—”I promise I’ll and threaten to leave, but she should know never do it again.” I don’t mean it.” This has been termed “dis- 9. We lie outright, either to look good or to avoid looking bad. regard of consequences.” 10. We lie subtly, putting the best These are but a sampling of the “ego light on ourselves by innuendo, embellishment, or careful selection defense mechanisms” and “self-exonerat- of data. This is often allied with ing mechanisms” that various psycholo- subtle expressions of contempt or gists have detailed. There are all sorts of criticism for other people. 11. We think highly of our own opin- examples of similar behavior evident in all ions on every issue. sectors of daily life. The theoretical freight 12. We tie up our identity in certain these fifteen samples carry in psychology grandiose roles, like “counselor” or “parent” or “pastor.” Any of our (they are given technical labels and sup- functions and successes, real or posedly describe real entities) can mask the imagined, can become fodder for fact that these sorts of things are only a few self-deception. 13. We pray for help before perform- examples plucked from among many. ing a certain responsibility, and then These same things can be described in very rehearse our own success afterwards without thought of God. untechnical terms: we “wear masks”; we duck, weave, and dodge “the light” of self- It should be evident that it does not take knowledge and honesty before God and a psychologized theory of ego defense man; we wear fig leaves. mechanisms or self-exonerating devices to The following provides only a smatter- track down countless instances of self- ing of further examples of the fig leaves that deception, self-aggrandizement, manipu- we wear: lation, and deception of and by others. In 1. We change the subject or crack fact the powerhouses of modern thought jokes if an awkward or threatening are precisely the dissectors of false con- (i.e., anything we are not dealing sciousness, who pierce the illusions of with biblically) subject comes up. 2. We ramble and monopolize con- individual and collective life, exposing the versation, filling silences to keep shame and game: Marx, Kierkegaard, ourselves from seeming to be fail- 18 Nietzsche and a host of others join Freud. such behavior causes for others: spouse, Nietzsche once observed, “‘I did that,’ says children, parents, boss, fellow employees, my memory. ‘I could not have done that,’ and counselors all suffer hardship and frus- says my pride, and remains inexorable. tration in attempting to build meaningful, Eventually—the memory yields.”4 Or as honest, and constructive relationships with T. S. Eliot put it, “Human kind cannot bear “defensive” people. They are variously very much reality.”5 aggressive, evasive, deceptive, manipula- tive, and yet all the while somehow blind A Biblical Evaluation of Human and driven, unable to help themselves. Of “Defensiveness” course, they are we! We all recognize our- The greatest critic of human hypocrisy selves in these descriptions of defensive and dissembling, however, is the Bible, behavior. Also it is no accident that others which speaks the mind of the Searcher of suffer hardship and frustration in cultivat- hearts and exposes illusions and false con- ing good relationships with us. sciousness, using an entirely different grid We also intuitively recognize that psy- than those of Marxists, existentialists, or chological diagnosis does not ring true to psychoanalysts. There is much that can be the whole picture of what a human being said biblically on the subject of human is. It fails to capture that perverse combi- defensiveness, but in this article we will nation of desire for good relationships, yet make seven general points. suspicion and fear of others; of tolerance First, the data of human defensiveness for others’ failings, yet self-aggrandize- looks like the biblical description of the ment and despising of others; of moments workings of sin. “Defensiveness” incar- of brilliant self-awareness, yet habitual nates all the blindness to the truth about blindness to what about us is obvious to oneself which might be denominated others; of patience with counselees, yet “pride.” It has that combination of self- petty anger with family members; of love deception and deception of others that fits for self-knowledge, yet stubborn resistance under the heading “the deceitfulness of to correction. In picking a good metaphor sin.” It embodies a primal resistance to to capture the vast data of “defensiveness,” honesty about oneself, an evasiveness, the metaphor “mechanisms” would never excuse making, and blame shifting, all of do. The metaphor “warmaking” is far more which are captured in a host of colorful cogent; it gets at the interpersonal compo- metaphors: stiff-necked, hardened or dark- nent; it includes both the defensive and ened in heart, foolish, and so forth. offensive activities, both fear and aggres- Also, the bundle of data describing sion; it includes the self–justifying rational- defensiveness is clearly not well explained izations for what we do; it describes people by calling it a set of intrapsychic mecha- with vast competencies and aspirations nisms. It has an evident interpersonal who somehow have gone awry; it implies component. Defensive people are almost we are both victims and victimizers; it invariably offensive as well. There is a implies the peacemaking that the gospel curious blindness in the psychological accomplishes in order to transform analyses of the phenomena, for self-decep- habitual warmakers into peacemakers. The tion and defensiveness are only one side idea of “defense mechanisms” represents of the story. The other side is the trouble a severe constriction of the data; it only has 19 appeal because of a presuppositional tion by an angry paranoid. Psychodynamic tunnel-vision that looks at people as “psy- psychology has stressed the relatively chological” entities rather than as covenan- unconscious character of defense mecha- tal beings existing in relationship to God nisms in neurosis and psychosis. For and neighbor. example, compare the concealed anger of “Warmaking activities” explains the a “reaction formation” with the concealed data far more lucidly and comprehensively intentions of a Casanova on the make: the than does “defense mechanisms.” It should former genuinely does not seem to know not surprise us that this is so. Secular psy- or to be able to admit the truth; the latter chology is always hamstrung by its pre– could admit in a moment the sexual commitment to view human problems as motives under the debonair and caring “ontological” problems—as “things” that exterior. The whitewashing and image- are not working right. Hence something as manipulation of a political ad campaign is basic as self-deception is inevitably ana- a calculated affair. The “inversion” of a lyzed as a psychological “mechanism.” But widow whitewashing her husband’s the Bible never views human problems as memory is automatic and unconscious. ontological but as relational or “ethical” at Conscious dissembling is not “ego-defense their cores. Problems exist between man and mechanisms” according to the theory. But God and between man and man. That our the failure to connect these two things psyches are unhinged—or futile, darkened, derives from a constriction of vision in the alienated, ignorant, hardened, deceived, psychological theory. and desire-ridden, as Ephesians 4 puts it— In practice, conscious and unconscious does not mean our problems are psycho- are not that easy to distinguish. They are logical. The disorientation that manifests on a continuum. It is remarkable how the itself in our psychic life is only symptom- most “unconscious” person knows he is atic of an interpersonal disorientation: our responsible for his sinful reaction as soon alienation from God. The very efforts of as it is brought out into the light. The sticky Freud, Bandura, et al, to describe these sweetness of a “reaction formation” van- problems as essentially ontological things ishes as soon as the person becomes hon- or mechanisms is a manifestation of that est. And the most “conscious” person is same disorientation. deeply deceived. How full of rationaliza- Second, if we are going to understand tions the Casanova is. However much the so-called “defense mechanisms” as part guilt has been denied and twisted, the and parcel of human sin, how do we make “defensive” person is guilty. The well- sense out of the seemingly “unconscious” psychoanalyzed person may be able to character of so many of the problems that identify each of his defensive machinations “defensive” people manifest—those things as it happens, but in a sense he remains that usually are spoken of as “psychologi- wholly deceived as to what those “mecha- cal or emotional problems”? It is evident nisms” really are. The fear of the LORD is that in part of the discussion above (for always the beginning of true wisdom, how- example, the “fig leaves” culled from daily ever things may appear when another life) I have indiscriminately mingled rela- interpretive framework is forced onto tively “conscious” acts, like lying, with human life. The “phenomenological sta- relatively “unconscious” acts, like projec- tus” of a particular problem is no safe guide 20 to what that problem is. However uncon- actions is a denial of the biblical view of scious or conscious a particular pattern of sin. It is the heresy known as Pelagianism warmaking activity seems, it is still funda- in the history of theology. That it is the mentally warmaking. The biblical doctrine “natural” theology of the man on the of sin easily accommodates the reality of street (psychiatrists included!) and that “unconscious” actions: sin is a darkening for Christians it is the most common func- of the mind, a blind compulsion, a slavery, tional view of sin do not make it even an an automatic and indelible proclivity. approximation of biblical truth. Where sin Especially as sin is understood in terms of is viewed primarily as willed outward acts, its inner hold on human life—variously overt evil with “malice aforethought,” then analyzed as pride or unbelief or idolatrous the deep and complex inner troubles desires or self or a drive for autonomy from people have will tend to be absorbed under God—then the fact of the automatic char- other categories. But this typical view of acter of so-called “defense mechanisms” is sin which creeps almost spontaneously simple and poignant testimony to the into all of our thinking misses the deep deceitfulness of sin, to human culpability, inner hold of sin, the dislocation and not to the excuse of “psychological prob- confusion of our hearts that is the core of lems.” the biblical view of sin. Both the “high- Third, people (psychiatrists, the man on handed” sins and the subtle sins, like the street, many Christians) have trouble anxiety, are embraced within the biblical seeing “emotional and psychological prob- view. Other categories communicate false lems” as intimately related to sin. Casanova impressions. had a sin problem. But a troubled person The attitude or stance taken towards sin has “emotional problems.” And a paranoid naturally follows from the view of sin. An schizophrenic or a case of reaction forma- external view of sin will imply a moralis- tion is a matter of “psychosis” or “neuro- tic stance towards sin. But an attitude of sis.” It is common to view defensive criticism or an exhortation to will power is behavior such as we have been describing a frank denial of the gospel. For most in some other category than sin. There are people “sin” connotes criticism or moral- two simple reasons for difficulty in seeing istic exhortation. But for the Bible—and for such problems as matters of human sin. a counselor or counselee who desires true First, the typical view of sin is that it con- self–knowledge rather than some species sists in outward acts consciously chosen, of rationalization—it both denotes and con- where one could have chosen the righteous notes the saving grace of Jesus Christ. It alternative. Second, the typical attitude or implies compassion and love offered to stance taken towards sin is a moralistic one, those who would know both themselves condemning the person and/or telling and God. Christ did not come to judge or them to shape up by an exercise of will to say, “Shape up!” He came to save, to power. The paranoid—to pick the extreme invite to an inner transformation of mind, case—seems clearly not to have chosen to heart, motives, will, identity, and emotions. become that way. And telling such a per- He came to draw to himself people who, son to shape up has never worked in the standing on their own, are already judged whole history of mankind! and are powerless to change themselves. But the view of sin that focuses on willed “Christianity transformed the lives of men 21 not by appealing to the human will, but Fourth, both Bandura and the ego by telling a story. The lives of men are trans- psychologists assume that the only two formed by a piece of news.”6 alternatives are either stifling moralism Historically, attitudes towards troubled (“character flaws,” lack of will power, people have often been moralistic in West- judgmentalism, the way most religionists ern society and in the church. Secular and the man on the street interpret behav- psychology might even be viewed as a “tol- ior) or liberating psychological science erant” reaction against moralism, for it (deeply penetrating into unconscious and sought to accept people rather than judge dissociated behavior; non-judgmental; the them, to show acceptance rather than to way most psychologists interpret behav- promote guilt, to make problems be psy- ior). The gospel, however, is a third way. It chological or behavioral maladjustment is exactly the truth—of the radical and rather than sin. Such themes are prominent denominating nature of sin and of the radi- in the life histories of men like Carl Rogers, cal and reorienting power of the Light, of B. F. Skinner, Ernest Jones, and many of the the forgiving love of Christ—that defen- other founders of psychiatry. It is no acci- sive people need and respect. In counsel- dent that the history of secular psychology ing it is striking how “schizophrenics,” the and psychiatry is intertwined with theo- paradigm case for powerful unconscious logical liberalism and has continued to defensiveness, “track” to the themes of appeal where there is a “liberalizing” trend pride and hiding. They are large children, going on in the church. The pendulum full of “folly” in the Proverbial sense, and swings from error to error, from moralism they know it. It is striking as well how that condemns men before God to liberal- “madmen” become sane as they begin to ism that sets men free of God. The para- grasp the implications of justification by dox is that, in the name of tolerance (i.e., faith, the substitutionary atonement, the non-judgmentalism and supposedly objec- alien righteousness of Christ, adoption as tive psychological science), the truth that children of the Father, the Lordship of the troubled people have a deep sin problem crucified Savior (of course not in such poly- is withdrawn—and so is the gospel that syllabic language at first!). Biblical Chris- deals with that sin problem. A person tianity is a third way. It is hard truth that whose heart is tangled up—is “deceitful heals deeply. It is not a set of euphemisms, beyond all finding out; who can under- like “ego defense mechanisms.” It is not a stand it?” as Jeremiah 17:9 so eloquently set of criticisms, like, “If he wanted to, he puts it—is taught psychological euphe- could shape up.” misms to diagnose his problems. He is then Fifth, when we look closely at the given the unconditional regard and accep- thought structure in which ideas like “ego tance of the therapist as a substitute for the defense mechanisms” or “self-exonerating self-giving love of the Lamb of God. “The mechanisms” are generated, we realize that wound of my people is healed lightly for they involve a deadly irony. These very they say ‘Peace, peace’ when there is no categories are a case in point of the things peace” (Jeremiah 8:11). Both legalism (“this being described. Their own categories con- is willful”) and psychologism (”this is a demn them. The nature of rationalization defense mechanism”) are profound distor- is to hide oneself from hard facts, from tions. Jesus Christ is a distinct third way. blows to one’s pride. The notion of uncon- 22 scious defense mechanisms that define one seling is tailor-made to help people with as “sick” (rather than profoundly deceived such deep problems. She was sinned and/or deceptive) is a choice illustration against grievously and repeatedly—both of a “defensive” self-exonerating rational- in being given negative models of how to ization. Human responsibility is muted; live, and in the direct attacks against her. there are “other reasons” for our problems. Jesus Christ has great compassion on those The psychodynamic explanation of human sinned-against: He can give this woman hiding and self-deception is itself a system- courage and a reason to face now what atized and well institutionalized “defense happened and to forgive. She is also mechanism.” It is a self-exonerating ratio- enslaved in sin—she lives multiple lies, is nalization. Similarly Bandura’s theory of ruled by fear and bitterness, gives nothing self-exonerating mechanisms is itself an to others, manipulates, does no work, has example of euphemistic labeling taking blasphemous ideas about God, and does place. He takes the data of human sin and not trust in Jesus. That she was both euphemizes it. He writes, for example, “It extremely provoked and consistently is self-exonerative processes rather than taught to sin does not lessen the fact that character flaws that account for most her life is controlled by sin. In fact, her sin inhumanities.”7 It would be much more against God is the “10,000 talents,” for her accurate to write that sin—in all its self- life is owed to him and is completely alien- deceptive power—evidences itself in ated from him; the sin against her is the inhumanities, character flaws, and self- “100 denarii,” a huge amount (a denarius excusing. Euphemism makes deep (seri- is a day’s pay). Such large pain of being ous) things shallow, and Bandura is wronged will be converted into forgiveness shallow in his analysis of human knots. when she sees her bigger wrong against Some of Paul Vitz’s recent work, in which God. Jesus Christ has great compassion on he shows how Freud’s analysis of the sinners: as she faces Him, responsible for Oedipal complex is a damning explanation who she is and has become, and finds for- of Freud’s atheism, makes an analysis simi- giveness, she will gain reason and courage lar to the one we are making here. to live and to forgive. Sixth, one of the most persuasive argu- Seventh, all this is to say that the “ego ments in favor of a view of problems as ideal” which “ego defense mechanisms” “emotional and psychological” has always are defending and the violations of one’s been that people with such problems internalized moral code which “self-exon- almost invariably have had real scars from erating mechanisms” are busy justifying their upbringing. Especially when one has are far from being mere “psychological” a moralistic view of sin, it seems somehow categories. These are “theological” issues cruel to say, for example, that a woman to the core: the pervasive outworkings of with multiple personalities (an extreme human pride in seeking—automatically form of the defense mechanism “fantasy”) and blindly as well as willingly—to live has a basic sin problem. Such a person typi- autonomously from the Creator and cally underwent constant criticism, was Redeemer. Let us carefully use the descrip- sexually abused, had horrendous role mod- tions and observations of secular psycholo- els, and lived a life of constant failure and gists. People indeed do and say the things danger. But a biblical view of sin and coun- reported, and secular men and women 23 have often been more careful to ob- bad. Euphemistic labeling, fantasy, trol, we can revel in the descriptive serve these than Christians have. But rationalization, and others are reason- acuity and case-study riches of psy- an interpretive framework is ably concrete words with which to chologists. With biblical categories, we incarnated in the reports of these describe behavior. But functioning as ourselves will mature as psychologists observations. Technical terminology is technical terms, they are theory-laden. in the best sense of the word: acute the bearer of unbiblical, speculative The triumph of Lavoisier’s nomencla- observers of human life, experienced theory. Let us be wary of the termi- ture was the triumph of Lavoisier’s in cases and case studies, consistently nology, for it sets the terms of the system! Simple descriptive language wise in our counseling methods. We discussion of human problems in a that incarnates a personalist world- will know people deeply enough to world view that is false. “Projection,” view may be more useful than techni- know exactly how they need Jesus for example, is a mechanical term for cal terminology, so long as the secular Christ. We will remember that Chris- a decidedly human, interpersonal, theoretical framework continues to be tianity is a third way. The alternative and covenantal activity! It is a term implicit in the vocabulary. Freudians to moralism is not psychologism; the freighted with distorted theory. It and Bandurans have some notion of alternative is Christianity. “Warmak- communicates false impressions. truth which serves as a framework ing activities” are omnipresent. Jesus Machines project; people act. Human within which to determine what is Christ came and made true peace. beings do not have mechanisms, how- euphemistic, fantastical, or rationalis- Blessed are the peacemakers who help ever automatically they react. Seem- tic. But their notion of truth is a shal- others into the peace of God that is in ing automatisms in human behavior low and distorting gloss when seen Jesus Christ. With biblical categories are better seen as illustrations of next to Scripture. They observe the we will become men and women who “slave-like behavior,” not machine- evidences of human sin in massive know people—including ourselves like activity. Just as the notion of detail, but they do not see sin nor hear first of all—and who know how to “warfare activities” thrusts us into a Jesus. There is a vast difference help with the help that is help indeed, personalistic world, so the notion that between saying, “That is a case of with the paraklesis (“comfort”) with behavior is “ruled,” not mechanical, euphemistic labeling,” and saying, which we ourselves have been com- forces us to see people more accurately “You are using euphemisms.” The forted by God (2 Cor 1:4). and personally. Sin, the desires of the former places us in a world of secular flesh, the world around us, and the mechanisms needing repair; the latter ENDNOTES devil are all portrayed as rulers that locates us in the world of human sin 1“Human Defensiveness: The Third enslave and command behavior.8 needing redemption. Way” was first published in the Jour- They are personalized powers that nal of Pastoral Practice 8 no. 1 (1985) deceive people and induce them to Conclusion 40-55. Used by permission. “warfare activities,” whether people Let us be ruthless to root out theo- 2Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of know that they are ruled or not. Slaves retical structures that view people as Modern Science (New York: Mac- and machines have many similarities. psychological or socio-psychological milan, 1957) 1. To show a slave how he is a machine abstractions: the phenomena observed 3Antoine Lavoisier, The Elements of may give him a sense of control and a are not “ego defense mechanisms” but Chemistry, trans. in Great Books of the world-view in which to interpret his are pride’s offensive, defensive, and Western World, vol. 45 (Chicago: experience. But though his anxiety deceptive strategies. And let us also Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1952) 1. level is reduced and he functions more forswear the therapeutic assumptions 4Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good self-confidently, he has been deceived that are consequent to the theory: they and Evil, trans. Helen Zimmern more profoundly. are poor and deceptive substitutes for (London: T. N. Foulis, 1914) 86. If they could be isolated from their the gospel of Jesus Christ. If—and it 5T. S. Eliot, “Burnt Norton,” in Four system, none of the terms would be is a large if—biblical categories con- Quartets (New York: Harcourt, 24 Brace & World, 1971) 14. 6J. G. Machen, Christianity and Liber- alism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1923) 47-48. 7Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973) 158. 8Eph 2:1-3 is an exceedingly rich summary passage that includes all of these. Rom 6:11-22; Gal 5:16-24; Rom 12:2; and 2 Tim 2:26 describe each in turn, as well as the alterna- tive: “slavery”—to righteousness, to the desires of the Spirit, to God’s will—a “slavery” which is freedom.

25 How God Is Good for the Soul Eric L. Johnson

Eric L. Johnson is Associate Pro- Many of the greatest Christian thinkers article is a consideration of the mental fessor of Pastoral Theology in the have believed that knowing God and health benefits of prayerfully meditating Department of Christian Counseling and knowing one’s self were intimately inter- upon some of the main features of God’s Family Studies at The Southern Baptist woven, including Augustine, Bonaventure, nature. Theological Seminary. He completed John Calvin, and Sören Kierkegaard.1 the Ph.D. (educational psychology) at Calvin called the knowledge of God and Some Psychospiritual Benefits of Michigan State University. Dr. Johnson the knowledge of one’s self the sum and the Experience of Some of God’s has edited two books, one of which is substance of all “true and sound wisdom” Attributes Psychology and Christianity: Four Views and believed they were thoroughly inter- Because of the thorough interdepen- (InterVarsity, 2000). This article is dependent.2 As Kierkegaard briefly put it, dence of self-understanding and God- adapted with permission from a chap- “The more conception of God, the more understanding according to Christian ter from a forthcoming book published self; the more self, the more conception of thought, we would expect that the Chris- by InterVarsity entitled: Divine Counsel: God.”3 The more one knows God, he tian self would be profoundly benefited by The Supremacy of God in Christian Soul- believed, the more one becomes a self (a its perception and experience of God. The Care, co-authored with Diane Langberg. responsible person as Christianly con- Bible contains many examples of people ceived); and the more one becomes such a being deeply affected by an immediate self, the more deeply one can appreciate exposure to God: Abraham, Jacob, Moses God. The best of historic Christian thought (repeatedly), Isaiah, and, of course, most has consistently maintained that it is not of Jesus’ own disciples! The predicament possible to know one’s soul accurately of post-resurrection disciples like ourselves apart from a corollary knowledge of God. is that our experience of God is mediated Such a stance offers a radical reconcept- through God’s word and requires the ualization of the field of counseling, cur- agency of the Holy Spirit acting upon rently conceived of in thoroughly secular our capacities. In the present, through our terms. But the secular stance of modern- reading, hearing, and reflecting on the ism/postmodernism is nothing more than word of God, God the Holy Spirit reveals a communally-based assumption that was the knowledge of God to the soul (as well largely unquestioned in the twentieth as true self-knowledge and a truer knowl- century. For the Christian community, edge of others). grounded as it is in the Christian Scriptures And this knowledge of God is good for and, secondarily, in the Christian tradition, the soul. Jesus equated it with eternal life an accurate understanding of human (John 17:3). Augustine took this insight nature and oneself can only proceed in very seriously. “For Augustine the goal of concert with one’s knowledge of God (and life is knowing and enjoying God. Know- vice versa).4 ing God occurs on two fronts. One is the To develop a distinct psychology and sphere of God’s works in history: creation, form of counseling and psychotherapy that Incarnation, and so forth. The other is the is foundationally Christian, then, requires spiritual sphere—a proper understanding a deeper exploration of the implications of of the qualities of God. In order to enjoy this “bi-polar” stance. The purpose of this God it is necessary to know who God is 26 based on what he has done and to under- efit to the soul, because they assume a stand ourselves in a certain way, a way strictly intellectualistic approach to such that takes pleasure in the qualities of God efforts, and so they look elsewhere for psy- and of ourselves as participants therein.”5 chologically transformative experiences. As the Puritan, Henry Scougal, wrote But if, following Edwards, we insist that (influenced, at least indirectly, by August- the true knowledge of God entails a “tast- ine), “The true way to improve and ennoble ing” of God’s goodness (Ps 34:6), it pro- our souls is by fixing our love on the divine duces, by definition, emotional change (as perfections that we may have them always a result of a deeper physiological change before us and derive an impression of them than factual learning alone can produce), on ourselves.”6 and it is only such changes that can lead to Before we look at some of God’s traits, the “re-formative” kinds of encourage- we must consider the way in which we are ment, conviction, humility, and peace that to know God, for the wrong kind of know- can contribute to a genuine and deep heal- ing does nothing to benefit the soul. On ing of the soul, changes that are especially the contrary, it leads to spiritual death. necessary to aid in the recovery of people Edwards sharply distinguished what he who have been emotionally traumatized. called “notional understanding” (an However, there is a balance here. God has abstract and speculative knowledge that revealed cognitive content about himself only involves the intellect) and “spiritual in the Bible that provides the essential grist understanding” (an apprehension that for Christian experience. Christian ortho- engages the whole person: the affections doxy does not disparage an intellectual as well as the intellect, issuing in love and understanding of God, since it provides awe in the heart). For Edwards, spiritual the necessary foundation for Christian understanding was necessary for true experience of God, without which Chris- religion. He equated true knowledge of tians have no understanding of what they God with the love and worship of God, for experience and therefore no ability to true knowledge of an object, according to distinguish the true God from false ones. Edwards, entails the aesthetic perception This feature decisively separates Christian of its worth, a perception that necessarily and Eastern approaches to religious expe- produces an emotional, evaluative rience. The Christian life is based on truth response. In the case of a spiritually healthy and love. soul, such a perception of God produces immense love and awe. So, for Edwards, God’s Greatness knowing facts about God were essential, God possesses many traits, and we do but not enough. The only saving under- not have space to deal with them all here. standing of God involves both an intel- Erickson distinguishes between two types lectual and affective appreciation or of traits (or attributes) of God: those hav- experience of the beauty of God that ing to do with his greatness and his good- draws our hearts out to him in love and ness.8 Though we humans are inclined to adoration.7 focus on those traits that relate directly to This point cannot be overstated. Some us (mostly those of his goodness), we will Christians have concluded that the under- begin with God’s greatness, because the standing of God produces little, if any, ben- greatness of his being is what most distin- 27 guishes him from us, and it also heightens insufficiency. Secular existential psychol- the significance of his relationship with us ogy raises the issue of our contingency, and provides its proper context. frailty, and finitude, but offers no consola- tion; it just claims that we must face such God’s Self-Existence and realities alone. Christianity also encourages Self-Sufficiency us to face them, but armed with the knowl- Humans have needs for food, water, and edge that we have an all-sufficient God air in order to live, and for social who is with us. relationships in order to develop (when Many people are troubled about their children) and to live well (as adults). God, deficiencies, weaknesses, and shame. Such by contrast, requires nothing outside him- knowledge is made desperate without self to exist. God has life in himself (John God. Moreover, out of a need to protect 5:26). This, of course, makes God utterly ourselves from our fundamental frailty, unique. He needs nothing outside of him- humans create and maintain defenses, and self to be fulfilled or happy, so he certainly become self-sufficient, independent, and does not need humans to fill a void he has. even proud and self-absorbed. Over time Since God exists as a triune set of persons, knowledge of God’s self-sufficiency can God has always existed in perfect, fulfill- give us the courage to allow those defenses ing social relationship and unthreatened to be softened and gradually taken down. contentment. If it is true that narcissism is the disor- Some might feel that this understand- der of our age,10 what better way is there ing takes significance away from humans to treat it than fostering a relationship with (compared to a view that sees God as need- the God of the universe? Loving this God ing humans). And this is true. Christianity gets us outside ourselves and focuses our does not place humans at the center of the attention on One who is truly worth universe (as humanism does), but God. magnifying. And the experience of God’s Upon reflection, the superficial boon a affection for us in Christ may go a long human-centered universe would provide ways towards meeting deep, unmet rela- for our self-esteem is quickly negated. If tional needs that foster narcissism. Relat- God was made content by the likes of us, ing to the absolutely self-sufficient God the universe would be managed by a needy (as we grow in our ability to acknowledge and unstable deity (in fact, we would be our own limitations and sins) may be one his helper, turning us into his deity), mak- of the most helpful relational activities in ing it difficult, to say the least, to find peace which one struggling with narcissism can through entrusting our lives into his hands. engage. One might argue that only a On the contrary, knowing that God is genuinely God-centered religion is able absolutely self-sufficient is deeply reassur- adequately to treat the self-absorption of ing. It is good for our souls to know, in the narcissism; certainly its resources are more midst of our contingent, unpredictable life, beneficial than contemporary Selfism, that our God is never drained, burned out, which simply aids in the sophistication and or out of control, and is therefore always success of one’s autocentric orientation. able to care for us and our needs (though None of the foregoing should be read we may have to reconceive our needs).9 His as implying that other humans are not sufficiency meets the ultimate needs of my extremely important to such therapeutic 28 processes. The point here, in this article, Though most things are outside human is that the awareness of God is, also, control and everyone has experienced extremely important to such processes, and some suffering in life, it is encouraging to part of Christian counseling is to help know that God knows everything that is Christians avail themselves of the thera- going to happen to us, he is in absolute peutic resources of their faith. control, he is always present with the believer, and he works all things together God’s Self-Awareness for the believer’s good (Rom 8:28). Such Since God knows all things, he knows awareness can go far to reduce stress,13 and himself perfectly. He is absolutely self- it seems likely that many psychological aware.11 In this capacity, God provides a difficulties could be impacted by a deep model for human psychological well- acceptance of God’s omnicompetence being. Humans are prone to self-deception, (combined with the belief that he is “on defensive activity, self-alienation, dissocia- my side”), including such things as perfec- tion, and, in extreme cases, can experience tionism, a sense of meaninglessness or psychosis. And the more self-aware insignificance, inferiority, anxiety, phobia, humans are, the more mature they are, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, depres- the more they are able to control them- sion, and feelings of personal incompe- selves and the less they are controlled by tence. unacknowledged dynamics. Knowing Each of the attributes that contributes God, who knows himself exhaustively, pro- to God’s omnicompetence provides its own vides a profound encouragement to grow psychospiritual consolation. His omnipo- in self-awareness, and God himself, tence communicates that no ultimate harm through the enlightening power of the will come to believers. God is their always- Holy Spirit (2 Cor 4:4), makes such self- victorious protector. “When we say that awareness possible. “Only by being before God is omnipotent, it is not only that we God can one totally come to oneself in the may honor Him, but in order that we may transparency of soberness.”12 be at rest and invincible in the face of all temptations, for, since the power of God is God’s Omni-Competence infinite, he is well able to preserve and To say that God is the greatest being in guard us.”14 Being omniscient means that the universe means that he is superlative God knows the future and will not be sur- in every way. He has no limitations or prised by anything that happens to us. It imperfections, and so he is unimprovable. also means that he knows everything that There is no power greater than his own and is in the believer’s heart. There is no point, so nothing (meaningful) he cannot do (he therefore, in hiding from him (or from one- is omnipotent), nothing he does not know self), so believers are encouraged to “come (he is omniscient), and nowhere he is not clean” and open up their souls self-con- (he is omnipresent). God then is perfectly sciously to his gaze (and so to their own). competent. Tozer says God’s omniscience is sweet For those who have a personal because “no talebearer can inform on us, relationship with him and believe he is no enemy can make an accusation stick; no perfectly good, such truths can contribute forgotten skeleton can come tumbling out to a deeper sense of comfort and security. of some hidden closet to abash us and 29 expose our past; no unsuspected weakness necessary background for properly under- in our characters can come to light to turn standing God’s goodness. Only after rec- God away from us, since He knew us ognizing the vast supremacy of God can utterly before we knew Him and called us one properly appreciate his love for to Himself in the full knowledge of every- humans and benefit from it. “It is the great- thing that was against us.”15 God’s omni- est joy possible, as I see it, that he who is presence means that no matter where the highest and mightiest, noblest and worthi- believer is, God is there present with est, becomes lowest and meekest, friendli- him and will be there to support the est and most courteous.”17 So we consider believer through whatever happens. For next God’s overall goodness. the believer, there is no place in the universe of absolute loneliness and aban- God’s Moral Goodness, donment. Righteousness, and Justice God is supremely, wondrously great. “God is light and in him is no darkness Since he is the most glorious being in the at all” (1 John 1:5). Such knowledge can also universe, his beliefs and values are of be deeply helpful to our souls. We were supreme importance. He is the absolute created to correspond to such moral per- expert or authority; therefore, he knows fection, so we are predisposed to be opti- what he’s talking about. This is all-impor- mistic about ourselves and our future, to tant therapeutically because a deep aware- be positive about things in general, and to ness of his greatness makes his affection form a just-world theory of how things for us and his understanding of us very work out.18 Autocentric non-Christians important (for example, his view of us as must engage in self-enhancing “positive justified in Christ). An awareness of his illusions”19 to maintain such a positive supreme greatness causes us to value what stance, leading sometimes to tragic self- he thinks about us, more than what other deception, since humans in this age are humans think (or have thought) and more inclined to justify themselves and blame than what we fundamentally think about others for their difficulties.20 Knowing God ourselves (in our core beliefs; “we shall through the gospel allows the Christian, assure our heart before him, in whatever ideally, to find cognitive satisfaction for this our heart condemns us, for God is greater “positive orientation” in God, in spite of than our heart, and knows all things,” one’s personal shortcomings. 1 John 3:19-20). Julian of Norwich recog- This leads to another reason why the nized some of the value to the soul of such knowledge of God’s moral goodness is knowledge. “Of all things, the beholding good for our souls. Calvin believed that of and longing for the Maker most makes knowing God in his righteousness was one the soul become less in its own sight, for it of the best promoters of accurate self- most fills one with reverent dread, true awareness. meekness, and fullness of charity toward one’s fellow Christians.”16 As long as we do not look beyond the earth, being quite content with our own righteousness, wisdom, God’s Goodness and virtue, we flatter ourselves most We began this section by looking at sweetly, and fancy ourselves all but demigods. Suppose we but once God’s greatness because it provides the begin to raise our thoughts to God, 30 and to ponder his nature, and We might think that nothing of therapeu- how completely perfect are his righteousness, wisdom, and power tic benefit can be derived from thinking —the straightedge to which we about such a threatening attribute as God’s must be shaped. Then, what won- wrath, but because of the psychological derfully impressed us under the name of wisdom will stink in its perplexities this attribute poses to the soul very foolishness.21 (and because of modern discomfort with it), we will examine it a bit more in depth. Knowing God’s righteousness can help Theological liberals, who do not take Christians to be more humble, authentic, biblical revelation seriously, find it easy to and accurate in their self-representations. reject God’s wrath, positing instead a God On the other hand, problems arise when that is more “accepting” of human faults.23 Christians over-identify with God’s righ- Such a stance might seem superficially teousness and come to assume uncon- beneficial to the soul, but trusting God’s sciously that they are intrinsically as good word, we should expect that in the long as God. This, unfortunately, can lead para- run too much is lost for it to be truly psy- doxically to greater self-deception and chologically helpful. For if God were sim- arrogance than that to which non-Chris- ply to “overlook” wrong-doing, he would tians are typically given. of necessity be a moral relativist himself, Recognizing God’s moral goodness also one without ethical standards, a view that can benefit the soul by reducing the anxi- throws the universe into moral chaos, ulti- ety, bitterness, and self-pity that can arise mately a devastating move psychologi- from the feelings that one’s maltreatment cally, since it subtly encourages human at the hand of others will never be moral carelessness, which inevitably brings redressed. God’s righteousness guarantees harm to its practitioners (Prov 1:32, 8:36). that everything wrong in this life will In addition, God’s wrath most clearly somehow be made right in the end. This reveals his absolute opposition to all evil, knowledge can be deeply satisfying, abuse, and oppression, and this truth, as because much of the secret anguish in suggested above, is ultimately consoling to life that derives from mistreatment in its victims. childhood is due to the immense sense When convinced that God is thoroughly of injustice that the victims of such sin feel holy and righteous, even in his wrath, so deeply. intellectual problems with his anger dis- solve. The real problem in this doctrine Can There Be Anything comes from its tragic distortions in human Therapeutic about God’s Wrath? sinful anger, since human anger rarely Surely the most disturbing trait of God attains the righteousness of God (James is his capacity to be angry (1 Kgs 14:9; John 1:20). Most human wrath is narcissistic and 3:36; Eph 2:3). The Bible makes clear that, self-serving, in the light of God’s holy in response to the rebellion of his image- emotions, and so it hurts others. Exces- bearers, God can be extremely displeased sive parental anger, in particular, is deadly and looks like the opponent of sinners, to the child who, being an emotional eventually consigning those who disobey “sponge,” soaks in aggressive rejection and him to hell.22 The prophetic literature in in different ways takes it into her soul, particular shows God to be enraged at sin. being profoundly damaged in the process. 31 Adults who have been exposed to such they are better able to interpret it, separated sinful distortions will be inclined to either from their own abuse and pain. Perhaps reject God, or the idea of wrath in God, or this trait is of greatest value to those on the will come to over-identify with God (and ends of the spiritual-ethical continuum: on his wrath), falsely legitimizing their own one end, those whose very souls are in sinful wrath (as is the tendency of authori- immediate eternal danger through the tarian parents, who tend to be religious). ongoing practice of sin (chronic substance We are driven to take seriously the abuse or adultery, see 1 Cor 6:18) and, on wrath of God for no other reason than that the other end, those who are the most it is a pervasive theme in the Bible. psychospiritually mature, who are capable Rightly handled, God’s holy indignation of handling it with little distortion and so against sin causes a healthy, theocentric can use it to promote humility, seriousness, sense of the awfulness of evil. It can lead and earnestness in the Christian life. to soul-maturing experiences of conviction Ultimately, any consideration of God’s and a deepening humility. God’s wrath in anger must take us to the cross of Christ, Scripture points to his values, that which for there was the greatest display of God’s robs him of glory, but that also happen to wrath and his love, simultaneously, since be what is ultimately most self-destructive there God’s anger against sin and sinners for humans! His anger reveals what is is swallowed up in his own saving good- against God and ourselves. It is, for the ness.25 In light of the revelation of the cross believer, the corollary of his love.24 Theo- of Christ (and his resurrection), humans logical liberals seem not to grasp this. God find whatever angry abuse they have suf- has revealed his wrath to spare humans fered, and their own shame, sorrow, anger, from the harmful consequences of sin, and guilt reckoned to Christ (Isaiah 53), ultimately from that wrath itself (2 Pet ultimately setting the believer free from all 3:3-13). The revelation of God’s holiness, that stands in the way of God’s saving righteousness, justice, and wrath, when purposes. The cross is the tree of life to the combined with the gospel, can profoundly believer.26 However, in this age, it takes benefit the soul by causing humans to time to take in more and more of the heal- reject, or repent of, harmful thoughts, ing found in that tree. behaviors, desires, and motives, to sepa- rate themselves by faith from the old self God’s Grace, Mercy, and Forgiveness and its evil, and so ultimately to contrib- At this point, it must be made clear that ute to a fuller and healthier self-awareness none of God’s attributes can be properly and ability to relate to others. perceived (i.e., in a way that benefits the But this attribute must obviously be soul) apart from the gospel of God’s grace handled with great care. When perceived in Christ. “The way to diminish and even through the lenses of past emotional or overcome those terrors which arise from physical abuse, God’s wrath can be inter- partial and false apprehensions of God is preted as personal rejection. Consequently, to attain spiritual, clear, and enlarged views the Christian counselor will have to of Him as a God whose glory it is to be encourage some clients not to focus on merciful and gracious even to the chief of God’s anger, until, after receiving healing sinners.”27 Many humans struggle with a through the gospel of the grace of God, conscious awareness of shame and guilt, 32 and most humans possess an unconscious leads to the recognition that God in him- sense of the same. Shame, in particular, self is perfect love and communion (John fosters an avoidance of self-examination 17:23, 24; 1 John 4:10, 16).29 So gazing upon and the assumption of responsibility, fear the triune God of all love, by faith, is of others and of “being exposed,” defen- fundamentally beneficial. Naturalism, siveness and aggressive anger; it keeps humanism, and postmodernism have people from reaching out to others; and it nothing more to give their clients than the is associated with most forms of psycho- admonition that they should care about pathology.28 The revelation of God’s grace and love themselves, because it makes per- and mercy, his love for sinners and the sons more happy, adaptive, and success- broken and hurting, can therefore be pro- ful. But what if someone sincerely believes foundly encouraging and hope-giving. that he is not lovable (as many depressed Direct experiences of God’s grace in the people do)? Humanistic psychotherapy gospel can lead to a reconfiguration of has always been hampered by the contra- one’s self-representations, and one’s view diction of encouraging “unlovable selves” of others and the world, and can facilitate to love themselves. Humans need a tran- a growing honesty and openness with God, scendent basis for a change in self-eval- oneself, and others, and so can help Chris- uation that originates from outside the tians become more willing to take risks tainted self. with others. This is because knowing that God, furthermore, is absolutely commit- the greatest Being in the universe is com- ted to his children; he is for them; he is on mitted to one’s ultimate well-being in their side (Rom 8:26-39). “We may, with his Christ, regardless of one’s sin and dysfunc- grace and his help, stand in spirit, gazing tion, provides a deep sense of security, with endless wonder at this lofty, integrity, wholeness, and fulfillment, a unmeasurable love beyond human scope sense that corresponds to the extent the that Almighty God has for us of his good- individual is able to embrace it and so ness.”30 For Christians, this absolute sup- undermine previous destructive patterns port, grounded in his covenantal promises of shame and self-abhorrence. to them in Christ, can become the primary People who are especially burdened by catalyst driving their psychospiritual their guilt and shame can become espe- improvement. As God’s supreme dedica- cially transformed by God’s mercy, grace, tion to one’s welfare is increasingly and forgiveness. In fact, the greater the accepted, a deep-seated psychological sense of shame, the greater can be the even- paradigm shift begins to occur, and believ- tual sense of gratitude and affection to God ers come to feel that the “cloud” that has (Luke 7:47; though such an awareness hovered over their lives is being gradually tends to grow throughout one’s life with lifted, that God really is on their side, and God). The deepening reception of one’s that their life really is worthwhile. forgiveness gives the soul a serious kind God’s word encourages believers to see of joy quite unlike any other, one that his love as directed personally toward brings psychospiritual healing in its wings. them. “The Lord your God is in your midst, a warrior who gives victory; he will rejoice God’s Love over you with gladness, he will be quiet in Understanding God’s Trinitarian nature his love; he will exult over you with loud 33 singing.” (Zeph 3:17). Because of Christ, tionships with the individual.32) Together, God takes absolute delight in the believer. the love of God, experienced through Experiencing attachment with God can private and public worship and that which repair attachment damage.31 Experiences is mediated through God’s people, pro- of his favor help to supplement damaged vides the kinds of relational experiences and weak self-structures and relational dis- that permit the relinquishing of pathologi- positions and foster the development of cal self- and other-representations and the new, healthier internal structures. People incorporation of healthy self and relational who struggle with “co-dependence” or structures. dependent personality disorder can derive special benefit from fostering a deeper God’s Joy and Contentment relationship with their Father and Friend. Throughout Church history, Christians The unmet needs that cause people to be have also understood God to exist in unal- overly dependent on other humans in terable happiness and bliss.33 God is intrin- unsatisfying ways can, to some extent, be sically content and joy-filled. He is perfectly met in a real sense through a deepening satisfied in himself and beyond any threats relationship with the Lover of their souls. to his infinite enjoyment. This has power- The revelation throughout the Bible of ful implications for human well-being and God’s love of the poor, the weak, the our relation with God. For this means that, oppressed, the sinful, the broken, and the suffering, particularly as demonstrated God is never irritable or edgy. He is never fatigued or depressed or blue through Christ’s life, ministers to those or moody or stressed out. His anger who have felt disenfranchised, alienated never has a short fuse. He is not from others, and marginalized. Persons easily annoyed. He is above any possibility of being touchy or cranky with serious psychospiritual problems are or temperamental. Instead he is given hope as they accept this revelation. infinitely energetic with absolutely Counselors must take seriously the pain of unbounded and unending enthu- siasm for the fulfillment of his God’s “absence” in someone’s childhood, delights.34 the result of the evil or carelessness of human caregivers. While God was not God’s perfect peace and joy provide the actually absent, distorted image-bearers in ultimate foundation for the psychological childhood seem to provide “evidence” that well-being of the human soul. Human joy God does not exist, or perhaps that he is has an objective basis in God.35 It is there- one’s enemy, and, combined with one’s fore good for the soul to gaze upon and own original sin, these experiences can fellowship with this perfectly mentally- persuade the soul that it is unlovable and healthy and joyful God. Since God is so abandoned. Thus, the revelation of God’s characterized by such joy, those who wor- love through Scripture can become pro- ship God and dwell in him (through foundly curative and therapeutic as the prayerful meditation) are exposed to and adult comes to know and love this God gradually drawn into his contentment. who felt so distant in earlier periods of life. Given his joyful nature, God himself “gives (This is enhanced when Christian image- pleasure, creates desires and rewards with bearers [like the counselor] express this enjoyment, because He is pleasant, desir- love concretely through supportive rela- able, and full of enjoyment.”36 Secular 34 counselors have no such transcendent At the same time, it must be restated that resources; how advantaged is the Christian God made humans to be in human rela- counselor who can help others to access tionships as well as divine, and the experi- such joy in God! enced Christian counselor knows that prior On the other hand, to be cut off from harmful relational experiences and later the God of all joy, through distrust and self-understandings and choices can push unbelief, makes humans more susceptible the experience and comfort of God’s good- to the kinds of psychological dissatisfac- ness outside one’s immediate reach. This tion and suffering that are devoid of tran- reality provides no excuses, but it must be scendent joy (e.g., depression) or that result taken with utmost seriousness. To mini- from trying to find transcendent joy in mize such conditions leads to a distorted less-than-transcendent places (e.g., in the view of the hindrances that inhibit one’s creation, through drugs). So, Christian ability to receive the grace of God’s nature. counselors assist their counselees as they Here is where the Christian counselor’s point them to the God who is perfectly resourcefulness comes into play, recogniz- blissful and teach them how to dwell in ing that he or she is a sign of God that him and obtain more of the gift of his bliss. immediately reveals something of God to the counselee, a function that can eventu- Summary ally become a relational bridge for more Since humans are made in God’s image, direct work with God. humans can only become whole selves in love with God. Because of the breadth of Healing Time with God God’s character, just about every distress- Before we finish, we must consider how ing or dysfunctional state can be addressed to help people access God in more of his by some trait of God. Knowing and being beauty for therapeutic purposes. For this loved by God strangely transforms one’s we need to consider those spiritual disci- sense of worthlessness and inferiority. The plines that have been used for centuries for self-importance of narcissism is relativized such purposes: prayer; spiritual reading in God’s presence. His sovereignty soothes (lectio divina), especially the Bible, but also anxiety and fear. His righteousness and good devotional literature; meditation (or justice help to put into perspective experi- contemplation); and worship. ences of injustice and so reduce bitterness. Christians need more supernatural vis- It would seem that whatever one’s psycho- its from their Father and Savior to be ben- spiritual difficulties, they can be funda- eficially impacted by God’s nature. It is not mentally improved by looking to God. By enough simply to read the Bible. That is focusing increased attention and affection necessary, but such reading must be enliv- on the beauty of God (and so more and ened experientially by the Holy Spirit, so more “bringing” the beauty of God into that our religious affections are engaged one’s internal world), it would seem likely and focused on God and we experience his to lead gradually to a fundamental recon- presence.37 For this, Christians have to learn figuration of one’s self-other relational con- how to cultivate the frame of heart to gaze text; one’s narrative; one’s feelings of upon God’s beauty. Christians (and too security, hope, and belongingness; and many Christian counselors) are often one’s sense of meaning and purpose. unconvinced that communing with God 35 will produce the kind of psychological help of the brain (the amygdala and hippocam- people need.38 Many Christians have little pus)41 that can bring about fuller, healthier understanding of the psychospiritual ben- internal reorganization of one’s memories efits that result from learning how to abide and emotional orientation, than can mere in Christ and worship God in private and intellectual apprehension of spiritual truth, public, so devotions and church attendance that by itself does little to change the heart. often degenerate into mere formal duty. It should be added that it is also highly But Christians have to re-wire their brains therapeutic for Christians to go on nature for accessing glory. It takes time to learn walks, hikes, or camping trips, to get alone how to meditate and how to develop a with God and allow his peaceful dignity, simple, daily focus on God that more con- contentment, power, and wisdom to be sistently connects with God’s greatness and directly communicated to the soul through goodness. So Christians, including emo- his creation. Nature does not belong to tionally troubled Christians, need to be New Agers; it really belongs to God and to taught the relevant spiritual disciplines, his children. Nature contains countless and they need to make space in their lives metaphors of spiritual truth and healing, for God, getting free of distractions, and and some of God’s traits seem sometimes getting alone more with God. This is often almost palpable in nature (Rom 1:20). The a huge hurdle because of the busyness of assignment of spending time in nature will modern life and because of the disarray of make good clinical sense for some clients. many Christians’ inner lives. But helping So, knowing God is not to be reserved in these areas is also what Christian coun- for those who are already psychologically seling is about. whole. On the contrary, for the Christian, Christianity is nothing if it is not rela- God is always central to human life and tionship with God. So prayer is primary to its development, regardless of its (and therapeutic).39 But it cannot consist degree of psychopathology. May God lead merely in restless supplications for it to be all of us into more of his beautiful, healing deeply helpful. The practice of “listening presence. prayer” leads to a richer, more dialogical form of prayer that rests in the presence of Recommended Resources God.40 Second, as the Christian learns how There are not enough good, accessible effectively to meditate on the nature of books on God’s traits, particularly written God, through Scripture especially, but also in the twentieth century. Most of the fol- good Christian books (something that can lowing are classics. take from weeks to months to learn), such Augustine. The Confessions of St. Augus- meditation tends to produce daily benefits tine. Translated by H. Chadwick. New (through ongoing stress-reduction), as well York: Oxford University Press, 1998. as long-term benefits (by enabling the cre- Augustine was one of the most God- ation, over time, of new internal structural centered Christian thinkers of all time. This change in one’s deep understanding of autobiographical prayer (!) is filled with reality, one’s story, one’s relationships, and praises of God and reflections on his great- one’s self). Prayerful meditation is essen- ness and beauty. tial, especially when it is affectively- Bernard of Clairvaux. The Love of God. charged, because it accesses deeper parts Portland, OR: Multnomah, 1983. A rich 36 exploration on Christ’s love for his people, attributes of God. Watson was one of the his bride, and our growing love of God, by most accessible of the Puritans, writing an important monk from the 12th century. with pithy statements, nice metaphors, and Calvin, J. Institutes of the Christian Reli- solid theology. gion. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960. This is rigorous theology but was written before ENDNOTES theology became overly intellectual and 1Augustine, The Confessions of Saint Au- arid. This is worship-theology. One cannot gustine, trans. Henry Chadwick (401; read far before being drawn to worship, New York: Oxford University Press, confess, or celebrate. 1998); Bonaventure, Bonaventure: The Charnock, S. The Existence and Attributes Soul’s Journey into God, The Tree of Life, the of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1996. Writ- Life of St. Francis (1259; Mahway, NJ: ten by a Puritan preacher and published Paulist, 1978); J. Calvin, Institutes of the first in 1682, it is a demanding and exhaus- Christian Religion, trans. F. L. Battles tive, but rewarding, discussion of some of (1559; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960); God’s most important attributes. and S. Kierkegaard, Sickness unto Death Edwards, J. A Passion for His Glory. (1848; Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer- Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1998. Accompa- sity Press, 1941). nied by a lengthy introduction by John 2Calvin, 35. Piper on the value of Edwards, the last half 3Kierkegaard, Sickness unto Death, 129. of the book is a reprint of Edwards’s essay 4It must be added that one’s relationship The End for Which God Created the World, the to other humans is just as fundamental best exposition of God’s glory ever writ- to one’s self-development and self- ten (penned around 1750). understanding as is one’s relation to Julian of Norwich. Manifestations of God, a position in keeping with Chris- Divine Love. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, tian thought. In addition to the duality 1977. Wondrous insights into the love of of self and God that has been the primary God, but it must be read with discern- focus of Christian reflection on self- ment. Written in the fourteenth century. development, the individual human Packer, J. I. Knowing God. Downers person is actually necessarily situated Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1973. Great, practi- within three poles of relationality: (1) a cal discussion of some of God’s attributes self in fundamental relationship with and the blessings of knowing him. (2) God and (3) other humans. God cre- Piper, J. The Pleasures of God. Sisters, OR: ated humans to develop within families, Multnomah, 1991. Unusual, worshipful in relationship with other images of God, exploration of some of the things that make in order to realize their individuality as God happy. image-bearers themselves. Christ’s two- Tozer, A.W. The Knowledge of the Holy. San fold command of love of God and neigh- Francisco: HarperCollins, 1961. Very acces- bor underscores the interdependence of sible discussion of nearly 20 attributes in one’s relationships with God and other 20 short chapters. humans in Christian understanding Watson, T. A Body of Divinity. Edinburgh: (O. O’Donovan, Resurrection and Moral Banner of Truth, 1966. A great Puritan treat- Order [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ment of theology. The first section is on the 1985]), an interdependence found 37 throughout the Bible (e.g., James 3; 9L. J. Crabb, Jr., Shattered Dreams (New York: Seabury, 1980). 1 John), all of which points towards (Colorado Springs: Waterbrook, 21Calvin, 38. a recognition of a “tripolar” nature 2002). 22L. Morris, The Biblical Doctrine of of human beings. However, it was 10D. Capps, The Depleted Self (Minne- Judgment (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- not really until the twentieth cen- apolis: Fortress. 1993); and C. Lasch, mans, 1960). tury that Western thought (and The Culture of Narcissism (New York: 23See e.g., S. McFague, Models of God: research) more fully explored the W.W. Norton, 1979). Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear dependence of human self-develop- 11John Frame, The Doctrine of God Age (Philadelphia: Westminster, ment on human others, as seen in (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and 1987); for a recent critique, see the theories of Cooley, Mead, and Reformed, 2002). E. L. Johnson and D. S. Huffman, Vygotsky, and more recently, Rom 12S. Kierkegaard, For Self-Examination/ “Should the God of Historic Chris- Harre, Charles Taylor, and John Judge for Yourself!, trans. H. V. Hong tianity Be Replaced?,” in God under Shotter, the clinical theories of the and E. H. Hong (1875; Princeton, NJ: Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents object relations and family-systems Princeton University Press, 1990) God, ed. D. S. Huffman (Grand Rap- approaches, and social develop- 106. ids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002) 11-41. ment research. In light of such 13K. I. Pargament, The Psychology of 24H. Berkhof, Christian Faith (Grand conceptual enrichment, the Chris- Religion and Coping (New York: Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1979). tian community is better equipped Guilford, 1997) 223. 25D. Bonhoeffer, Christ the Center to understand how it is that self- and 14Calvin quoted by A. Lecerf, An (New York: Harper & Row, 1966). God-understanding are both also Introduction to Reformed Dogmatics 26Bonaventure. interrelated with other-understand- (London: Lutterworth, 1949) 379. 27J. Colquhoun, Spiritual Comfort ing than Christian thinkers of 15A. W. Tozer, The Knowledge of the (1814; Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria, previous centuries were able to Holy (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1998) 164. appreciate. It remains for contem- 1961) 57. 28J. P. Tangney and R. L. Dearing, porary orthodox Christian psy- 16Julian of Norwich, Revelations of Shame and Guilt (New York: Guil- chologists to more fully explore how Divine Love (Garden City, NY: ford, 2002). these three poles are interrelated. Doubleday, 1977) 92. 29C. M. LaCugna, God for Us: The Trin- The present article, however, 17Ibid., 94. ity and Christian Life (San Francisco: focuses exclusively on the relation- 18M. E. P. Seligman, Learned Optimism Harper, 1991); A. P. Pauw, The Supreme ship between the knowledge of God (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991); Harmony of All: The Trinitarian Theol- and the self. M. E. P. Seligman and M. Csikszent- ogy of Jonathan Edwards (Grand Rap- 5E. Charry, Renewing the Mind: The mihalyi, “Positive Psychology: An ids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002); and J. Pastoral Function of Christian Doc- Introduction,” American Psychologist Thompson, Modern Trinitarian Per- trine (New York: Oxford University 55 (2000) 5-14; and C. R. Snyder and spectives (New York: Oxford Univer- Press, 1997) 128. S. J. Lopez, eds., Handbook of Posi- sity Press, 1994). 6H. Scougal, The Life of God in the Soul tive Psychology (Oxford: Oxford Uni- 30Julian of Norwich, 91. of Man (1677; Minneapolis: Bethany, versity Press, 2002). 31R. C. Roberts, “Attachment: Bowlby 1976) 49. 19S. E. Taylor and J. D. Brown, “Illu- and the Bible,” in Limning the Psyche: 7Jonathan Edwards, The Works of sion and Well-Being: A Social Psy- Explorations in Christian Psychology, Jonathan Edwards, vol. 2: Religious chological Perspective on Mental ed. R. C. Roberts and M. R. Talbot Affections (New Haven, CT: Yale Health,” Psychological Bulletin 116 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, University Press, 1959). (1988) 21-27. 1997) 206-228. 8M. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd 20D. G. Myers, The Inflated Self: Human 32See L. J. Crabb, Jr., Connecting (Waco, ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1998). Illusions and the Biblical Call to Hope TX: Word, 1997). 38 33See John 14:27, 17:13; T. Aquinas, Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas (New York: Random House, 1945); H. Bavinck, The Doc- trine of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1951) 247. 34J. Piper, The Pleasures of God (Port- land, OR: Multnomah, 1991) 192. 35K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, vol. 2, part 1: The Doctrine of God (Edin- burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1957). 36Barth, 651. 37Edwards. 38Though for some Christian counsel- ing correctives, see Crabb, Shattered Dreams; G. W. Moon, Homesick for Eden: Confessions about the Journey of a Soul (Lifespring Resources Moon, 1996); J. Ortberg, The Life You’ve Al- ways Wanted: Spiritual Disciplines for Ordinary People (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997); and S. -Y. Tan and D. H. Gregg, Disciplines of the Holy Spirit: How to Connect to the Spirit’s Power and Presence (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997). 39Pargament. 40W. Wangerin, Whole Prayer: Speaking and Listening to God (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2001). 41See E. D. Aquili and A. B. Newberg, The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biol- ogy of Religious Experience (Minne- apolis: Fortress, 1999); J. LeDoux, The Emotional Brain (New York: Touchstone, 1996); and D. J. Siegel, The Developing Mind: Toward a Neu- robiology of Interpersonal Experience (New York: Guilford, 1999).

39 Psychotherapy and Christian Ministry1 Robert C. Roberts

Robert C. Roberts is Distinguished Pastors as Therapists cal pastoral past, into a vague absent- Professor of Ethics at Baylor University. As facilitators of God’s saving work, Chris- mindedness about the great figures of this For sixteen years he taught in the clini- tian ministers are in the business of distinguished tradition.”4 But why, we cal psychology program at Wheaton promoting people’s “wholeness.” Such might ask, should we worry that the Chris- College. He works on questions about wholeness is largely psychological: It is a tian approach (or approaches) to promot- moral and intellectual character from a formation or transformation of people’s ing people’s wholeness has been so largely philosophical orientation. His most recent emotions (their anxieties, hopes, angers, replaced by the approaches of Sigmund book is Emotions: An Essay in Aid of loves), their behavior, and their relation- Freud, Carl Rogers, Albert Ellis, and Carl Moral Psychology (Cambridge Univer- ships. All of this can be summed up by Jung (to mention just a few)? After all, they sity Press, 2003), and he is at work on saying that ministry is largely character- are all promoting personal wholeness, and a book on intellectual character entitled formation or character-transformation. The we are promoting the very same thing. Is Virtues that Deliver the Epistemic Goods, word “character” sounds like ethics, rather Oden’s anxiety on behalf of the Christian co-authored with Jay Wood. than psychology; but good character is also tradition anything more than conservatism wholeness, personal well-being. And the and blind Christian partisanship? borderline between personality (the Pastors who have turned to the psycho- domain of psychologists) and character is therapy traditions for help have supposed by no means clear-cut. Ethicists these days that, as movements within scientific psy- are much more attentive to psychology chology, these approaches are effective, than they used to be (see the recent move clinically tried and proven methods of pro- away from an ethics of action-principles to moting personal wholeness. The psycho- an ethics of virtues), and psychology is therapists have discovered truths about the coming to be recognized as a discipline human psyche, much as the chemists have with a strongly ethical dimension (psy- discovered the chemical structures of chologists as instructors in how to live).2 things, and have devised techniques of in- It is not surprising, then, that pastors tervention that trade on the truths they and pastoral theologians have been have discovered. Therapy is a sort of tech- intensely interested in the psychotherapies nology of the human soul, or if not quite a of the twentieth century. In his history of technology, at least an expert art of the soul. the Clinical Pastoral Training movement As such the therapies are a clear improve- in the United States, Brooks Holifield ment on the pre-scientific strategies of the chronicled the virtual relinquishment of older pastors. To ignore them would be distinctively Christian ministry in favor of irresponsible to our calling and bad stew- therapeutically informed ministry.3 More- ardship of available resources. over, Thomas Oden noted that the classi- cal tradition of pastoral care “has been Moral Criticisms of Therapy steadily accommodated to a series of psy- One premise of the foregoing argument chotherapies. It has fallen deeply into a is that the psychotherapies are more effec- pervasive amnesia toward its own classi- tive than traditional pastoral counseling at 40 bringing about personal wholeness. We trolling them), victimism (the inclination will examine this claim a little later. to blame others, or social forces, for one’s Another premise is that the psychothera- problems), irresponsibilism (the belief that pies and Christian ministry aim at the same nobody is responsible for anything), and wholeness. This second premise has been atheism. Many of these criticisms of under attack by a series of authors, both therapy come from persons who have no Christian and non-Christian, for at least the interest in promoting Christian character, past thirty-five years. Starting with Philip but Christians can agree with the criticisms, Rieff’s The Triumph of the Therapeutic, and for the traits in question are clearly con- proceeding through Paul Vitz’s Psychology trary to the kind of wholeness of personal- as Religion, Christopher Lasch’s The Culture ity that pastors try to facilitate (except for of Narcissism, Alasdair MacIntyre’s After pastors under the sway of therapeutic Virtue, Robert Bellah’s Habits of the Heart, ideology). and Philip Cushman’s Constructing the Self, Assuming that some of the therapies Constructing America, we have a series of that promote the pernicious traits do so moral critiques of psychotherapies.5 By intentionally, out of a conscious commit- “moral” I mean that the criticisms leveled ment to the values in question, it becomes against psychotherapies all accuse thera- clear that personal wholeness can be con- pies of perverting personality and corrupting ceived in a wide variety of ways, some of character. They do not lay all the blame for which are mutually exclusive. The concept such corruption at the feet of therapy; of personal wholeness is highly contest- indeed, these books often see therapy as a able; there are many different and conflict- product, as well as a purveyor of cultural ing concepts of personal wholeness. In trends toward deformations of personal- the ancient world, Stoics, Epicureans, ity. But therapy is a conduit for the cultural Aristotelians, and Skeptics all had differ- influence and a significant promoter of the ent and incompatible conceptions of spiritually undesirable traits. human wholeness, all of which differed in Among the pernicious traits that vari- one way or another from Christianity.6 And ous therapies are accused of fostering are the same is true in the modern world. narcissism (an inordinate preoccupation Indeed, I have argued elsewhere that each with one’s own feelings, experiences, sat- of the major psychotherapy models has its isfactions, and, in particular, one’s self- own personality ideal (its own conception esteem; and a corresponding neglect of of the chief virtues). The Rogerian ideal of duties and of what is outside the self), Congruence is not the same as the Jungian individualism (an undervaluing of com- ideal of Individuation, and both are quite munity, of social interdependence and different from the Rationality and Equa- bearing one another’s burdens), consum- nimity that Albert Ellis attempts to incul- erism (a traditionless, empty self that needs cate, and all of these differ radically from to be “filled up” with things and experi- the Justice, Gratitude, and Family Loyalty ences), emotivism (thinking oneself to be that contextual family therapy aims to pro- the source of one’s values), egoism (mak- duce in clients.7 Furthermore, each of ing self-interest one’s chief motive), instru- these conceptions differs from the Chris- mentalism (seeing one’s behavior towards tian personality ideal in one or another others as chiefly a means of shaping or con- crucial particular. 41 Recovering Christian Psychology the integrator knows both what he is inte- Some Christian critics of psychotherapy, grating and what he is integrating it into. noting the divergence between the Chris- For example, the Christian who integrates tian character ideal and the ones promoted the neo-Freudian self-psychology of Heinz by the psychotherapies, have recom- Kohut into Christian thought and practice mended that Christians eschew therapy has to know Kohut’s thought very well, but altogether as an influence on pastoral he must also have a solid grounding in work.8 But the claim of the first premise— Christian pastoral thought and practice. If that therapy works, and that it works he doesn’t know the Christian tradition in because of the insights and techniques that a fairly profound way, he is liable to inte- are distinctive of the various models of grate elements from Kohut that undermine modern therapy—persists, and we are Christian ministry. The “amnesia” of which reluctant to throw out the precious baby Oden speaks is a serious obstacle to the with the stinky bathwater. Is there not some intelligent use of modern psychotherapies way we can harness what is valuable and in a Christian setting, because the project effective in therapy, without buying into cannot be intelligently pursued without a the aspects of it that pervert Christian per- profound understanding of the psychology sonality? This is the project to which I tried that is native to the Christian tradition— to contribute in Taking the Word to Heart, the biblical psychology with which Gre- but subsequent to its publication I have gory the Great and other excellent Chris- come to think—somewhat like Oden, in the tian counselors were working. So I have book I cited earlier—that another project been proposing lately that we shelve the ought to be given priority. project of integration until we understand I noted at the beginning of this article better the psychology of our own tradition. that Christian ministry has always been in Only by having a deep understanding of the psychology business. This is why the this psychology will we be protected twentieth century psychologies are so fas- against seduction by the plausibilities and cinating and tempting to the pastoral mind. other attractions of modern therapies. But we have also seen that psychothera- I myself have made a few modest for- pies can undermine the project of Chris- ays into the psychology of the Bible. In one tian ministry at its core by introducing piece I explore the broad parameters of a spiritual influences that are subtly per- biblical psychology;9 in another I outline a nicious by Christian standards. Using psychotherapy that would trade almost psychotherapies in Christian ministry exclusively on Pauline psychological con- therefore calls for a careful process of dis- cepts;10 in another I explore a chapter of the crimination and adaptation of what is Sermon on the Mount for its psychologi- good in therapies for the distinctive uses cal content and implications.11 But the Bible of Christian ministry. The process of dis- is just the beginning. Augustine, Luther, tinguishing the powerful mechanism in Calvin, Richard Baxter, and Jonathan a therapy and keeping it free from the Edwards are some later Christian thinkers polluting tendencies that it has when used whose thought could be mined for psy- in its native setting is a process of integra- chology. Oden’s book on Gregory is an tion. example of efforts in this line. Such integration cannot succeed unless 42 Therapy Works hold down a job, feelings of hopelessness Until recently I have proposed the study or meaninglessness, poor performance in of Christian psychology, not as a substitute school, problems with dating, alcoholism for the integration of powerful therapeu- and other addictions, child abuse, spouse tic concepts and techniques from the mod- abuse, and sexual abuse. Spiritual effective- ern psychotherapies, but as a basis for such ness, by contrast, is the power of a therapy integration—as an education necessary for to change one’s self-understanding and the successful integrator. But a growing ways of experiencing the universe and body of scientific research concerning the one’s relations with others. Consider, for effectiveness of psychotherapies seems to example, a Christian sense of oneself as a call into question once again the project of creature of God, rather than a sense of one- integration—or at least impinge on how we self as living in an impersonal universe; a are to conceive of that project. In particu- Christian readiness to worship and obey lar, it raises deep questions about what from God, rather than a sense of oneself as the the psychotherapies ought to be integrated. autonomous center of one’s life; a Chris- I will draw my information about this tian sense of other persons as one’s neigh- research literature from a long review bors whose burdens one is to bear, rather article by Michael Lambert and Allen than as persons from whom one is chiefly Bergin.12 Hundreds of studies, done over to detach oneself; a Christian sense of God the past thirty years, show pretty consis- as different from and beyond oneself, tently that psychotherapy is a very effec- rather than as just the best part of oneself; tive way of getting relief from the kinds of a Christian sense of oneself as a responsible complaints with which people go to thera- sinner, rather than as a victim whose prob- pists. On average, people who go to lems are blamed on others. therapy are about twice as likely to Therapies seem to have both of these improve with respect to whatever com- kinds of effectiveness. In one way they are plaint brought them to therapy, as are simi- like medical therapies, in another they are lar people with the same problem who do religion-like philosophies of life. We could not get therapy. Let us call this problem- say that the Christian task of integration is specific effectiveness “therapeutic effec- to exploit the therapeutic effectiveness of tiveness,” and distinguish it from the therapies while neutralizing or transform- “spiritual effectiveness” about which the ing their spiritual effectiveness into literature critical of psychotherapy is something compatible with the Christian concerned. spirituality. Therapeutic effectiveness is the power of a therapy to alleviate such problems as Why Does Therapy Work? depression, anxiety, rapid mood-swings, So therapies are therapeutically effec- phobias, eating disorders, difficulty in tive; this result of the studies spurs us on making life-decisions, marital strife, hypo- to integrate their therapeutic power into chondria, difficulty getting over grief in the the work of Christian ministry. But two wake of a loved one’s death, post-abortion other cumulative results of the scientific melancholy, post-divorce disorientation, literature on psychotherapy outcomes raise bad temper, homosexual maladjustment, serious questions about such a project of strife with colleagues at work, inability to integration. The first is the “Dodo bird ver- 43 dict”: Like the Dodo bird in Alice and Won- took our malfunctioning car to several derland, who declares that “Everyone has mechanics, and they all explained the mal- won and all must have prizes,” the studies function in diverse ways—one says the generally show that practitioners of the problem is the spark plug wires, another various competing schools of therapy are says it’s the fuel injectors, another that it’s all about equally therapeutically effective.13 the kind of fuel we are using—we would This is a surprising result, given the expect that only one of them (at most), diversity among the therapies and the way applying her prescribed remedy, would be psychotherapies purport to work. Thera- very successful in solving the problem. We pies purport to intervene in a client’s mind would be astounded to find that regard- and behavior in a way prescribed by a less of what remedy was applied, the car pattern of explanation of dysfunction. For was equally well fixed! It is for this reason example, cognitive therapy explains emo- that Lambert and Bergin suggest that the tional dysfunction by reference to irratio- factors by which the various schools of nal cognitions and thus treats clients by therapy explain their therapeutic success attempting to correct the erring cognitions. may not be what is causing the success. Psychodynamic therapies explain dysfunc- This hypothesis is strengthened by a tion by reference to repressed memories of second unexpected finding of the research traumatic childhood experiences with on psychotherapy outcomes, namely that significant others, and so treat clients by people with a great deal of training and trying to explore the past and create trans- experience in therapy—say, a Ph.D. in clini- ferences to the therapist that will enable cal psychology and several years of prac- a working through of the memories. tice—are no more successful in alleviating Rogerian therapy attributes dysfunction to people’s problems than counselors with introjected socially imposed conditions of minimal training or even no training at all.14 worth (“I have worth only if I’m as big a This is what we would expect if the train- financial success as my Dad”), and so treats ing and experience were training and the problem by having the therapist sup- experience in the distinctive theory and prac- ply unconditional positive regard for the tice of some psychotherapeutic model (or an client which frees the client to follow his eclectic agglomeration of such distinctives authentic internal valuing process. Some from several models). That is, if what is family therapies explain dysfunction by distinctive about therapies is not what is reference to improper constellations of doing the therapeutic work, then deeper family relationships, and so attack the training and greater experience in such problems by attempting to rearrange these distinctives is not going to improve relationships. outcomes. With such diversity of explanatory But even if the theory and allied prac- frameworks and their correlated interven- tices of therapeutic models are not what tions, one would expect some therapies to makes them therapeutically effective, the work much better than others. It is hard to fact remains that they are effective. What see how all could have a precisely correct can it be about them that makes them so? diagnosis of dysfunction, and yet they pur- No one knows for sure, but the best guess, port to work because they correctly explain according to Lambert and Bergin, is that it the source of psychological problems. If we is factors that all or many of the therapies 44 have in common.15 What factors are these? have to help people is something rather In most if not all therapies, the therapist generic that could be had without integrat- comes across as an expert, and the client is ing anything distinctive from the models. inspired to trust him or her. This gives the Indeed, the common factors in which the client a sense that his or her problem is therapeutic power seems to reside are being addressed in an effective manner, factors that have existed in pastoral coun- and motivates the client to make an effort seling during the entire history of the Chris- to get better. In most therapies, the client is tian church. The particularities of the encouraged to articulate his or her prob- psychotherapies may be new, but there is lem, and thus come to a more immediate absolutely nothing new about the common experiential confrontation with it. In many factors. The great deference to psycho- therapies, the therapist gives the client therapy that writers on pastoral care have some advice, or at least points the client shown in the twentieth century seems to toward some behaviors that are contrary have been misplaced. to the dysfunctional patterns that led him Earlier I distinguished two kinds of or her to therapy. In many therapies, the effectiveness of therapies, therapeutic therapist conveys to the client a sense of effectiveness and spiritual effectiveness. having been empathically understood. We have seen that therapeutic effectiveness And finally, any time a client is engaged in does not seem to be a product of the par- therapy, he or she is actively engaged in ticular theories and practices of the thera- solving the problem.16 pies. What about spiritual effectiveness? We do not have controlled studies of this, What Shall We Think as we have of therapeutic effectiveness, but of the Therapies? we have lots of informal evidence that the What implications do these findings and philosophies of life embodied in the psy- this speculation have for the use of psy- chotherapies powerfully shape people’s chotherapy in Christian ministry? In the understanding of themselves, their uni- twentieth century, the Christian ministry verse, and their relationships. Here it seems has been very deferential to the distinctive that the particularities of the outlooks do theoretical claims and allied practices account for the effects (it stands to reason of such therapies as the Jungian, the that ideologies affect people by putting Freudian, the cognitive-behavioral, and ideas into their heads). Whether or not family systems. It seems clear that the people are actually in therapy, they do learn rationale for such deference has been from therapies to construe themselves as severely undermined by the research lit- needing higher self-esteem before they can erature that Lambert and Bergin discuss. move on to more functional behavior, or We have good reason to think that the theo- as being the seat of certain defense mecha- ries behind the therapy models are not nisms, or as having been put out of touch scientific findings but philosophies of life with their perfectly reliable internal valu- far less solidly grounded than the long ing process by too much social pressure to tradition of pastoral work native to the conform, or as being victims of inadequate history of the church. And the outcome parenting in early life. If we prefer to spread studies give us good reason to think that the spiritual influence of Christian reflec- the indisputable power these therapies tion rather than an alien framework like 45 the psychology of the inner child or the Harper and Row, 1966); Paul Vitz, Psy- ideology of codependency, then we have a chology as Religion: The Cult of Self-Wor- positive reason for sticking with the psy- ship (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977); chology of the Christian tradition. As Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcis- Christian ministers, we want to couch our sism: American Life in an Age of Diminish- psychological help as much as possible in ing Expectations (New York: W. W. the edifying language of the Christian mes- Norton, 1979); Alasdair MacIntyre, After sage. Virtue (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981); Robert Bellah, Habits Conclusion of the Heart: Individualism and Commit- I conclude, then, that the psychotherapy ment in American Life (New York: Harper outcome literature of the past thirty years and Row, 1985); and Philip Cushman, gives us reason to doubt whether we will Constructing the Self, Constructing better promote psychological wholeness by America: A Cultural History of Psycho- adapting ideas and techniques from the therapy (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, therapies of the twentieth century. Com- 1995). It would be an understatement to mon factors in therapy that are already say that my bibliography is only a sam- present in traditional pastoral counseling pling. seem to be the source of most therapeutic 6See Martha Nussbaum, The Therapy of effectiveness anyway. And the common Desire (Princeton: Princeton University observation that the twentieth century Press, 1994). therapies are morally and spiritually dis- 7See my Taking the Word to Heart: Self and torting ideologies of personhood gives us Other in an Age of Therapies (Grand Rap- a strong reason for developing our own ids: Eerdmans, 1993) chapters 1-7. distinctive approach by deepening our 8See David Powlison, “A Biblical Coun- understanding of the rich psychological seling View,” in Psychology and Christian- resources of the Christian tradition. ity: Four Views, ed. Eric Johnson and Stanton Jones (Downer Grove: Inter- ENDNOTES Varsity Press, 2000) 196-225. 1“Psychotherapy and Christian Ministry” 9“Parameters of a Christian Psychology” was first published in Word and World 27 in Limning the Psyche: Explorations in no. 1 (2001) 42-50. Used by permission. Christian Psychology, ed. Robert Roberts 2See Don S. Browning, Religious Thought and Mark Talbot (Grand Rapids: Eerd- and the Modern Psychologies: A Critical mans, 1997) 74-101. Conversation in the Theology of Culture 10“Outline of Pauline Psychotherapy” in (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987). Care for the Soul: Exploring the Intersection 3Brooks Holifield, A History of Pastoral of Psychology and Theology, ed. Mark Care in America: From Salvation to Self- McMinn and Timothy Philips (Downers Realization (Nashville: Abingdon, 1983). Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2001) 134-163. 4Thomas Oden, Care of Souls in the Classic 11“A Christian Psychology View” in Psy- Tradition (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) chology and Christianity: Four Views, ed. 28. Eric Johnson and Stanton Jones 5Philip Rieff, The Triumph of the Therapeu- (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, tic: Uses of Faith after Freud (New York: 2000) 159-168. 46 12Michael Lambert and Allen Bergin, “The Effectiveness of Psycho- therapy” in Handbook of Psycho- therapy and Behavior Change, ed. Allen Bergin and Sol Garfield (New York: Wiley, 1994) 143-189. Lambert and Bergin have been occupied for decades with the outcome literature on therapies. The first version of the essay to which I refer was published in 1978 in the first edition of the Handbook. The present version is the third. 13Ibid., 156-161. 14Ibid., 169-172. 15Ibid., 161-167. 16Robyn Dawes especially stresses this last point. See his House of Cards: Psychology and Psychotherapy Built on Myth (New York: The Free Press, 1994) chapter 2.

47 Applied Integration of a Sibbesian View of Assurance Mark A. Yarhouse

Mark A. Yarhouse is Associate Richard Sibbes (c. 1577-1635) was born in “conforming Reformer, dissatisfied with Professor of Psychology at Regent Tostock, England, in 1577 and grew up in the existing situation, even wanting to University in Virginia Beach, Virginia. He the nearby town of Thurston. He was the change it, yet ultimately submitting to and received his Psy.D. from Wheaton Col- oldest of six children and studied locally even defending the discipline of the lege in Wheaton, Illinois. Dr. Yarhouse is until he was elected to a fellowship at Cam- Church.”4 Sibbes would be noted for his the author of numerous articles and has bridge. His education at Cambridge took moderation, his ability to rise above the co-authored Sexual Identity: A Guide to place during the Late Elizabethan period, fray and focus on the pastoral implications Living in the Time Between the Times which was a time of great theological con- of his theology.5 His concern for comfort (University Press of America, 2003) with troversy for the university and for England. over controversy, then, was expressed in Lori Burkett and Homosexuality: The It was during his time at Cambridge that his writings on assurance. Among the best Use of Scientific Research in the Sibbes was drawn into a saving rela- of these is The Bruised Reed. Church’s Moral Debate (InteVarsity, tionship with Christ. He was ordained a 2000) with Stanton Jones. deacon and priest at age 30 and had a Foundational Considerations lectureship at Holy Trinity (1610) and later Before considering The Bruised Reed, let obtained an appointment to a parish in me offer a preliminary discussion of London, where he was to earn a reputa- Sibbes’s view of predestination and elec- tion as a theologian and preacher, one who tion, as they are theologically foundational had a meek personality. “Rarely polemical for the assurance offered in his well-known (with the exception of occasional attacks treatise. Covenant theology laid the on Roman Pelagianism), his preaching was foundation for assurance for Puritans in distinguished by its pacific tone, more con- general and Sibbes in particular. Puritan cerned with comfort than controversy.”1 writing emphasized the assurance of God’s It has been said that Sibbes lost his covenant of grace, in contrast to the cov- lectureship and fellowship at Cambridge enant of works where rewards were given due to his theology, but Dever challenges to those who fulfilled God’s law.6 Puritan this as popular legend among nonconform- theology affords us two elements of assur- ists rather than historical fact.2 Indeed, ance: understanding of God’s covenant of with respect to controversy, while some grace and encouragement to those in in the church were nonconformists, Sibbes anguish over their participation in the expressed formal conformity to the Three covenant.7 Because of who God is, Chris- Articles of Canon 36 which upheld the tians can have confidence that he will fulfill King of England, the Book of Common Prayer, his promises. But what of one’s standing and the existing structure of the Church of in the covenant? Puritans tended to focus England.3 Yet he was known to question on evidences of such standing, most typi- specific practices, such as kneeling for com- cally recognized via experience.8 Typically munion, and he clearly preached Reformed this was meant to be consistent with the theology with a Calvinist understanding “unshakable conviction that a loving God of election and predestination. So he was a chose those who have felt it to salvation in 48 Christ, a conviction Calvin calls the ‘very to live in fear and in doubt with respect to sweet fruit’ of predestination.”9 According one’s sin. Contemporary mental health to von Rohr, “when one is convinced that professionals may presume that to be he is within the Covenant he can be cer- bruised—thinking about “sin” or anything tain of the ultimate fulfillment of the Cov- else—is the real concern. But there is a pur- enant promise which God has given.”10 pose to the bruising that supercedes the Covenant and election go hand-in- priority health professionals may place hand. Von Rohr observes that on “negative” emotions, such as guilt or depression. For example, not only does God’s unbound righteousness [is] bruising bring about humility, it is a neces- given to unfaithfulness, or better, the sovereign righteousness of God . . . sary experience prior to conversion, creates faithfulness and . . . is according to Sibbes. After conversion we bestowed freely to those who are need bruising “so that reeds may know his elect. . . . This, too, is God’s action 14 by covenant. . . the covenant which themselves to be reeds, and not oaks.” promises the new heart to those who Sibbes reminds us that Christ loves the have no claim upon it except they bruised reed. In Glorious Freedom, Sibbes be chosen for it by God himself.11 notes that Christ “was so full of sweetness to weak Christians” and “where there was So the covenant itself is made accessible any beginning of goodness he encouraged by the gracious gift of God, that is, faith. it.”15 So, not only will Christ not break the Indeed, as von Rohr observes, Sibbes, in reed, but “he will cherish those with whom his work, The Bride’s Longing for the he so deals.”16 He continues: Bridegroom’s Second Coming, would tell people to “plead with God to fulfill his Physicians, though they put their absolute promises, those declarations by patients to much pain, will not which God offers to create the very condi- destroy nature, but raise it up by tions in our hearts by which we may be degrees. Surgeons will lance and cut, but not dismember. A mother who led to take him for our God and consent to has a sick and self-willed child will covenant relation with him.”12 not therefore cast it away. And shall there be more mercy in the stream With these foundational considerations than in the spring? Shall we think in mind, we move to The Bruised Reed, a there is more mercy in ourselves work of great importance, to gain an than in God, who plants the affec- tion of mercy in us?17 understanding of a Sibbesian view of assurance. It is Sibbes’s understanding of the incar- nation and of Christ’s merciful, compas- The Bruised Reed sionate presence in the life of the believer The Bruising that reflects his pastoral concern: “Why Sibbes develops the image of “the was he tempted, but that he might ‘succour bruised reed” as found in Isaiah 42:3: “A those that are tempted’ (Heb. 2:18)?”18 bruised reed he will not break, and a smol- Indeed, Christ is the “physician good at all dering wick he will not snuff out.” As diseases, especially at the binding of a bro- Sibbes points out, we are “not trees, but ken heart.”19 It is precisely because God reeds; and not whole, but bruised reeds.”13 became flesh that we can go to God “in our To be a bruised reed is to be in distress, flesh; he is flesh of our flesh, and bone of particularly in response to one’s own sin, 49 our bone for this reason, that we might go sin. But these struggles lead us somewhere: boldly to him.”20 they bring us to a place of greater clarity, But such compassion and mercy is not in part because they are suggestive of the poured out automatically. It is not our right. work of God in our lives. Rather, we come into bruising by either When we struggle with seeing blazing God’s doing or by our intention. When it fires in others, Sibbes reminds us not to is God’s doing, the challenge Christians presume that we have no spark, but to face is to stand in faith and trust a loving remember—switching metaphors—that God that he is ultimately working to fulfill “life in the winter is hid in the root.”26 More- his will in our lives. Concerning our par- over, what fire we do have is not of our ticipation in the bruising, “we must join own doing but is from God. We can trust with God in bruising ourselves” and thus that this fire in us will become a purer flame experience God’s abundant mercy and by with more kindling, and this gentle reas- personal experience know the foundation suring can lead to a softening of our hearts upon which we stand.21 toward ourselves and toward others. Concerning temptations, Sibbes says The Smoking Flax that even the best actions on our part will The related image from Isaiah is that of still smell of smoke and thus display a “smoking flax” or a “dimly burning aspects of our old selves. Yet God shows wick,” and Sibbes believes that not only us mercy in our weakness and calls us to will Christ not put out the wick, but that continue in obedience as we are able: he will “blow it up till it flames.”22 To “There is never a holy sigh, never a tear facilitate a proper understanding of this we shed, which is lost. Pray as we are truth during times when we are discour- able, hear as we are able, strive as we are aged, Sibbes encourages us to think of our- able, do as we are able, according to the selves as Christ does: “Christ values us by measure of grace received. God in Christ what we shall be, and by what we are will cast a gracious eye upon that which is elected unto. We call a little plant a tree, his own.”27 because it is growing up to be so.”23 Sibbes “As we are able” is a key to understand- wants us to rest on justification rather than ing Sibbes. God accepts our obedience even sanctification, and to avoid the extremes with our mixed motives. We undoubtedly of “serenity” (an expression of spiritual do a disservice to ourselves and our rela- laziness or apathy) and “pride” (the tionship with God when we act as though assumption that you have merited what is we have pure motives when we do not, and yours by grace).24 God shows us mercy even in this. In this context Sibbes sees genuine With a truly compassionate tone Sibbes doubts as helpful to the degree that they notes that “weaknesses do not break cov- lead us to greater assurance. As he says, enant with God.”28 Recalling the metaphor “Nothing is so certain as that which is cer- of the church and Christ as the bride and tain after doubts. Shaking settles the groom, as well as the history of Israel’s roots.”25 And so there is a place for doubt relationship to God throughout the Old in the Christian life. Not a longstanding Testament, Sibbes is able to assert in all sin- agnosticism, but a genuine questioning of cerity that, “Mercy is part of the church’s our standing because of our struggles with marriage inheritance.”29 50 To the extent that we give way to our this quid pro quo approach to assurance is will in sinning, to that extent we set ourselves at a distance from comfort. not a Christian view of assurance as Sin against conscience is as a thief [a founded upon Christ’s mercy. flaw in the wick of a candle] in the Although Sibbes would have Christians candle, which spoils our joy, and thereby weakens our strength. We find their assurance in justification, he does must know, therefore, that willful not neglect sanctification. He argues that breaches in sanctification will much Christ will continue his work in the life of hinder the sense of our justification.30 the believer and make gradual progress until “judgment unto victory.”32 Sanctifica- To regain a sense of peace and comfort, we tion involves being made more and more are instructed to condemn ourselves and in the likeness of Christ. For Sibbes this like- throw ourselves on Christ’s mercy: If Christ ness includes Christ’s judgment in us as is not merciful, he will not have anyone to established by God; the inward ruling of serve him. our hearts. In Glorious Freedom, Sibbes is Yet many continue to struggle with quite clear that this “is not mere persua- doubts, and Sibbes would have us believe sion and entreaty, but a powerful work of God rather than Satan, as the latter frames the Spirit entering into the soul and chang- Christ as a “severe judge” while God ing it, and altering the inclination of the will would have us see Christ as merciful. It is heavenward.”33 Later Sibbes refers to within the Christian’s purview to ask God Christ as “a powerful root that changes all to show us more of who he is, to know his branches into his own nature.”34 This more fully who Christ is with respect to internalized judgment includes “govern- his character and intentions in our lives. ment of mind, will, and affection.”35 “The Guilt is another matter, of course, and gracious frame of holiness set up in our God wants us to recognize through our hearts by the Spirit of Christ shall go guilt the wrong we have done and that forward until all contrary power is sub- which Christ has taken on through cruci- dued.”36 Likewise, “In spiritual life, it is fixion: “God sees fit that we should taste most necessary that the Spirit should alter of that cup of which His son drank so deep, the taste of the soul so that it might savour that we might feel a little what sin is, and the things of the Sprit so deeply that all what His Son’s love was. But our comfort other things should be out of relish.”37 is that Christ drank the dregs of the cup One of the gradual dispositional for us, and will succour us.”31 changes in the life of the Christian is the During these times Christians may work desire for mercy, not as a pardon for our against Christ’s mercy in many ways. We missing the mark, but as a gift for healing can throw water on the sparks, to use out of which we follow Christ in obedience Sibbes’s language, by presuming on and in gratitude for his sacrifice. In Glori- Christ’s mercy or taking liberty with our ous Freedom, Sibbes recognizes the need to sin. We can also seek after other sources of remove both “inward and outward hin- mercy and in this sense reject the gospel drances,” which would include such presentation of mercy. We may want mercy changes in the Christian’s disposition over from friends or from family or others in our time.38 lives; we may also abide by “rules” we Sibbes reminds Christians that we can have in our own minds, that if we do such have full confidence that Christ’s kingdom and such we will merit God’s mercy. But 51 in us will prevail. Christ first conquered sin, course there will be conflict because the death, Satan, hell, and the world, and so government or rule of Christ in us will be too can he conquer and rule in our hearts: opposed. Opposition comes not only from “Heaven is ours already, only we strive till an opposing structure but from a spiritual we have full possession.”39 Although we government in constant tension with the continue to struggle, we can know that flesh. In this sense it is judgment, which the struggles fail to win out over Christ’s no one cares to experience. victory: We turn now to the clinical application of a Sibbesian view of assurance. How does When chaff strives against the wind, such a view work itself into the clinical or stubble against the fire, when the heel kicks against the pricks, when work of contemporary Christian mental the potsherd strives with the potter, health professionals? when man strives against God, it is easy to know on which side the vic- tory will be. The winds may toss the Clinical Application ship wherein Christ is, but not over- My clinical work is grounded in contem- turn it. The waves may dash against porary systems theory. In one particular the rock, but they only break them- selves against it.40 model, clinicians seek to identify and remove constraints that keep a person from When Satan seems victorious and we living and relating to others as they are struggle with doubts, we are told to recall capable of living and relating.44 This is a that Christians have long overcome their secular model that begs the question of difficulties through suffering and that how people are intended to live and relate, sometimes—in God’s economy—victory and Christians can bring to such a model a may come through strivings against spe- Christian view of the person and God’s cific sins: “When he is conquered by some intention for human relationships.45 One sins, he gets victory over others more approach to this is to consider the Old dangerous, such as spiritual pride and Testament concept of shalom. As Nicholas security.”41 In this sense we might grow less Wolterstorff develops this in Until Justice concerned about our specific sins but more and Peace Embrace, God’s intention is for concerned about our posture in relation to people to take delight in various relation- them: “It matters not so much what ill is in ships.46 These relationships include our us, as what good; not what corruptions, but relationship with ourselves, with our fel- how we regard them; not what our par- lows, and with God. And when we attempt ticular failings are so much as what the to bring a Christian understanding to thread and tenor of our lives are, for contemporary systems theory, we see the Christ’s dislike of that which is amiss in us importance of identifying and removing turns not to the hatred of our persons the constraints that keep people from but to the victorious subduing of all our taking delight in these important relation- infirmities.”42 ships. What keeps a person from delight- In this sense the victory is complete (jus- ing in a proper view of himself and herself? tification) yet we are being trained in the What gets in the way of a person taking fight (sanctification): Christ has “under- delight in her relationship with others? taken the victory, yet he accomplishes it by What keeps a person from delighting training us up to fight his battles.”43 Of further in his relationship with God? These 52 are the kinds of questions that might help Lenny reported that following his guide a Christian clinician working from a departure from the church he completely contemporary systems perspective. cut himself off from any Christian commu- The following case example explores the nity. He married and began a family and clinical application of these concepts while has only recently revisited a local church taking into consideration a Sibbesian view community. He is not satisfied with his of assurance. The client was seen in an out- spiritual life, and he feels he harbors anger patient group practice that is in a secular and resentment toward that particular setting, while the clinician is identified as church and especially the leadership, as a Christian and a psychologist through well as God for allowing him to experience written informed consent to treatment. such great distress when he had been seek- ing God’s will all along. Case Example Lenny entered therapy in part because “Lenny” (age 32) first entered therapy of the promise of meeting with a Christian following an emotionally overwhelming who is also a psychologist. He stated that experience with a local church that has he wants healing and that he wants to since folded. Lenny rose to leadership in “move on” and “get past” his feelings to- the church, where he was required to be ward the church’s leadership. Also, he ascetic in his spiritual life for several years, wanted to meet with a Christian, but part particularly with respect to self-control of him was leery of being judged by yet around behaviors deemed by the church another Christian in authority. His inter- to be of critical importance. Lenny reported personal style of relating was noted. He mixed feelings about the experience. On related in a way that suggested he wanted the one hand, he appreciated much of what to be told what to do; in fact there were he learned from that church community; several times in therapy when he would he believes that the leadership was well- bluntly ask, “What should I do next?” At intentioned, and he felt generally “very the same time he struggled with visceral close to God” during that time. On the reactions to criticism in his marriage rela- other hand, Lenny holds the leadership tionship and was wary of being criticized accountable for humiliating experiences, by his therapist. This could create a bind such as public confessions and rebuking, for a clinician, and I was feeling compelled which were very difficult to tolerate, espe- to give him various directives, but was able cially as they would be around what Lenny to resist this urge upon reflection. Instead, thought were reasonable behaviors, such I chose to comment on the experience and as occasional experiences of lust or dating let him know that I would be more focused of women. The latter was strictly regulated, on processing his experiences for the time- and Lenny ended up leaving the church in being, rather than directing him with great disagreement with others in leader- specific homework assignments relating to ship and feeling emotionally and spiritu- his spouse or children or the local commu- ally eviscerated, having invested several nity of Christians. years of his life in working toward what Aside from these exchanges, I recall my he thought was a calling to the pastorate. first impression when relating Lenny’s He has since struggled to move on with circumstances to the writing of Richard his life. Sibbes: If, as Sibbes puts it, “shaking settles 53 the roots,”47 then Lenny’s roots should have A related concern was Lenny’s attempt settled in a pretty secure place. And yet the to answer the question, “Where is God shaking and the settling can be separated when it hurts?” Was God the author of by years as God works out the redemption Lenny’s abuse? Was God unable to inter- of our lives and the healing of our wounds. vene? If not, what accounts for God not So in the course of time we discussed intervening? If God allows abuses how Lenny’s view of assurance insofar as it was might Lenny come to trust God with his related to God’s role in the midst of suffer- healing and the redemption of these ing. Lenny felt he had been doing “all the wounds? These are age-old questions, the things Christians are supposed to do” and answers to which were rather complicated “much more than most Christians do” in to sort out in the clinical setting. At an their personal spiritual lives. He read scrip- experiential (rather than strictly theologi- tures daily, prayed several times a day, cal) level, Lenny seemed drawn back to made confession to leaders in the church, God in a way that was not always easy for changed his behaviors in response to him to understand. He felt he had no other church discipline, and so on, until the time options. Quite frankly, he believed in God when he left the church. His way of think- and knew with great certainty that “there ing about Christianity was very much quid is no other game in town.” Yet he harbored pro quo. He does one thing and God owes such anger and resentment toward God for him another. These tradeoffs could be the abuses he experienced, and he won- traced to his own family-of-origin where dered sometimes if he was as bad as those his parents expected nothing but the best in church leadership had claimed. for Lenny and rewarded his behavior and Many of the struggles Lenny faced in some ways communicated to him that reached a point of crisis that coincided with there are rules for living: If you follow those a spiritual awakening for him and his wife. rules, you get what you are owed. If you do Lenny lost his job, which was an experi- not, you get what you deserve (punishment). ence that in the past precipitated great As we see in Sibbes’s writing, quid pro quo stress and conflict in their marriage. The approaches to assurance fall short of a present job loss, however, led to a coming Christian view founded upon Christ’s together in their marriage as each partner mercy. pursued a better understanding of their But Lenny simply applied his line of circumstances through their personal rela- reasoning to his spiritual life. His attribu- tionship with God. tions simply reflected what he knew to be As his therapist I predicted that this loss true growing up in his home. He aggres- might lead to his revisiting old feelings of sively sought approval from the local anger and resentment toward the abusive Christian community and showed himself church, ministerial staff, God, and others. to be zealous among other Christians. But Lenny acknowledged several negative what was his reward? He did not receive emotions, but he was also able to think what he expected God to give him in through the abuse he experienced in an return. If God did not relate by the “rules” objective way; he felt more compelled to Lenny had lived by for so many years, focus on what God wanted to guide him what was he to make of God, and did he toward in a future vocation and in his want anything more to do with him? present life circumstances. 54 It was at this time that we considered a ing-making model, Lenny is looking for recently published model on the relation- connections between his situational mean- ship between meaning making and cop- ings and his global meanings. In this model ing with a stressful condition.48 In this it matters that Lenny is able to tie mean- model people respond to specific life ings surrounding his exposure to an abu- stressors and make a connection between sive church to global meanings about global meaning and situational meaning. God’s purposes in his life. We also consid- Global meaning refers to a client’s funda- ered the consequences of sinful choices, mental beliefs and basic assumptions about and whether he was not a casualty of the the world, including their sense of purpose sin by individuals in the church and in the and a sense for what is just and fair. Situ- structures of the church. This still left open ational meaning refers to how a person’s the question of why God did not protect global beliefs interact around their own him from harm, but it also opened a door specific circumstances. to God’s desire to redeem the hurts expe- Lenny was then making meaning of his rienced by those he loves. specific life circumstances, i.e., having a In the course of therapy we naturally long-standing relationship with an abusive discussed issues related to the theological church. This is situational meaning. He was concept of assurance. We pursued selected also looking for connections between this bibliotherapy resources, reading sections situational meaning and his global mean- from The Bruised Reed, and relating these ing, or his sense of life’s purpose and of to Lenny’s present circumstances. We dis- what is right or wrong. cussed the analogy of reeds being bent and It was in this context that we considered bruised but not broken. This language fit whether Lenny’s experiences in the church our prior discussion of how Lenny was were God’s doing, or at least whether God moving from a victim to a survivor in terms allowed Lenny to remain in the church of the scripts from which he read in his despite Lenny’s report that he sought interpersonal relationships. God’s direction in the matter. He repeat- Although Lenny continued to work in edly went back to the “just world phenom- therapy on other issues in his marriage, as enon,” where people “tend to justify their well as how his image of God was shaped perceptions by blaming victims on the by his experience of his parents, he basis of the assumption that good is reported an improved relationship with rewarded and evil is punished.”49 Because God and a greater understanding of God’s Lenny believed in God’s existence, he desire and ability to redeem the circum- struggled with whether (a) he did things stances Christians find themselves facing. wrong that warranted his experiences of These circumstances are redeemed for abuse as punishment from God, or (b) God God’s purposes, yet God’s purposes are did not in fact exist, since he had not sometimes beyond our understanding. But done wrong and God did not protect him he began to understand that there is a from harm. relationship between a Christian’s assur- Recall that Sibbes would have Lenny ance with respect to his salvation and a respond in faith, trusting that God loves Christian’s experience of peace with him and is working out his purposes in respect to difficult life circumstances (see Lenny’s life. Again to return to the mean- Rom 5:1-5). In this Lenny’s faith was 55 strengthened, as he was drawn into a more Edinburgh, England: Banner of Truth, settled conviction about who God is and 1998) 3. how God’s love for him can be experienced 14Ibid., 5. in the aftermath of abuse. 15R. Sibbes, Glorious Freedom (1639; reprint, Edinburgh, England: Banner of Truth, Conclusion 2000) 111. The Bruised Reed continues to offer Chris- 16Sibbes, The Bruised Reed, 7. tians important insights into what it means 17Ibid. to experience assurance with respect to 18Ibid., 8. one’s standing in Christ. Sibbes offers 19Ibid. Christians the gift of this understanding 20Ibid., 9. while demonstrating practical pastoral care 21Ibid., 11. to those troubled by their experiences this 22Ibid., 16. side of heaven. In this Sibbes provides the 23Ibid., 17. contemporary Christian mental health pro- 24Ibid., 19. fessional a resource for applied clinical 25Ibid., 28. integration of a Reformed understanding 26 Ibid., 35. of assurance. 27Ibid., 51. 28Ibid., 58. ENDNOTES 29Ibid. 1Mark E. Dever, Richard Sibbes: Puritan- 30Ibid., 60-61. ism and Calvinism in Late Elizabethan and 31Ibid., 66. Early Stuart England (Macon, GA: Mer- 32Ibid., 77. cer University Press, 2000) 1. 33Sibbes, Glorious Freedom, 106. 2Mark E. Dever, “Moderation and Depri- 34Ibid., 109. vation: A Reappraisal of Richard Sibbes,” 35Sibbes, The Bruised Reed, 78. Journal of Ecclesiastical History 43 (1993) 36Ibid. 396-413. 37Ibid. 3Dever, Richard Sibbes. 38Sibbes, Glorious Freedom, 93. 4Dever, “Moderation and Deprivation,” 39Sibbes, The Bruised Reed, 92. 410. 40Ibid., 94. 5Dever, Richard Sibbes. 41Ibid., 95. 6J. von Rohr, “Covenant and Assurance 42Ibid., 96. in Early English Puritanism,” Church 43Ibid., 101. History 34 (1965) 195-203. 44D. C. Breunlin, R. C. Schwartz, and B. 7Ibid. M. Kune-Karrer, Metaframeworks: Tran- 8Ibid. scending the Models of Family Therapy, rev. 9J. C. Hunter, “George Herbert and Puri- ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997). tan Piety,” Journal of Religion 68 no. 2 45M. A. Yarhouse, “Expanding Alterna- (1988) 229. tives for Young Adults Who Experience 10Von Rohr, 199. Same-Sex Attraction: A Systems Perspec- 11Ibid. tive,” Marriage and Family: A Christian 12Ibid., 202. Journal 3 no. 2 (2000) 133-151. 13R. Sibbes, The Bruised Reed (1630; reprint, 46Nicholas Wolterstorff, Until Justice and 56 Peace Embrace (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983). 47Sibbes, The Bruised Reed, 28. 48Crystal L. Park and Susan Folkman, “Meaning in the Context of Stress and Coping,” Review of General Psy- chology 1 no. 2 (1997) 115-144. 49M. A. Yarhouse, “Social Cognition Research on the Formation and Maintenance of Stereotypes: Appli- cation to Marriage and Family Therapists Working with Homo- sexual Clients,” American Journal of Family Therapy 27 no. 2 (1999) 155.

57 Toward a Theology of Emotion Sam Williams

Sam Williams is Associate Profes- Introduction ology should lead us not only to think sor of Pastoral Counseling at South- Scripture is replete with emotion, both God’s thoughts after him but also to feel eastern Baptist Theological Seminary in God’s and man’s. The Bible is a collection God’s feelings after him. If Christlikeness Wake Forest, North Carolina. Dr. Will- of books, addressed to persons by a Per- is our goal as his followers, that would iams has spent ten years in private son. It is the revelation of a personal God include not only Christlike behavior and practice as a licensed clinical psycholo- to human persons made in his image. Since thoughts, but also Christlike emotions as gist and received his Ph.D. in Clinical emotions are an important component of well. Compassion, the emotion most Psychology from the California School personhood, the Bible deals with the frequently attributed to Christ in the Gos- of Professional Psychology-San Diego. subject of emotions. The Bible frequently pels,2 facilitates the fulfillment of the “one reveals God’s emotions so that our lives, another’s” of the New Testament. Jesus including our emotions, might fully honor invites us into his joy in the Gospels and and glorify him. For example, Scripture promises us (in the Psalms) that at his right speaks frequently of the wrath of God. In hand there are pleasures forevermore no uncertain terms, God wants us to (16:11). The fruit of the Holy Spirit is char- understand not just what he thinks about acterized by attributes—love, joy, peace, sin but also how he feels about it. Why is kindness, and gentleness—which are this? Clearly, it is so that we might know riddled with emotion. the Lord better and in particular improve Unfortunately, contemporary evan- our understanding of his holiness and his gelicals have paid little attention to the love. The Bible speaks of God’s wrath so development of a theology or biblical that we might apprehend, rationally and anthropology of the emotions, affections, emotionally, our moral dilemma before his and feelings. As a result, when the emo- holy justice and so that we might experi- tions are addressed personal opinion, ence the depth of his love for us when he denominational or cultural prejudices, and poured his righteous wrath out upon his pop psychology are the dominant voices. Son instead of us. “Scripture not only Even worse, these voices are rarely ques- speaks about emotions, it also speaks to tioned or justified with biblical warrant. We and through our emotions. The Bible itself seem to function as if Scripture is silent on is emotional literature, filled with emo- these matters. tional expression and designed not just to Scripture contains the norms not just for communicate with our rationality but also our behavior and thinking, but also for our to stir us emotionally, thus affirming our emotions and affections. St. Paul told the emotionality.”1 Corinthians that he aimed to work for their Although some theologians, in order to joy and then admonished them for having preserve God’s immutability, have under- restrained their affections for him. Both the stood the plethora of references to God’s Old and New Testaments frequently enjoin emotions as anthropomorphic, this paper their listeners to “Rejoice” and “Be glad” will contend that it is more accurate to view (Ps 100:2; Rom 12:15; Phil 4:4; 1 Thess 5:16). man’s emotions as theomorphic. Good the- Peter tells us to cast all our anxieties on

58 God, because he cares for us (1 Pet 5:7). semantic field. In addition, they are often “Fear not,” is a recurrent command in both used interchangeably in common parlance. the Old and New Testaments (Deut 31:6, However, some definitions are essential as 8; Josh 1:9; Matt 10:26; Luke 12:4). Scrip- a starting point. The following definitions ture tells us that a righteous man hates evil are proposed. (Prov 8:13, 13:5; Rom 12:9). Moses tells the Feeling—the sense perception of an Israelites that they will be judged “because internal or external event, which is typi- you did not serve the Lord your God with cally classified into binary categories of joy and gladness of heart for the abundance experience: good/bad, pleasant/unpleas- of everything” (Deut 28:47). ant, smooth/rough, hard/soft, hot/cold; Whether we are conscious of it or not, or, the subjective experience and report of we have theories and operating principles an emotion. Often, in common language about emotion. It should be no surprise that usage, the word “feeling” is coterminous when Scripture does not form our think- with the word “emotion.” ing, especially about a matter such as David Powlison describes four different emotion which is so much a part of the uses of the word “feeling”: to describe nature of persons, something else will. sense perceptions; to express emotion; to Christian ministry cannot occur without a communicate desires; and to communicate set of beliefs and concepts about persons, thoughts, beliefs and attitudes.3 The first a psychology if you will, which necessar- two uses that Powlison describes are simi- ily entails beliefs about emotion. lar to my definition, have the potential for Fortunately, God’s written Word is any- greater precision, and avoid confounding thing but silent about emotion. Practical human faculties and capacities. biblical wisdom about emotion is available Powlison’s first use and my first defi- in the Scriptures, if we will but take the time nition provide us with a concept that and make the effort required to mine these describes broad categories of human expe- latent riches of the wisdom of God. rience: pleasure or pain, hot or cold, etc. “I The purpose of this article is to posit bib- feel good/bad” or “That feels good/bad.” lical parameters and offer a few modest God has designed us so that we desire our proposals toward the development of a own good; we naturally seek that which theology, or maybe more properly, a bibli- we perceive will lead to life, happiness, and cal psychology of emotion, affections, and pleasure, and we avoid that which we per- feelings. The ultimate purpose of this ceive as bad, aversive, painful, or unpleas- article is to consider the reality of our ant. The pursuit of pleasure or happiness emotions as a manifestation of the image and aversion to pain and suffering is a basic and glory of our great God. principle of life, and in itself, begotten by God. It is because we are created in this Distinguishing Feelings, Emotions, way that God frequently motivates us in and Affections Scripture with promises of blessing and Confusion and imprecision abound in threats of punishment. For example, in the use of these three correlated words: feel- Deuteronomy 30:15-20, we read ing, emotion, and affection. This is difficult to avoid entirely, since their meanings over- See, I have set before you today life and prosperity, and death and lap and they share much of the same adversity; in that I command you 59 today to love the LORD your God, derived from the same Latin root,—mov- to walk in His ways and to keep His commandments and His statutes ere, which means, “to move.” Emotions are and His judgments, that you may both responsive and preparatory. They are live and multiply, and that the part of our response to our experience and LORD your God may bless you in the land where you are entering to also motivate us toward particular ends. possess it. But if your heart turns And, specific emotions have a specific pur- away and you will not obey, but are pose and function. Therefore, we naturally drawn away and worship other gods and serve them, I declare to and correctly speak of an emotion as you today that you shall surely per- being warranted or unwarranted, rational ish. You will not prolong your days or irrational, realistic or unrealistic, sensible in the land where you are crossing the Jordan to enter and possess it. I or ridiculous. Emotional experiences are call heaven and earth to witness not neutral; they are either facilitating the against you today, that I have set before you life and death, the bless- individual’s, and more importantly God’s, ing and the curse. So choose life in purposes and functions or they are not order that you may live, you and (of course in varying degrees). Coram your descendants, by loving the LORD your God, by obeying His Deo (before the face of God), specific emo- voice, and by holding fast to him. tions in specific contexts are either sinful or righteous. In a similar manner, Pascal wrote, Particular emotions have particular functions or serve particular purposes. Any All men seek happiness. This is definition and specification of the role of without exception. Whatever differ- ent means they employ, they all tend particular emotions must attend to the to this end. The cause of some going intrapersonal, horizontal/interpersonal, to war and of others avoiding it, is and vertical/spiritual/moral dimensions. the same desire in both, attended with different views. The will never Affection—deep and abiding emotional/ takes the least step but to this object. motivational vectors of the soul, which This is the motive of every man, even of those who hang themselves.4 move us toward or away from something, contingent upon moral evaluation. The second part of my definition of feel- McDermott, following Jonathan Edwards, ing, like Powlison’s second use, simply differentiates affection and emotion by uses the word as a predicate to consciously noting that affections are strong and pow- experienced emotion. “I feel happy, sad, erful and ultimately determine our choices, disgusted, afraid, etc.” while emotions are comparatively weak 5 Emotion—a fully personal (involving and fleeting. thoughts, beliefs, and judgments made Jonathan Edwards was careful to avoid about the environment and oneself) and separating the affections and the will. In somatic response to internal and/or exter- Religious Affections, he stated, nal experience, subjectively experienced as The will, and the affections of the soul, some variety of feeling, which prepares the are not two faculties; the affections body and mind for action. Emotions are are not essentially distinct from the normally psychosomatic, body and soul, will, nor do they differ from the mere actings of the will and inclination, for human beings. Emotions, however, are but only in the liveliness and sensi- not necessarily mediated by a body. bility of exercise . . . what are com- The words “emotion” and “motive” are monly called affections are not 60 essentially different from them, but allow us to separate emotions or affections only in the degree and manner of exercise. In every act of the will from reason, conscience, or volition. whatsoever, the soul likes or dis- likes, is either inclined or disinclined The Doctrine of God to what is in view.6 A biblical psychology of emotion must begin and end with God. John Frame has About one hundred years before aptly noted that we cannot know other Edwards, the English Puritan, William things rightly without knowing God Fenner wrote with insight and graphic rightly, “essentially because the doctrine of imagery about the role of the affections and the knowledge of God implies a doctrine their necessary connection to the moral of the knowledge of everything.”8 Calvin sense. begins his Institutes with a similar acknowl- The affections are the forcible and edgement: the knowledge of ourselves is sensible motions of the heart or the inextricably dependent upon our knowl- will, to a thing or from a thing, edge of God, and vice-versa.9 Not so coin- according as it is apprehended to be good or evil. . . . The affections are cidentally, wisdom and knowledge about the feet of the soul: for as the body anything begins with a fear of God, a goes with its feet to that which it particular emotional response to him (Prov loves, so the soul goes with its affec- tions to that which it loves. The soul 1:7, 9:10). hath no other way to come at that Most psychologists and philosophers which it loves, but only by its affec- tions. . . . The affections are the soul’s start in the wrong place when thinking horses, that draw her, as it were, in about emotion because they do not proceed a coach to the thing that she affects: from a knowledge and fear of the Lord, a man is moved by the affections. By anger he moves out to revenge; by which is the beginning of wisdom and desire he moves out to obtain; by understanding.10 Although they may pro- love he moves out to enjoy; by pity vide helpful observations, collect useful he moves out to relieve. The affec- tions are the motions of the soul. . . . data, or ask important questions, their con- The affections are directly related to clusions are often superficial and always the apprehension of good and evil. fundamentally flawed when the Creator, When there is little apprehension of good and evil, the affections are whose image we bear, is excised from their weak and may hardly work on the formulations. Even from a secular perspec- body at all. But, when there is great apprehension of either, not only the tive, it has been argued that psychology’s soul is deeply affected, but the body disengagement from philosophy, particu- 7 also. larly metaphysics and ethics, at the end of the nineteenth century left it morally and Our definition of affection includes spiritually vacuous, virtually ignoring the emotion, which involves the intellect, human condition.11 Academic psychology “thoughts, beliefs and judgments,” and our is dominated by behaviorism (including definition of affection includes moral the cognitive-behavioral variety) and bio- evaluation. We can summarily dismiss logical reductionism. It excludes moral reductive definitions of emotion or affec- and metaphysical reflection, since these tion as merely somatic, biological distur- domains are not accessible to empirical bances. In addition, the definitions and methods. Psychology has become “behav- descriptions that I have proffered do not ioral science,” and biological psychiatry, 61 the reigning paradigm in the mental health course; he is Lord) as fellow persons, but fields, typically reduces human experience we must do so as servant persons. He is to mere neurobiology. the Person who creates; we are the persons He has created. He is Father; we are his God Is a Person children in and through Jesus Christ. Directly or indirectly, every page of Since he is a person, not only can we Scripture answers the question, “Who is engage in a relationship with him, but we God?” What type of being is he? One cen- can also understand ourselves through an tral answer to that question is that God is a understanding of him as he reveals him- person. God is portrayed in personal terms self in Scripture and in Jesus Christ. By in the Scriptures. knowing the Father and the Son, we come Yahweh (OT) and Kurios (NT) are the to know who we are as persons and to names that God gives to Himself and these know what kind of persons we should are personal names, proper names, with be. God is the prototype for personhood various levels of meaning.12 and personality. He is also the Holy One, He is the only self-existent, totally inde- perfect Personality. Therefore we should pendent person. He is Absolute Personal- look at him to understand what it means ity, depending on nothing for existence or to be a person, a being characterized by definition. “Only Scripture presents con- personality. sistently the reality of a God who is both Alvin Plantinga asks, personal and absolute.”13 He is not a mere life force, or a rational or moral ideal, or How should we think about human persons? What sorts of things, fun- a transcendent ethical principle. Although damentally, are they? What is it to he is the Creator and omnipresent sustainer be a human, what is it to be a human of life and all things on this earth, he is person, and how should we think about personhood? . . . The first not identical to, nor does he share a com- point to note is that on the Christian mon identity with, anything he created. scheme of things, God is the premier Although God is holy and God is love, person, the first and chief exemplar of personhood . . . and the proper- the reverse is not true; neither holiness nor ties most important for an under- love is God. Although he has attributes, he standing of our personhood are properties we share with him.14 is not an attribute; he is a Person with attributes. Therefore, in order to understand ourselves From the beginning in the Scriptures, as persons with emotion, we must under- God acts like a person. He thinks and stand God as a person with respect to chooses and feels, speaks and expresses emotion. We are made in his image and pleasure and displeasure, expresses delight likeness. A theology of emotion must begin and wrath, and both loves and hates. In with God and his self-description in the other words, he acts like a person because Scriptures because he is the eternal and he is a Person. God is Father. God is Son. Absolute Person, the Creator, the original God is Holy Spirit who grieves and knows whose image we bear. Ultimately, all emo- and to whom one may lie (Isa 63:10; Acts tions are intended to end with God as well, 5:3; 1 Cor 2:11; Eph 4:30). He is a Personal to return to him for his exaltation because, Lord, and because of this we can have a “The chief end of man is to glorify God and relationship with him (on his terms of enjoy Him forever.”15 62 God as a Person with Emotions in all of Scripture’s references to emotions as these relate to God, The assertion that the God of the Bible there does not appear to be any experiences emotion would seem to go instance in which it is said that in without saying, were it not for the early reality God transcends these emo- tional qualities. There seems to be no influence of Plato and the Stoics upon theo- clear direction, then, as there was logians. The contrivance of an impassible, with regard to the question of divine unemotional God stems from a pejorative repentance, for taking the ascrip- tions of divine emotions in any way view of emotions as inherently unruly and other than at face value.17 capricious. The emotions were viewed as irrational and intemperate and as a sign of D. A. Carson also criticizes the hermeneu- weakness, dependence, and contingency. tic for impassibility. As a result, the Stoic ideal of apathes became the ideal and this idea was imposed upon The methodological problem with the argument for divine impassibil- God. ity is that it selects certain texts of McGrath cites the challenging and Scripture, namely those that insist on modification of the concept that God is God’s sovereignty and changeless- ness, constructs a theological grid on impassible as an example of the way in the basis of those selected texts, and which theology is affected by prevailing then uses this grid to filter out all cultural and philosophical assumptions, other texts, in particular those that speak of God’s emotions.18 noting, “Patristic reflection on whether God could suffer were significantly influ- Several modern theologians since the enced by the prevailing philosophical con- middle of the twentieth century acknowl- sensus that a perfect being could not edge that God does indeed experience change, or be affected by outside influ- emotion.19 Bruce Ware reformulates the ences.”16 In order to preserve the divine doctrine of immutability by denying that attributes of transcendence, immutability, God is “absolutely immutable” but assert- and aseity many of the patristic theologians ing that God retains ontological and ethical believed it logically necessary to posit immutability or “onto-ethical immutabil- that God is impassible—he is incapable of ity.” In other words, God is unchangeable experiencing “passions,” negative emo- and self-determining in his holy and tions or suffering. eternal being (or intrinsic nature) and also The Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church unchangeable in his moral perfections, of England and the Westminster Confes- including his utter reliability and faithful- sion of Faith described God as “without ness in keeping his Word. However, Ware body, parts, or passions.” The plethora of contends that God is relationally and emo- biblical verses that seemed to ascribe tionally mutable, so that his ethical and onto- emotion to God was deemed anthropo- logical immutability are preserved. He states, morphic or, more properly, anthropopathic. In other words, in Scripture God merely when rightly understood the rela- represented himself with emotion in order tional changes that occur through to communicate meaningfully to emotional God’s interaction with his creatures, so far from conflicting with his human persons. However, as Bruce Ware immutable character, actually notes, express it . . . because God’s intrin- sic moral nature is unchangeable it must always and without fail 63 express itself in ways appropriate to to be meted out. In the parable of Luke the moral state of any given situa- tion. Thus when the human moral 16:19-31, Lazarus receives comfort while state changes (e.g. from rebellion to the rich man is in torment and agony. repentance) the immutable divine (Granted, we are not sure how far we can nature must now reflect itself in ways that are appropriate to this rely upon every point of the parable, but new situation. Hence, changes in it is very consistent with other accounts God’s attitudes and actions are natu- of the suffering that will accompany eter- rally brought about as God consis- tently applies the standards and nal punishment in hell.) What is relevant requirements of his constant moral here in this parable is that these disem- nature in ways that correspond bodied persons are conscious and that one to the moral changes continually undergone by his creatures. Barth soul experiences the emotion of suffering was right then to speak of a “holy while the other receives comfort.22 Accord- mutability of God” whereby God is understood to change in his atti- ing to John Piper, “Philippians 1:23 and tudes, conduct and relationships 2 Corinthians 5:8 teach that after a with humans in ways that both Christian’s death, and before the resurrec- accord with his changeless intrinsic moral nature and properly confront tion of the body, the Christian will be with the human moral situation.20 the Lord and capable of joys ‘far better’ than what we have known here.”23 Surely this type of change in God’s Finally, some support for the contention relationships with and attitudes toward his that emotion does not necessarily require creatures would include various emotional a physical human body can be inferred changes. These various emotions would be from the biblical descriptions of angels, a necessary expression of God as an utterly who are essentially non-physical, spiritual holy, loving, wise, and morally perfect, beings. For instance, in Luke 2:8-14, the personal being. God is made neither bet- angel who announces the incarnation of the ter nor worse by such emotional changes Messiah to the shepherds brings “good which are consistent with and even neces- news of great joy.” The heavenly hosts who sary to express his supreme perfections. praise and give glory to God do not sound Ware concludes, “The abundance of Scrip- like apathetic robots. Luke 15:10 suggests, tural evidence of God’s expression of emo- at least, some sort of emotional capacity in tion and a more positive understanding of angels, “there is joy in the presence of their nature lead to the conclusion that the the angels of God over one sinner who true and living God is, among other things, repents.” Furthermore, it is difficult to a genuinely emotional being.”21 imagine heavenly angels in the very pres- That God is a Spirit being, without a ence of God worshiping him unceasingly body but with emotions informs us that but unemotionally. Surely they delight and emotions are not essentially material or tremble in his presence. somatic. In addition, we see evidence for the essentially spiritual nature of human The Doctrine of Man emotion in the Scriptures where individu- als who have physically died are described When it comes to addressing the nature of human persons, science is in the intermediate state. In Revelation largely incompetent either to frame 6:9-11 the souls of the martyrs cry out with the correct questions or to provide answers. The hard sciences are at righteous indignation for the Lord’s justice their best when they describe how 64 physical systems work, but they are those who weep, not grieve like those who largely incompetent when settling questions about the nature of con- have no hope, and fear God (Ps 97:10; Phil sciousness, intentionality, personal 4:4; Ps 37:4; Rom 12:15; 1 Thess 4:13; Luke identity and agency, and related 12:5). matters.24 Second, the capacity for emotional Since emotion is essentially a personal response is part of God’s original pre-fall and spiritual phenomenon, a biblically design, which was declared “very good” grounded theology and philosophy are by the Lord. The second chapter of Gen- “at their best” when “settling questions esis provides three direct references to about the nature of consciousness, inten- man’s emotional capacity. First, God made tionality, personal identity and agency, trees with fruit that was pleasant to the and related matters.” The historical-re- sight (v. 9). He could have placed soylent demptive paradigm of Creation, Fall, and green bio-tablets in a hermetically sealed Redemption will serve to organize and dispenser but in his wisdom, he made food focus the discussion of emotion as it re- with an attractive and pleasant appearance. lates to the doctrine of man. Second, Adam’s poetic exclamation, after God made and then presented a female Creation companion to him, “This is now bone of “We should not be surprised that when my bones and flesh of my flesh,” drips with a society denies the reality of the God of relief and exhilaration (v. 23). Finally, the creation it is filled with individuals who creation story ends by informing us “the do not know who they are and cannot man and his wife were both naked and explain why they do what they do.”25 were not ashamed” (v. 25). We can reason- Realizing that emotion is an important ably infer that Adam and Eve were not only aspect of our nature as human persons naked and unashamed but that positive created by and like and for an absolutely feelings were correlated with their naked Holy and Personal God delivers us from state before God and each other. several of the prevailing misconceptions Third, particular emotions such as fear about emotion. The Stoic contention that and joy and delight are essential compo- emotion is mindless passion that disturbs nents in fulfilling the primary purpose of rational thought and impedes good our existence: serving and glorifying God. choices, along with the “Christianized” Only fools have no fear of God. Fearing version of Stoicism that asserts that God God is a natural and necessary response to does not care about our feelings but only his holiness and power. Even Jesus Christ, about our holiness, can be contested on the perfect Man, experienced and delighted several grounds. in godly fear (Isa 11:1-3; Heb 5:7). “Serve First, our emotional capacities are part the LORD with fear, And rejoice with trem- of our nature as personal beings created in bling” (Ps 2:11). Serving God rightly the image and likeness of God. Contrary requires right emotions. “Because you did to the Stoic tendency to view emotion as a not serve the LORD your God with joy and nuisance are many biblical commands to gladness of heart, for the abundance of experience particular emotions. We are everything, therefore you shall serve your instructed to hate evil, rejoice always, enemies, whom the LORD will send delight and be glad in the Lord, weep with against you” (Deut 28:47). 65 John Piper’s concept of “Christian ence no fear of God and no anxiety about Hedonism,” echoing themes found in other their eternal destiny are more disordered Christian thinkers like Augustine, Pascal, than those who have panic attacks subse- Edwards, and Lewis, contends that the quent to conviction that they are guilty pursuit of joy is not merely popular or only before a Holy and Just God and bound for one option among many in life, but is rather hell outside of Christ. In both cases, their the essence of our duty to glorify God by emotions cannot be correctly deciphered enjoying him. “The pursuit of pleasure is a until their status before God, who never necessary part of all worship and virtue.”26 sleeps or slumbers and searches every “God is most glorified in us when we are heart, is apprehended. When emotions are most satisfied in him,” is an axiomatic isolated from the “one with whom we have theme for Piper.27 to do,” they cannot be understood and in Therefore, God gives emotions for a spe- fact may be tragically misinterpreted and cific purpose. They are necessary for us often medicated or otherwise falsely properly to know and relate to and glorify assuaged. God; they are designed to facilitate the In a similar vein, Christian counselors fulfillment of the Great Commandments: sometimes refer to “wounded” or “dam- loving God with all we are and do, and aged” emotions as the source of a person’s loving our neighbor as readily as we love problems in living. This manner of speak- ourselves. The capacity for emotions is ing, while making some experiential sense, designed by God and is part of his divinely is misleading because the emotions are ordered plan for us as servant persons. reified and separated from the inner Understanding God’s designs and order person, or heart. As a result, counseling for emotion is an essential prerequisite, focuses on healing emotions rather than without which we cannot understand emo- addressing the heart out of which these tional disorders. emotions spill. The biblical diagnosis is not One of the most common contemporary that we have wounded emotions or emo- explanations for why people do what they tional problems, it is that we have “me” do and for personal and social misery is problems or heart problems. “This is an evil that they suffer from a “Mood Disorder” in all that is done under the sun: that one which is a diagnostic category in the DSM- thing happens to all. Truly the hearts of the IV,28 or simply that they have an “emotional sons of men are full of evil; madness is in problem,” such as depression or anxiety. their hearts while they live.” (Eccl 9:3) Jay However, the secular mental health profes- Adams asserts, sions do not adequately define and under- stand affective disorders or emotional The fact is that there are no damag- ing or destructive emotions per se. problems because they ignore the divine Our emotional makeup is totally order and the Divine Orderer. It goes with- from God. All emotions of which He out saying that a prerequisite for defining made us capable are constructive when used properly (i.e., in accor- a disorder is a prior apprehension of the dance with biblical principles). . . . proper order. To understand what is dis- All emotions, however, can become ordered, you must first understand the destructive when we fail to express them in harmony with biblical limi- right or ideal order. For example, from a tations and structures.29 biblical perspective, people who experi- 66 And this is where the rub lies. have significance for therapy are the feel- ings which the client is able to bring into Fall the situation.”31 The goal of therapy is to Derek Kidner offers the following reduce estrangement from one’s own comment on Genesis 3 regarding Satan’s experience and feelings and facilitate con- tempting proposal to Adam and Eve, “The gruence by helping them get in touch with climax is a lie big enough to reinterpret life their true feelings. Negative feelings like . . . and dynamic enough to redirect the flow anxiety and depression result from incon- of affection and ambition. To be as God, and gruence with and lack of acceptance of to achieve it by outwitting him, is an one’s true self. In order to facilitate congru- intoxicating programme.”30 Adam’s and ence and self-actualization, the counselor Eve’s emotions are incited and directed simply draws attention to and empathizes against God rather than for him. Emotion, with the counselee’s emotions. People will like eating and drinking and whatever we function as fully human beings if they are do, should be to the glory of God. But, free to experience, express, and satisfy their fallen emotions appear quickly in human inner nature, which is positive and ratio- history. Adam and Eve experienced a pano- nal and basically good. Moral evaluation ply of negative emotions only after they and directive advice would only inhibit the yielded to their own lusts in accord with actualizing process. Emotions are to be Satan’s “intoxicating programme.” They accepted without conditions or judgments. became ashamed, worried, anxious, and Another way in which the moral valence fearful soon after disobeying God. In and spiritual nature of emotion is either Genesis 4, the first murder is in a context denied or minimized is through biological of ungodly emotion: sinful envy and reductionism. In other words, emotion is unrighteous anger. reduced or completely attributed to the One of the most popular and pernicious body, usually brain physiology or genetic myths about emotions is that they are nei- inheritance or some combination thereof. ther good nor bad; they are neutral. On this This is a difficult point, since emotion as view, emotional experience occurs within we currently experience it is undoubtedly a morally neutral, value-free zone where psychosomatic, soul and body. The body concepts such as good and bad, right and is indeed the channel through which we wrong, godly and sinful are systematically experience emotion, and no one can ques- avoided or at least minimized. tion that our bodies and brains influence Carl Rogers was the most prominent our emotions. A biblical psychology of twentieth century proponent of this view, emotion can acknowledge the somatic which pervades clinical, counseling, and mediation of emotion and a close interac- educational psychology and clinical pas- tion between psyche and soma but must toral education, and which has crept into hold that emotion is essentially personal Christian counseling. A primary focus of and spiritual, and normally but not neces- Rogerian (AKA non-directive or person- sarily or essentially somatic. Commenting centered) therapy is on carefully listening on the relationship between body and soul, for, accepting, and empathizing with the Jonathan Edwards wrote, counselee’s feelings. “Objective facts are quite unimportant. The only facts which Such seems to be our nature, and such the laws of the union of soul 67 and body, that there never is in any because, case whatsoever, any lively and vig- orous exercise of the inclination, without some effect upon the body. It is sometimes argued that unless . . . But yet, it is not the body, but the one asserts the primacy of the intel- mind only that is the proper seat of lect, one may justly follow any or the affections. The body of man is every sort of emotion. But this no more capable of being really the would be true only in the non-Chris- subject of love or hatred, joy or sor- tian concept of the nature of man. row, fear or hope, than the body of a Only in the non-Christian concept of tree, or than the same body of man man are the emotions inherently is capable of thinking and under- unruly; they have become unruly standing. As it is the soul only that only because of sin. But, when sin has ideas, so it is the soul only that has entered into the mind of man, is pleased or displeased with its the intellect is as unruly as are the ideas. As it is the soul only that affections. The whole man refuses to thinks, so it is the soul only that loves subject itself to the rule of God. or hates, rejoices or is grieved at, When a saved sinner learns to con- what it thinks of.32 trol his passions, the reason is not primarily that he has understood the meaning of the primacy of the intel- A biblical view of emotion, while main- lect as a psychological truth, but the taining that the capacity for emotion is primary reason is that in the whole of his being he is born of God.33 good, must account for sin, which has corrupted every part of our being and Likewise, John Frame notes, “the fall was experience. The fallen human heart is evil, not essentially a derangement of faculties deceptive, and rebellious; therefore, its within man. It was rebellion of the whole products are inevitably tainted with the person—intellect as much as emotions, stain of sin. Sin infects our whole being and perception, and will—against God. My every capacity or faculty has been tilted problem is not something within me; it is away from God. Our emotions are no me!”34 Fortunately, that is not the end of our longer naturally oriented in such a way that story. they contribute to honoring, loving, and obeying God. Instead, our emotions have Redemption become self-serving, our affections idola- Because of God’s grace and his redemp- trous, and our passion is for our own glory tive purposes realized in Christ and by his rather than God’s. We tend to seek happi- Spirit, the pervasive effects of sin upon the ness in what cannot last; delight in evil; image of God in man are not irreversible. delight in ourselves, fear that which God Every one of our capacities or faculties is forbids; become angry when we should be corrupted but they can likewise be patient; grieve hopelessly; and hate that restored. In Christ, we find hidden all the which is good. Pervasive, holistic deprav- treasures of wisdom and knowledge and ity means that not only do we choose and truth (Col 2:3, 3:10; Eph 4:21), thus the good think the wrong things but also that our of reason is restored. In Christ, our con- emotions are wrongly oriented. science is renewed (Heb 5:11-14, 9:8-14, At this point, we must reiterate that all 10:22; 1 Pet 3:21). In Christ, we are empow- our primary faculties or capacities (intel- ered to choose that which is good (Eph 2:10; lect, will, conscience, and emotion) are Titus 2:14, 3:8; Heb 9:14), thus our volition equally involved in imaging God and is renewed. In Christ, our emotions and equally corrupted by sin. This is important affections are redeemed and become allies 68 in loving God and others (Phil 1:7-8, 2:1-5; sinful history, it is apparent that my Col 3:5-12; 1 Thess 2:7-8). In addition, Jesus thoughts, decisions, and actions have Christ can restore the harmonious interac- caused me a lot more trouble than my emo- tion of reason, conscience, volition, and tions ever have. In fact, nagging “negative” emotion, which dis-integrated in the Fall. emotions such as despair, guilt, shame, and “It is best to think of intellect, will, and fear best reflected my true condition and emotions as interdependent. Each affects kindled a return to God’s Word as the the others, and none can function properly source of truth and Christ as my only hope. apart from the others. When we try to Particular emotions may in fact facili- employ one without the others, the result tate true thinking and righteous action. In is distorted understanding, choices, and 2 Corinthians 7, Paul writes that godly grief feelings.”35 leads to and produces repentance, while A failure to recognize both the fallen- worldly grief produces death. In other ness and the potential for redemption of words, the problem Paul is highlighting emotion has resulted in a couple of con- is not “following your emotions,” but fol- temporary fallacies. For example, Jay lowing worldly emotions. John Frame Adams’s concept of feeling-oriented vs. observes, commandment oriented36 living is fre- quently misunderstood (and probably It is true, of course, that people sometimes “follow their feelings,” could have been nuanced more fully by rather than thinking responsibly. But Adams to avoid the abuse of his concept) it is also the case that people some- by falsely dichotomizing emotions and times follow rationalistic schemes that run contrary to what they know obedience. Likewise, the well known Cam- in their “guts” (feelings) to be true. pus Crusade train illustration from the God gives us multiple faculties to Four Spiritual Laws, wherein feelings serve as a sort of internal system of checks and balances. Sometimes rea- (particular emotions) are the caboose son saves us from emotional crazi- following faith in the facts of salvation, ness, but emotions can also check the extravagant pretenses of reason . . . conveys both truth and error. Adams’s [Sometimes] feeling guides my dichotomy and Crusade’s train illustration reflection; my reflection refines my are true in the sense that following particu- feelings. Those refined feelings pro- voke additional reflection, and so on. lar emotions (i.e., ungodly fear or guilt) The goal is a satisfying analysis, an while failing to attend to biblical promises analysis I feel good about, one with and commands is foolish and sinful. How- which I have cognitive rest, a peace- ful relation between intellect and ever, God’s Word and Spirit address the emotion. That relation seems to me whole man so that the intellect is chal- to be involved in all knowledge.37 lenged to think truly, the emotions are kindled toward God, and the will is stimu- Neuroscientist and physician, Antonio lated to act in ways that please God. These Damasio, likewise maintained, “Emotions “Christian” versions of the popular admo- are not a luxury. They play a role in com- nition that “one should never follow feel- municating meaning to others, and may ings” fail to take into account the effect of also play a cognitive guidance role . . . feel- both sin and redemption upon the whole ings have a say on how the rest of the brain man, upon each and every one of our and cognition go about their business. capacities or faculties. As I review my own Their influence is immense. . . . Feelings 69 are a powerful influence on reason.”38 us free to live and walk by the Spirit, thus Emotions are designed, just as much as empowered to progressively manifest a any of our capacities, to respond to God’s renewed affective life of love, joy, peace, Word and Spirit and are crucial for a whole- patience, kindness, gentleness, and self- hearted response to him and others. The control (vv. 22-24). Laodicean church of Revelation 3 is Jonathan Edwards emphasized the cru- rebuked and threatened both because of cial role of affections in authentic Christian their works and their apathy, “because you experience. are lukewarm, and neither hot nor cold, I For although to true religion there will spit you out of my mouth” (v. 16). They must indeed be something else are exhorted not simply to repent, but to besides affection; yet true religion “be zealous and repent” (v. 19). consists so much in the affections, that there can be no true religion Regeneration and sanctification don’t without them. He who has no reli- necessarily make us any more emotional, gious affection, is in a state of spiri- although they certainly are intended to tual death, and is wholly destitute of the powerful, quickening, saving renew our emotions and kindle and redi- influences of the Spirit of God upon rect the affections so that, in increasing his heart. As there is no true religion where there is nothing else but measures, the new man is able to love God affection, so there is no true religion and neighbor more wholeheartedly and to where there is no religious affection. hate evil and sin. And of course, the event . . . If the great things of religion are rightly understood, they will affect and process of redemption does not make the heart . . . God has given to man- us less emotional, although the renewed kind affections, for the same purpose heart with increasing faith in Christ can and as that for which he has given all the faculties and principles of the should experience diminishing measures human soul, viz., that they might be of sinful emotion and idolatrous affection. subservient to man’s chief end, and Galatians 5 presents a picture of the free- the great business for which God has created him, that is, the business of dom that comes for the believer who places religion.40 his faith in Christ alone (vv. 6, 13-14). In this passage, the redemption of emotions The transformation of our affective life is apparent. In Christ and by the Spirit, the requires supernatural assistance. John redeemed are empowered to avoid im- Owen recognized the power of affections, moral and impure emotions like jealousy, “It is vain to contend with anything that anger, and envy that are closely associated hath the power of our affections in its dis- with enmity, disputes, dissensions, and posal; it will prevail at the last.”41 God’s re- factions (vv. 19-20). Redemption means demptive activity in this domain is neces- that evil passions and desires have been sary and typical. As Lord over all, he and can be crucified with Christ. (Surely sovereignly initiates a covenantal relation- this is a process; the tension of the ship with us through his law and his grace, “already” and “not yet” of the reign of by which we are transformed as we Christ in our hearts is as true here as it is respond with faithful obedience. everywhere else. We must acknowledge A transformed affective life requires that two senses of sanctification, both a defini- we acknowledge, accept, and trust in God’s tive past event and a progressive process,39 Lordship: his loving presence, his power as the Scriptures do.) To be in Christ sets and authority, and his wise and sovereign 70 control over our lives and circumstances.42 we can our thoughts or actions, God does It is our response to his compassion, his not seem to have any compunction about commands, and his control that mediates commanding and directing the emotions personal transformation, including our and affections of his people. He commands emotions and affections. us to rejoice and be glad (Ps 100:2; Rom Compassion—It is because of a Stoic bias, 12:15; Phil 4:4; 1 Thess 5:16); to fear him not Scripture, that some say God does not (Luke 12:5; Rom 11:20; 1 Pet 1:17); not to care about our emotions, but only our fear people (Josh 1:9; Deut 31:6, 8) or per- holiness. It is his loving presence with us, secution (Luke 12:4-5); not to worry about by his Word and Spirit, that allays our anxi- circumstances (Matt 6: 25-34; Mark 4:40); eties, comforts us in our afflictions, and to grieve and mourn with others and for gives us hope when we grieve. He is the our sin (Ps. 51:17, Rom 12:15; Jas 4:9); to let Father of mercies and God of all comfort, peace rule in our hearts (Col 3:15); to be who comforts us in all our afflictions (2 Cor kind and tenderhearted and compassion- 1:3-4). He is a God of encouragement (Rom ate toward others (Eph 4:32; Col 3:12); to 15:5). We are told to cast all our anxieties hate evil (Ps. 97:10; Amos 5:15) and not to onto him, because he cares for us (1 Pet 5:7). hate our brother (Lev 19:17; 1 John 2:9,11, We need not fear evil, because he is with 3:15). As Lord, he not only commands our us and his firm hand comforts us (Ps 23:4). emotions but he also questions (Gen 4:6; When we are afraid, we can trust in him Jonah 4:4-9) and judges (Deut 28:47) them. (Ps 56:3). He puts all our tears in his bottle His interest is not just in how we act with (Ps 56:8). His “love has been poured into respect to our emotions but also in their our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has motives and causes. His claims are not been given to us.” (Rom 5:5) limited merely to what we do with our God’s loving compassion is most appar- emotions but also extend to which emo- ent in his Son whom he sent to die for us, tions we feel and why. even though we were undeserving As Lord over all, God’s designs and enemies of him. Christ is the Prince of intentions for our emotions are normative. peace, who brings perfect peace to those As the Supreme and Most High Being, he who trust in him (Isa 9:6, 26:3). Compassion has a right to our allegiance in all things. is the emotion most frequently attributed Therefore, whether we are eating or drink- to Christ.43 The compassionate presence of ing or getting angry or sad or feeling afraid God with us and for us is essential for the or happy, all things should be for his glory transformation of any component of our alone. Thus, our Holy Lord lovingly pro- lives. We need help to change our emo- vides norms for our emotions: what we feel tions; one way God provides this help is (which would include even our motives for by caring for us. these emotions), what we do with these Command—As Lord, God is not only emotions, and their ultimate purpose and personally present with unfailing compas- objective. sion, but also he has the right and author- Control—Lords are, by definition, sov- ity to tell us how to live, including the ereign; our God does indeed reign over all emotions we should and should not feel. things. All of the circumstances and events Even though we cannot command and of our lives are under the control of his wise direct our emotions in the same way that and loving hand. Our emotions and affec- 71 tions are intended to bring glory to him, 3D. Powlison, “What Do You Feel?,” Jour- and as we trust and rest in his sovereignty, nal of Pastoral Practice, 10 no. 4 (1991) 50- we are enabled to orient them for him and 53. to him. God’s sovereign control over all 4B. Pascal, Pascal’s Pensees, trans. by W. F. things brings order, sense, meaning, and Trotter (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1958) purpose to our lives, and our emotions. 113. When we understand our emotions in the 5G. McDermott, Seeing God: Jonathan light of God’s sovereignty, particularly Edwards and Spiritual Discernment (Van- when coupled with a wholehearted appre- couver: Regent College, 2000) 31-33. hension of his presence with and author- 6J. Edwards, A Treatise Concerning Reli- ity over us, our emotional lives are situated gious Affections, in The Works of Jonathan within ultimate and divine perspectives Edwards, vol. 1, (Peabody, MA: Hend- that temper, order, and direct them. rickson, 2000) 237. 7W. Fenner, A Treatise of the Affections (Lon- Conclusion don: I. Rothwell, 1642) 3-5. The God of the Bible aims to establish 8J. Frame, The Doctrine of the Knowledge of his Lordship not just over our actions God (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and and thoughts, but also over our emotions, Reformed, 1987) 10. affections, and feelings. “Religious affec- 9J. Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Reli- tions are a subset of affections in general, gion, trans. by H. Beveridge (Grand Rap- and all affections are religious.”44 What is ids: Eerdmans, 1997) 37- 39. the source of my joy and happiness? What 10Proverbs 1:7; 9:10. do I grieve and become sad about most? 11D. N. Robinson, An Intellectual History of What is it that provokes my anger? Who Psychology (New York: MacMillan, 1976) or what do I fear most? Is he Lord over my 352-358, 379-380. emotions or do they rule me? Are my feel- 12Frame, The Doctrine of the Knowledge of ings for him or against him? Do my affec- God, 21-26. tions indicate that I love him above all other 13Ibid., 602. gods with all my soul, heart, mind, and 14A. Plantinga quoted in J. P. Moreland and strength? Who or what is the chief end of S. B. Rae, Body & Soul (Downers Grove: my affections? Our emotional states are Intervarsity Press, 2000) 25. windows into our souls, revealing the 15The Confession of Faith, The Shorter Cat- allegiance of our hearts. Let us endeavor echism (Richmond: John Knox, 1959) to think God’s thoughts after him, conform 387. our actions to his Word, and experience 16A. McGrath, Historical Theology: An emotions that reflect and honor him. Introduction to the History of Christian Thought (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998) 15. ENDNOTES 17B. A. Ware, “An Evangelical Reformula- 1D. G. Benner, “Emotion,” in Evangelical tion of the Doctrine of the Immutability Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. of God,” Journal of the Evangelical Theo- Elwell (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984) 352. logical Society 29 no. 4 (1986) 445. 2B. B. Warfield, The Person and Work of 18D. A. Carson, How Long O Lord? (Grand Christ (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Rapids: Baker, 1990) 186. Reformed, 1950) 96-97. 19P. S. Fiddes, “Divine Suffering,” in The 72 Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern 37Frame, The Doctrine of the Knowledge Christian Thought, ed. A. McGrath of God, 336. (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1993) 634. 38A. Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emo- 20Ware, 439-440. tion, Reason, and the Human Brain 21Ibid., 445. (New York: Grosset/Putnam, 1994) 22Moreland and Rae, 35-37. 130, 160. 23J. Piper, Desiring God: Meditations of 39J. Murray, Collected Writings of John a Christian Hedonist (Oregon: Mul- Murray (Carlisle, PA: Banner of tnomah, 1986, 1996) 299. Truth, 1977) 2:277-293. 24Moreland and Rae, 41. 40Edwards, 243-244. 25A. Begg, What Angels Wish They 41J. Owen, The Works of John Owen Knew: The Basics of True Christianity (Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth. 1965) (Chicago: Moody, 1998) 33. 7:397. 26Piper, Desiring God, 23. 42Frame, The Doctrine of the Knowledge 27J. Piper, Future Grace (Oregon: Mul- God, 42. tnomah, 1995) 9. 43Warfield, 96-97. 28American Psychiatric Association, 44D. Powlison, “A Call for Papers on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the Emotions,” Journal of Biblical Mental Disorders – IV (Wash., D. C.: Counseling, 20 no. 1 (2001) 18-20. American Psychiatric Association, 1994). 29J. Adams, The Christian Counselor’s Manual (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973) 349. 30D. Kidner, Genesis: An Introduction and Commentary (Downer’s Grove: Tyndale, 1967) 68. Emphasis added (except “as God”—emphasized in original). 31C. Rogers, Counseling and Psycho- therapy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942) 244. 32Edwards, 237. 33C. Van Til, An Introduction to System- atic Theology (Phillipsburg: Presby- terian and Reformed, 1978) 34. 34Frame, The Doctrine of the Knowledge of God, 337. 35J. Frame, Worship in Spirit and Truth (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1996) 78. 36 J. Adams, The Christian Counselor’s Manual (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973) 118. 73 Sermon: Today’s Mercies for Today’s Tr o u b l e s ; Tomorrow’s Mercies for Tomorrow’s Troubles Matthew 6:34 and Lamentations 3:22-23 John Piper

John Piper has been the senior pas- Introduction from God for each day’s appointed pain. tor of Bethlehem Baptist Church in Min- Sometimes I have reinforced a sermon by Today’s mercies are not designed to carry neapolis, Minnesota, since 1980. He has following it up with a STAR article (The tomorrow’s burdens. There will be mercies the Dr. Theol. in New Testament from STAR is Bethlehem Baptist’s weekly news- tomorrow for that. Today’s mercies are for the University of Munich and taught for letter). Today I want to reinforce a STAR today’s burdens. But tomorrow? What six years at Bethel College in St. Paul, article with a following sermon. The STAR about tomorrow? What will become of our Minnesota. He is the author of a num- article last week was called, “Today’s Mer- children? Will they believe? Or will they ber of books and articles, including cies for Today’s Troubles; Tomorrow’s forsake the way of righteousness? What God’s Passion for His Glory: Living the Mercies for Tomorrow’s Troubles.” There will become of our health? Will we go blind Vision of Jonathan Edwards (Crossway). were several points. One was this: Every or deaf or lose our memories? Who will Additional sermons and resources by Dr. day God appoints a measure of pleasure take care of us? Will we spend the last 10 Piper are available through Desiring God and pain for that day—like the old Swed- years of our lives out-living all our friends Ministries (www.desiringgod.org). ish hymn says: and family, abandoned, slumped over in a wheel chair at a rural nursing home? What He whose heart is kind beyond all will become of our marriages? Will we ever measure, Gives unto each day what he trust again? Will we laugh and play and deems best— pray and talk in peace? Will we be there Lovingly, its part of pain and for the children? Will we be there for each pleasure, Mingling toil with peace and rest. other? Will it be sad and strained and dissatisfying for 30 or 40 more years? Kind beyond all measure, the Lord gives What will it be like tomorrow and tomor- pain and pleasure to each day as he deems row and tomorrow? What will become of best. We don’t always agree enthusiasti- our church? What will tomorrow bring? cally with what God deems best for us. It Or Wednesday? Or next Sunday? Or a is hard for us to feel that he is kind beyond year from now? Or ten years from now? all measure when he gives us pain. Caus- Will we be together? Will we be winning ing pain is not generally equated with the lost, and standing for righteousness, showing kindness, especially if God’s mea- and delivering the oppressed, and send- sure for one day is a lot more than another ing more and more missionaries to the day. But it’s true, as we will see more fully unreached peoples, and resting in the care in a moment. God gives each day his wise of 17 district elders, and worshiping with and loving measure of pain and pleasure. white-hot zeal for the glory and grace of That was the first point of the STAR article. our great God? What about tomorrow? The second was that there is fresh mercy Will we have the strength to live tomor- 74 row when it comes? And to live it well and 6:34, “Do not be anxious for tomorrow; for wisely and even joyfully, no matter what tomorrow will care for itself. Each day has God’s measure of pain and pleasure? enough trouble of its own.” (The other text The point of the STAR article was that is Lamentations 3:22-23. See below.) the strength to live tomorrow will be given Let me tell you what I think that text tomorrow, not today. And it will be given. does not mean. It does not mean: Make no Our task today is not to have the strength preparations for tomorrow’s needs. If needed for tomorrow’s burdens. Our task you’re a farmer, the thought about tomor- today is to live by the mercies given for row’s empty silos should cause you to sow today, and to believe that there will be new your field with corn months before you mercies for tomorrow. Today’s mercies do need the corn. Almost everything that is not include strength for tomorrow; they worth doing requires some forethought, include faith that tomorrow’s unseen mer- planning, and preparation. Jesus said, cies will be sufficient for tomorrow. “Which of you desiring to build a tower I can’t express how important I believe does not first sit down and count the cost, this is for the living of the Christian life— whether he has enough to complete it?” for children, for teenagers, for college stu- (Luke 14:28). The point of Matthew 6:34 is dents and young adults in the work world, not—don’t make wise preparations. The for middle-aged people facing major life point is—don’t bring the troubles and changes, for older people with tremendous uncertainties of carrying out those prepa- uncertainties before them, for single people rations tomorrow into today. “Each day has and married people. It’s important because enough trouble of its own.” of how natural and strong is the impulse What does Jesus mean by “enough”? Or in our hearts to want to feel sufficient today as the old Authorized Version says, “Suffi- for tomorrow’s challenges. We don’t like cient to the day is the evil thereof.” What it when the gauge reads “empty” at the does he mean by “sufficient”? He means end of the day, and we have to go to sleep— that your sovereign heavenly Father, who if we can—not feeling the power for is kind and wise beyond all measure, lov- tomorrow’s troubles. ingly gives unto each day what he deems best, including both its pain and pleasure. The Christian’s Secret of Dealing Each day’s troubles are “enough”—they with Trouble are “sufficient”— because God determines There is a secret to the Christian life here their limit. God decides what is enough that I want you to get a handle on. If you and what is sufficient (cf. 1 Cor 10:13). don’t—if you go on desperately needing You can know some of the pressures to feel today the strength for tomorrow, that are coming tomorrow. And part of then it seems to me that either you will cave your job may be to make some prepara- in under the pressure of excessive anxieties, tions for them. Those preparations are part or you will find a worldly strategy for of today’s “sufficient” trouble. But how developing immense ego strength and per- those preparations will turn out tomorrow, suade yourself that you really are sufficient and whether you feel strong enough today for tomorrow’s troubles. Neither of those to do your part tomorrow—that is not is God’s way. God’s way is summed up in something God wants you to carry today. two passages of scripture. One is Matthew Those are tomorrow’s burdens. God does 75 not give mercies today for bearing from (among other places) Lamentations tomorrow’s burdens. 3:22-23, “The Lord’s lovingkindnesses For example, we on the staff must now indeed never cease, for His compassions plan and design worship services ahead of never fail. They are new every morning; time. It’s like the farmer: we know that if great is Thy faithfulness.” there is going to be a harvest of corporate It’s the phrase “they are new every worship on Sunday, there needs to be some morning” that gives me this great confi- plowing, sowing, and watering earlier in dence that each day’s mercies—each day’s the week. That’s OK. Jesus wants us to kindnesses—are given specifically for that do that. day. Ponder that with me. Let it sink in. But what about the questions that start “His mercies . . . are new every morning.” to arise from the flesh: How will it go on Why are they new every morning? Why Sunday? Will the people be there? Will God does God do it that way? It’s not because meet us? Will it be real and deep and ear- yesterday’s mercies were bad or weak. It’s nest and life-changing and soul-winning because they were yesterday’s. Yesterday’s and Christ-exalting? Will the people be mercies were for yesterday’s burdens. disappointed? With these questions we can Today’s mercies are for today’s burdens. cross the line from faithful preparation to They are new every morning. They are like unfaithful anxiety. We cross over from deal- the manna in the wilderness: you can’t ing with today’s sufficient burden (prepa- keep it overnight. Enough comes for each ration) and begin to borrow tomorrow’s day. You live on God day by day, or you troubles (how will it be received?). And that don’t live on God. is spiritually very dangerous because The Swedish hymn gets it right again. today’s mercies are given by God for The second verse says, “Every day the Lord today’s burdens not tomorrow’s. himself is near me, With a special mercy Or the danger can happen another way. for each hour.” A special mercy for each Not only can we start to fret about how our hour. The mercy to carry you through this preparations will turn out, but we can start hour is given in this hour. This truth will to fret over whether we will have the save your life again and again, if you grasp resources to handle all the preparations it and live it. Because how many times in after this. What about Palm Sunday and life do we come to the end of our resources Maundy Thursday and Easter and then and say. “There isn’t anything in here any- April and May and June and July and more. I am depleted. One more straw and August? Will the spiritual resources be this camel’s back will break.” And we there? That too can be a crossing over the despair that tomorrow will just be rolled line between faithful planning and unfaith- on to today’s depleted condition. And at ful anxiety. The strength to plan worship that moment we desperately need this for July 10, will be given on July 5th and truth: God will not expect you to carry one 6th. And probably not before. more straw with these present mercies. Now where in scripture do I get this When the next straw is added the mercies confidence that God not only gives the will be new. trouble to each day that is sufficient for that So we must not compound today’s load day, but also the mercies which are tailor- with fretting over tomorrow’s. We must not made to carry that day’s trouble? I get it doubt God and say, “I have no more 76 strength; so tomorrow will be impossible surgery. A little Chinese girl later reported to live.” That’s not true. You will not be that a bandit pointed a gun at Vinson’s asked to live tomorrow on today’s strength. head and said, “I’m going to kill you. Aren’t What you need today is not tomorrow’s you afraid?” strength, but today’s faith that tomorrow’s Now at this point how do you feel? Are mercies will be new and will be enough. you projecting yourself into Vinson’s And there’s something different place? If so, do you feel rising within you between the experience of faith for the power to respond with great serenity tomorrow’s power, and the actual experi- and to die with peace? The point of what I ence of that power itself. Faith stands on have been saying is this: you don’t have to the promise of God and waits and hopes feel that right now. What God wants from in weakness and peace. And, of course, that you now as you sit there is not the strength waiting and hoping is part of today’s to die that death. That is not today’s trouble mercy. Part of today’s mercy is the ability for you. It may be tomorrow’s. What God to trust that there will be sufficient mercy calls you to now is not to have the power for tomorrow. And we trust in that because to do what Vinson did, but to have the trust God promises it in Lamentations 3:23 (cf. in God that when your time comes he will Phil 4:19; 2 Cor 9:8-11). give what you need. But in spite of all the peace that faith can Vinson looked up and said, “No, I am bring about today, it is not yet tomorrow’s not afraid. If you kill me, I will go straight mercy or tomorrow’s power. There’s a dif- to God.” Which he did.1 ference. And that’s why there is such a Today’s mercies for today’s troubles; battle that goes on. We want the feeling of tomorrow’s mercies for tomorrow’s adequacy today for what we will have to troubles. “As your days so shall your go through tomorrow. But God says, “Trust strength be” (Deut 33:25). Don’t be anxious me. I will give it to you when you need it.” about tomorrow. The troubles and the mer- Let me illustrate what I am saying by cies are appointed day by day. the following story. In 1931 a missionary named John Vinson was working in North ENDNOTES China. An army of bandits swooped down 1This story is taken from The Elizabeth on his village looting, burning, and killing. Elliot Newsletter, March/April 1994. They took 150 Chinese and Vinson captive. When the government troops pursued, the bandits offered Vinson his freedom if he would write a letter to the commanding officer of the government troops asking him to withdraw. Vinson said, “Will you let the Chinese prisoners go free?” “Certainly not” was the reply. “Then I refuse to go free,” he said. That night the bandits tried to flee, taking Vinson with them. Many bandits were killed, and many of the captives escaped. Vinson could not run because of a recent 77 The SBJT Fo r u m : Applications of Counseling in Ministry

Editor’s Note: Readers should be aware of the forum’s format. D. A. Carson, Larry Crabb, Ed Welch, Mark McMinn, and Charles Tacklett have been asked specific questions to which they have provided written responses. These writers are not responding to one another. The journal’s goal for the Forum is to provide significant thinkers’ views on topics of interest without requiring lengthy articles from these heavily-committed indi- viduals. Their answers are presented in an order that hopefully makes the forum read as much like a unified presentation as possible.

SBJT: What practical advice would you ing is more effective than preaching) or give to young pastors who want to be from sheer necessity (because the careful and faithful in the counseling demands for counseling never go away), components of their ministry? Greek exegesis and homiletic excellence D. A. Carson: These issues are not only are devoured by Freud and Jung, or at complex, but their complexity is com- least by Larry Crabb. pounded by the harsh reality that today What follows are far too many points. people adopt highly polarized positions Their strengths are: (a) their individual on these matters. Some are suspicious of brevity, and (b) the fact that I might easily almost all counseling. Naturalistic struc- have trebled the list! tures of thought govern the dominant psy- (1) For our purposes, “Christian coun- chological theories, it is argued, and those seling” is nothing more than what takes who train in such traditions are almost place when a Christian who in some area always tainted by them. What we need is is more informed or more mature helps more biblical preaching and teaching. another person, usually a Christian, or Others concede a place to psychiatrists another Christian pair or family, to gain when there is an organic problem (e.g., a similar maturity or help in that area. Of D. A. Carson is Research Professor chemical imbalance in the brain), but not course, such advice and help can take of New Testament at Trinity Evangelical elsewhere. On the other hand, many pas- place on an informal basis at countless lev- Divinity School in Deerfield, Illinois. He tors spend less and less time on sermon els in the church, but when its structure is is the author of numerous commentar- preparation, swamped as they are by more formal, it is appropriately called ies and monographs, and is one of this seemingly endless demands for counsel- “counseling.” country’s foremost New Testament ing. The moral structures of our culture (2) Pastors must be deeply committed scholars. Among his books are Divine are falling apart, and people need help. to the priority of what has traditionally Sovereignty and Human Responsibility Sermons merely introduce people to been called “the ministry of the Word.” But (John Knox Press, 1981; reprint, Baker, broader truths and principles, these pas- the ministry of the Word must not be 1994) and The Gagging of God: Chris- tors argue; beyond that, individuals need restricted to preaching on Sunday and the tianity Confronts Pluralism (Zondervan, individual help. So whether from choice odd group Bible study. The ministry of the 1996). (because some pastors think that counsel- Word is a comprehensive category. Doubt- 78 less its high point is public preaching and Thus the faithful and penetrating applica- teaching, but it ought to take place in every tion of the Word, whether in one-on-one conversation in which a Christian is help- sessions (hence counseling) or in large ing another, especially another Christian. public meetings of the entire body, is the It follows that counseling, as here under- crucial means on which we should rely, stood, should have as one of its aims to rather than on the mere form of com- teach the Word of God, especially as that munication, whether counseling or some- Word is applied to the problem or need or thing else. challenge at hand. (5) Many, many, personal problems are (3) That in turn means that pastors intimately tied to poor relationships. But should build files on appropriate passages that means that when the church of God, to use for a wide array of circumstances: empowered by God’s Spirit, is functioning for the bereaved, for the abused, for those in line with the gospel, it becomes a home. consumed by guilt, for the apathetic, for The body of Christ respects and encour- the discouraged or the lonely, for young ages its weakest members. Mutual encour- couples seeking counsel in preparation for agement and admonition abound. The marriage, for those facing death, for the solitary individual Christian is embedded abused, for the postmodern seeker, and on in the Christian family. In other words, on and on. Do not merely make lists of such the long haul the transforming gospel of passages, but add to the lists, study the Christ ought to build a Christ-centered passages, understand them well and know community of believers, with the result that how to teach them. Develop illustrations many ordinary problems of poor relation- that flow from them. As often as possible, ships will dissolve or be handled (super)- use your Bible openly in such sessions, and naturally within the life of the community. insist that the person seeking counsel is to (6) In line with your particular respon- bring and use their Bible as well. Under- sibilities in ministry, budget certain hours stand that counseling, properly done, is for counseling, and, apart from emergen- part of the ministry of the Word. cies, do not exceed those hours. That means (4) Be properly suspicious of those who that if Mr. Jones asks to see you, and all think that conversion means nothing more your counseling hours are booked for the than sort of tipping people inside, while next two weeks, gently probe to make sure the real life-changing power is counseling. that what is on his mind is not in any sense This anemic view of the gospel turns out an emergency, and book him into your first to be a self-fulfilling prediction: it will free slot. But do not increase the number guarantee that your presentation of and of hours you allot to counseling, unless it experience of the gospel will be anemic. is a principled decision, and not the deci- The gospel, holistically considered, is the sion of pressure for more. The reason, of power of God unto salvation. It restores us course, is that in many churches counsel- to God, and it transforms us—partly in this ing could easily devour more and more of life, and climactically at the resurrection. your hours, until you are finding no time In line with Jesus’ prayer, one of the means for praying, no time for basic administra- the gospel uses is God’s truth: “Sanctify tion, and, worst of all, no time for study them by the truth,” Jesus prays to his and preparation. You end up robbing the Father; “your word is truth” (John 17:17). flock of God of the nourishment they des- 79 perately need from their under-shepherd, ral demand is trickier. It is found in the because you are spending all your time person who could be improving with time, with a handful of troubled sheep. but instead is nurturing the problem, feed- (7) Almost every church has a few ing the sin. Sustained and carefully main- troubled souls who will happily eat up tained bitterness is a good example. You every hour you give them. Like death itself, might like to think that this will improve they always want more, and, for whatever as the months or years go by, but some- reason, they never change. Identify such times it simply gets worse. In such cases people, and refuse to give them much time. you may be wise to demand change, to set Some of them need nothing more than concrete goals, to assign homework—and companionship and a sympathetic ear, and if these things are not done, you will not in due course you can develop a kind of see them again. The homework may junior tier of helpers who will devote some involve memorizing some substantial pas- of their week to bringing encouragement sages of Scripture, writing a letter asking and patience to these tried and trying for forgiveness, re-establishing a broken people. In other words, try to make some friendship. But do not permit your hours provision for them, but under no circum- of counseling to be chewed up by people stance may you justly permit them to take who want a sympathetic ear regarding up much of your time. You are called to their “problems,” but who frankly refuse evangelize, make disciples, and engage to address those problems. Where possible, heartily in the ministry of the Word and set achievable goals, and hold people prayer. You are not fulfilling your calling accountable. if you spend substantial numbers of hours (9) Work hard to maintain, so far as each week holding the hands of those practicable, biblical terminology and bib- who will never have enough and who will lical categories. Counselors in the secular never change. world refer to those who come to them (8) Many problems people face take time as “clients” or, in the case of psychiatrists, to heal. Nevertheless, it is helpful to dis- sometimes “patients.” Avoid those catego- tinguish between two different kinds of ries: you are a pastor, and such terms are temporal demands. The first kind almost loaded with overtones you do not want to always improves with time. The extraor- foster. The panoply of Freudian or Jungian dinary loneliness of bereavement, and the categories can, if given free rein, so domes- pain of abandonment engendered by a ticate the gospel that you end up selling divorce precipitated by a marriage partner your gospel heritage for a mess of psycho- who has run off with someone else, are two logical pottage. This does not mean that good examples. In the early stages, you will there are not important lessons to be be wise to spend extra time with such learned from others. It means that ideally people. But others can often share the the best lessons need to be transmuted into burden, and in due course such people biblical categories, so that people instinc- usually return to an even keel, and, in tively turn to their Bibles as the supreme God’s mercy, often become people who can source of help. That often means learning help others who go through similar trials. where the secular categories are properly So mark such people well, and find ways related to biblical themes, and where they to use them. But the other kind of tempo- are not. Perhaps no topic of this sort is more 80 important than questions relating to people, and our spiritual state, our emo- “self-esteem,” which is scarcely a biblical tional well-being, our perceptions of things, label, but which can certainly be tied and the chemical balances in our brains can appropriately (and terribly inappropri- all be related to one another in subtle ways. ately!) to various biblical themes. But that A Christian going through treatment for would take another article! cancer may suffer some depression. But is (10) Don’t bluff. Admit what you do not this depression generated by a fear of know. Keep a list of people you can con- death? Or has the constant nausea from sult to fill in the many gaps where you find chemotherapy driven the person down? Or your information or training wanting. If have some of the side effects of the anti- while counseling someone you find your- nauseants kicked in (for some of them are self coming to the end of your resources, known to depress some people)? Or is the tell the person you are helping that you will depression a subtle mix of all of these fac- try to find better responses and more pen- tors, and more? You may be able to help etrating biblical insight before you meet this Christian think more clearly about again. This is especially important for death, and trust Christ more knowledge- young pastors whose experience is still ably and confidently as the resurrected quite limited, whether the cases they are Lord who has triumphed over death. But dealing with are “ordinary” or extraordi- even if the depression owes much of its narily convoluted. power to the drugs being used, the ongo- (11) How much more important is it, ing depression may be interpreted by this then, to develop strong ties with medical believer as irrefutable evidence that he or people and with experienced counselors she is not really trusting the Lord, and the when you are uncertain if you are facing depression may deepen. Once again, good things like bipolar disorders, the onset of medical advice is crucial: the right antide- schizophrenia, and things of that order. The pressant might be a gift from God. list of things that a pastor should not (14) Preserve a healthy place for com- handle is not nearly as long as many pro- mon sense! I have counseled people who fessional psychologists and psychiatrists seem to be in danger from complex and think, but you should become aware of subtle pressures and broken relationships, what is on the short list! when a little probing and a modicum of (12) Recognize that there are often prob- sense made it pretty clear that what this lems behind the problems, sins behind the person needed above all was a little less sins, patterns behind the patterns. A stress and a good deal more sleep. Some- marriage that is falling apart, or a woman times the godliest thing in the universe is sliding into deeper depression, may have to go to bed and sleep. lurking in the background suppressed (15) Never overlook the profound bitterness and fear stemming from child importance of the gospel insight that you abuse during childhood or puberty. Coun- find your life by losing it, you receive by selors in the Puritan tradition were con- giving, you live by dying. Some cranky and sidered particularly penetrating in their miserable people have matured remark- “cure of souls.” That part of evangelical ably in a matter of weeks, when they have heritage needs to be restored. been directed to help out in an AIDS clinic, (13) Never forget that we are complex take on some responsibility in a boys club, 81 join a prison ministry, teach an inner-city that your youth pastor has been sleeping kid how to read, learn how to share the with one or more of the young people in gospel effectively, or the like. One pastor I his care, in addition to securing sound and know was on the edge of resigning from godly advice from more senior pastors who the ministry, beaten down by cynics, little have faced such a crisis and handled it well, fruit, frustration, and loneliness. I asked you must be clear as to the age in your state him when was the last time he had actu- at which the issue extends beyond forni- ally explained the gospel to someone in cation to statutory rape. If statutory rape detail. He looked startled. With a little help, is involved, the youth pastor has not only he started two evangelistic groups, and sinned, but committed a crime, and the recruited and trained others to do the same. police must be notified. Not only because A year later he is full of the joy of the Lord, our society is terribly litigious, but also seeing people being converted, and leav- because we want both to be clean and to ing the whiners to gripe in peace while be seen to be clean, it is becoming increas- he gets on with the ministry of the Word ingly urgent, in several domains, to become and prayer. A great many counselors, familiar with the relevant law. Nowadays including pastoral counselors, do not con- there are seminars, essays, and even books scientiously aim to draw every person to that sometimes help. God-centeredness, to Christ-centeredness, (19) Learn how to talk about death; removing them from the ugly focus on self learn how to prepare people to die. Chris- and self-fulfillment that degrades so much tians used to be known as those who knew of our culture and is nothing more than how to die well. Nowadays we are not ruinous and odious idolatry. very differentiable from the world in this (16) Take notes. Often this should be respect. This abdication of Christian done after the person has left, but take responsibility must be overthrown. notes. The weakest ink (or computer (20) Be very careful about using record) is stronger than the strongest examples from your counseling as direct memory. Besides, notes will help you to illustrations in your sermons. In addition plan ahead, to think through relevant pas- to the offense you may cause to the person sages in advance of the next session, to dis- you have counseled, you may unwittingly cipline your prayer life for these people. prompt some others to conclude, “Well, I Make sure such notes are secure, especially will never seek counsel from him. I may end if others in the church commonly have up as a sermon illustration.” access to your study (and note: I said (21) Although I am a bit suspicious of Larry Crabb is founder and director “study,” not “office”!). certain kinds of group therapy in the con- of New Way Ministries, Scholar in Resi- (17) Read widely—occasionally in the text of pastoral ministry, sometimes it is an dence at Colorado Christian University, more popular counseling literature, but effective way for those facing similar chal- Morrison, Colorado, and Spiritual Direc- more systematically in serious treatments lenges to help and support one another, to tor of the American Association of Chris- from different perspectives, including those bear one another’s burdens (which is tian Counseling. His many books include of secularists, those who are attempting surely a biblical injunction). The Pressure’s Off: There’s a New Way theological integration, and historical to Live (WaterBrook Press, 2002) and examples (such as the Puritans). SBJT: What Should Christians Be Wary Soultalk: The Language God Longs for (18) Become acquainted with relevant of in Contemporary Psychology? Us to Speak (Integrity Publishors, 2003). legal issues. For example, if you discover Larry Crabb: When I first enrolled in the 82 University of Illinois’ doctoral program in above the latter and you lose both. clinical psychology, nearly forty years ago, But contemporary psychology, which in I hoped to become a good psychologist its clinical application remains as much a who happened to be a Christian, like philosophy as a science, dismisses such plumbers or surgeons or advertising thinking with a wave of its non-scientific executives who were competent in their hand. Medieval nonsense. Dangerous professions and, oh by the way, were also fanaticism. Muddle-headed religion. And Christians. It caught me badly off guard we are left with personally satisfying when, in my first year of training, a dis- adjustment to this world as our aim in life. turbing thought occurred to me. To be a Augustine’s ancient psychology, espe- psychologist (more precisely, a psycho- cially in Confessions, deserves appreciative therapist) who happened to be a Chris- study. The psychology of medieval Chris- tian was, in at least one respect, like being tian mystics merits close attention. Even a thief who happened to be a Christian. better is the pre-modern psychology of stu- Both professions required compromise dents of human nature such as Bunyan, with convictions essential to Christianity. Owen and other Puritans, and Jonathan A thief makes a living by transgressing Edwards. Their thinking is filled with gold a moral standard that the Bible clearly for today’s Christian to mine. upholds. A psychologist, if he remains true But psychology since Freud should to his training, makes a living by violating never be approached as authoritative, only an even higher biblical value. His clinical catalytic. I regularly read works by secular work assumes that relief of pain in the soul psychologists to wake up to questions I for the client’s experience of comfort is a might not otherwise ask, questions like— greater good than walking through that why do some teenage girls and not others pain to a deeper trust in God for the sake starve themselves, or what makes an older of His pleasure. Christian woman I know cut her wrists Psychotherapy, a term which literally when she has no intention to commit sui- means to promote the well-being of a cide and why does she feel no pain when human soul, is a grand and ultimately she does so, or what’s going on inside a futile effort to arrange for personal fulfill- gifted pastor when he finds the urge to ment by rearranging the flesh. By “flesh,” download pornography irresistible? I mean the self-obsessed energy in all of us If I did not explore the thinking of that attempts to match personal desires sensitive (and to my knowledge secular) with present opportunities for satisfaction. thinkers like psychiatrist Irvin Yalom and The therapeutic culture sees no relationship psychologist Hans Strupp, I might (or an inverse one) between soul health and approach anorexics, cutters, and pornog- self-abandonment to God. raphers with simplistic accountability We moderns are forever indebted to (“Just stop it!”) or sentimental support Jonathan Edwards for surfacing an often (“I care. I’ll listen. I won’t judge.”) and think hidden truth, that the unquenchable long- it’s biblical. ing for deep joy in every human soul and But I must be careful. Contemporary an utter yieldedness to God for His glory psychology is largely reductionistic, are beautifully compatible, if the latter is empirical in its epistemology even about valued above the former. Value the former matters that can be known only through 83 revelation, and unashamedly Ptolemaic. soul is not from damage to healing, it is Let me briefly explain. from self-obsession to God-obsession. It is Despite a developing accommodation to not from emptiness to the experience of the culture’s surging interest in spiritual- fulfillment in this world. It is from proud ity, most psychological theory has a dis- and terrified independence to humble and tinctly unsupernatural view of the soul. I trusting dependence until we are home. have not read a secular psychology text that Christian counseling is a good thing, if declares man to be an image-bearing cre- by the term we mean wise, caring follow- ation of God designed for enjoyment of ers of Jesus speaking with spiritual authen- divine community who has fallen into ticity and power into the souls of struggling immoral narcissism that requires both people with the vision of awakening and forgiveness and radical transformation by nourishing their desire for God until it rules God. Reduce your view of people to some- their lives. And it is a good thing when thing less, and everything—–your under- Christian counselors read contemporary standing of problems, your definition of psychology to provoke more questions and health, your hope for getting healthy—falls harder thought. off target. But when we accommodate psychology And the core human fault is misunder- by letting human desires become the stood. The fault of rebellion against God center of our concern; when we pit their that results in self-obsession is obscured satisfaction against the call to self-sacrifice, beneath elaborate discussions of psycho- brokenness, and repentance; when we pathology that invite empirically validated favor experts of the psyche who treat dis- treatment rather than biblically revealed order over elders of the soul who shepherd redemption. The effect is to value profes- pilgrims on their journey to God; when we sional involvement and insight over divine rely on empirical research and psychologi- forgiveness and transformation. cal theory to guide our helping efforts more And the person is still central, in the than biblical study and theological reflec- spirit of first century physicist Claudius tion, then we are in danger of becoming Ptolemy who wrongly declared that the counselors who happen to be Christians. sun revolves around an immobile earth. We And that is not a good thing. We might as Ed Welch is a counselor, faculty are in desperate need of a spiritual Coper- well become Christian thieves. member, and Director of the School of nican revolution patterned after Nicholas Biblical Counseling at the Christian Copernicus. After 1500 years of Ptolemaic SBJT: What Is Happening in Counseling Counseling and Education Foundation error, Copernicus insisted that it is we on Today? and Professor of Practical Theology at earth who move around a stable sun in a Ed Welch: Counseling and psychotherapy Westminster Theological Seminary in relationship of subordinate dependence. seem to have emerged ex nihilo during the Glenside, Pennsylvania. He is the author Psychology remains Ptolemaic. If there is 1960s. Suddenly, psychotherapists were of When People Are Big and God is a God, He is here for us. If your religious on the scene and the church was becom- Small (Presbyterian and Reformed, views promote your well being, fine. If not, ing psychologized. The ascendency of 1997), Blame It On The Brain (Presby- change or dismiss them. The notion that counseling, however, has its historical rea- terian and Reformed, 1998), Addictions: we exist for God in a subordinate relation- sons. Secular counseling emerged out of A Banquet in the Grave (Presbyterian ship of profound dependence is offensive a World War II economy in which the and Reformed, 2001), and numerous to the world view of psychology. Christians government employed thousands of psy- articles. need to remember that the journey of the chologists to develop tests that could place 84 military personnel in suitable positions. sought to be faithful to Scripture, alert to When the war was over, the government cultural issues, and open to critique. kept many of these psychologists in the The primary task of biblical counseling Veteran’s Hospital system and they began today is to broaden and deepen the theory to expand their domain beyond testing and practice of personal ministry. A second- into what we know as psychotherapy and ary task is apologetic. Anytime Scripture pastoral care. is fundamental to our thinking and prac- Secular counseling’s analogue in the tice, we will make distinctions, be alert to church is the one-to-one ministry of the doctrinal error and vulnerability, and, in word, and this has been with the church dialogue, work to persuade others of the since its inception. The reason secular psy- truth while we ourselves learn from oth- chologies gained authority in pastoral care ers and are persuaded by the truth. With was that from the 1920s to the 1970s the this secondary task in mind, here are a few church was occupied by liberalism and the areas within Christian counseling that end times, and developments in pastoral Scripture tags as being areas of concern. care languished. Into the breach stepped a An assumption within most Christian Christianized version of psychotherapy. counseling is that we are a composite of Today there are three recognizable body, soul, and spirit. In the early years of groups in the broader counseling field: Christian counseling the motto was, “the secular counseling, Christian counseling, spirit to the pastor, the body to the physi- and biblical counseling. Secular counseling cian, and the soul to the psychologist.” This comes out of models of the person and simplistic perspective has never been change that try to explain the person apart replaced. The result is that within Chris- from God. Christian counseling consists of tian counseling anything labeled psycho- Christians who counsel. Its sympathies are logical is not directly under Scripture’s or with the triad of secular theories, Scripture, spiritual jurisdiction. Therefore, theories and the professional therapeutic commu- that have conflicted with Scripture have nity. Biblical counseling attempts to have been allowed into the Christian counsel- its theory and practices emerge from Scrip- ing fold without a careful look at their ture and its goal is to work under and with assumptions. Biblical counseling opts for the church. a human duality in that we are a unity of Biblical counseling was considered the spiritual and physical substance, and the counseling gadfly until the 1990s. Today it expanse of human problems can be under- is busting loose from old stereotypes. In the stood with those two categories. 1970’s and 1980’s, biblical counseling was Christian counseling has not really associated with the writings of Jay Adams. examined the dynamics of the human His 1970 book, Competent to Counsel, was a heart. It tends to focus on pain and vic- landmark work that was catalytic for pas- timization, which Scripture certainly tors and counselors. For the fifteen years addresses at length with its pervasive con- after Competent to Counsel, Adams domi- cern about justice, but Christian counsel- nated the biblical counseling landscape. ing ends with a passive view of the human Since the early 1980’s, however, other condition. Rarely does it get to the funda- authors have broadened the movement mental concerns of the heart. Biblical coun- and produced new biblical work that has seling highlights victimization when 85 appropriate, but it does this within its professional counselors. What we do not teaching about a heart that is always active. always realize is that these counselors func- The basic idea is this: the heart establishes tion as adjunct pastoral staff. But, unlike spiritual allegiances. In our hearts we know ordained pastoral staff, counselors are God and his law, and in our hearts we turn unexamined and unaccountable, and their either away from God or toward him. counsel can be out of step with the preach- Everything is referenced to the true God. ing and teaching ministries of the church. Everything is personal. It is in the heart that As such, if a counselor is meeting with a God’s communication collides with the church member, consider asking some distorted messages from the demonic king- questions: dom and where choices are made and a life is either won or lost. • Of what church are you a mem- ber? • Would you give permission to talk • Whom do you love (Deut 6:5; with your pastor in order to have a 1 John 2:15)— the world or Jesus? recommendation? • Whom (or what) do you worship • What is your training in Scripture? (2 Kings 17:36)—idols or God? • Are you familiar with the dis- • Whom will you serve (Matt 6:24)— tinctives of our church? Do you money or God? agree with those values? How do • Whom do you obey (1 John 3:10)— you incorporate them into the coun- the devil or God? seling? • For whose glory do you live (Rom • How do you approach confidenti- 1:21-23)— your own or God’s? ality? Will you make an effort to • Where is your treasure (Matt obtain a release of information so 6:21)—in the world or in Christ? you can communicate freely with • To whom do you belong (John relevant pastoral staff? 8:44)—the devil or God? • Are you pleased to have someone • Whom do you trust (Jer 17:5-8)— from the pastoral staff or another other people or God? member of the church come in dur- ing the actual counseling sessions, These are the questions confronting the assuming the counselee agrees to it? • What is the place of the gospel in heart and they are the critical questions of the counseling process? Are there human life. There are none deeper. psychological problems that can’t be Christian counseling’s professional and deeply answered with the gospel? • What is your basic philosophy of secular instincts suggest that specialized counseling? Do you follow a particu- knowledge is necessary for change. Bibli- lar school of thought? Is there a person’s name or a particular book cal counseling recognizes that some people that summarizes your approach? are more gifted than others but it tries to maintain Scripture’s populist ethos. Wis- This is not to single out Christian coun- dom is in the public domain, and it should seling. We all live under the light and gaze always have direct and overt links to the of the Spirit working through the Word, gospel itself: Christ and him crucified. As and none of us has the perfect theological such, if biblical counseling is communi- system. Instead, we all seek to walk hum- cated clearly, it should be simple and avail- bly before the Lord, repent when we see able to the child who is being bullied in sin, search Scripture, submit to ecclesiasti- school and sophisticated to the scholar. cal authority, sharpen others and be sharp- Given the differences among counse- ened by them, and, together, bear fruit as lors, the church should be alert. Most every we minister in the name of Jesus. church has members who meet with 86 SBJT: How can Christian counselors bet- sion. We evaluated his self-talk and made ter incorporate the doctrine of sin in their some systematic adjustments to the way counseling? he looked at himself and others, and ulti- Mark R. McMinn: Any integrative mately he started feeling much better. Sev- endeavor that brings together the Chris- eral months after he finished treatment, I tian faith with contemporary methods of learned that he had sexually abused his counseling should be bi-directional. In one niece for several years when she was a direction, our views of counseling should child. I pondered my therapeutic interven- be transformed by Christian perspectives tion, and though it may have been of some on sin. In the other direction, our under- use to him, I think that I missed something standing of sin can be enriched through much more important. I suspect he came findings of scientific psychology. to my office longing for a place where he could confess and enter the long spiritual Transforming our Views of process of repentance and restitution; per- Counseling with the Doctrine haps he even hoped for forgiveness and of Sin some measure of reconciliation. What he After many years of providing psycho- got instead was altered self-talk. The thera- therapy and studying the scientific litera- peutic systems that I learned in graduate ture on its effectiveness, I am convinced school and in my postdoctoral training did that good therapy works because it is a not provide the language of sin that might place that emulates grace. It is a place of have cleansed this man deeply. How sad acceptance and mercy, a place where sins that we missed such an opportunity for and consequences of sins can be openly contrition and healing. explored without the fear of judgment. This I do not sit with my clients and tell them frees people to look honestly at themselves, they are a mess, and I do not begin each to become more open in their other rela- session with, “Hey, sinner, how are you tionships, and to move forward into richer today?” In fact, I rarely use the word “sin” and deeper connections with those they in my sessions. But I have learned to value love. Sadly, some therapists have lost the a theological understanding of sin when I language of personal sin and focus only on think about the mess we are all in—clients, how the client has been hurt by others. therapists, and everyone else. If I fail to Others have overcompensated by focusing allow my clients the privilege of confession Mark R. McMinn is the Rech exclusively on personal sin and neglecting and repentance, I risk providing symptom Professor of Psychology at Wheaton the ways clients have been harmed by relief while robbing them of the chance to College in Wheaton, Illinois. He is the others. In either case such therapy is ren- turn around and take the first step on their author of Psychology, Theology, and dered half-effective. A place of grace needs journey of deep healing and change. Spirituality in Christian Counseling to be a place of open exploration and (Tyndale, 1996) and co-editor of Care acceptance, where both sin and conse- Enhancing our Understanding of for the Soul: Exploring the Intersection quences of sin can be named and grieved. Sin through Scientific Psychology of Psychology and Theology (Inter- In short, psychotherapy works because of It is quite a paradox for me to argue that Varsity, 2002). Portions of this forum its faint resemblance to the greatest story psychology, a discipline that rarely dis- are excerpted from his forthcoming of all time. cusses sin, can be helpful in fleshing out a book, Why Sin Matters: The Surprising Early in my career I met with a man for Christian understanding of sin. It is sur- Relationship between Our Sin and God’s six months to help him with his depres- prising to learn that many findings from Grace (Tyndale, 2004). 87 scientific psychology, when viewed so on. So how do we explain good out- through a lens of Christian theology, can comes? Scores of research studies demon- help us understand how our sin nature strate that we tend to take personal credit affects our everyday life. I have often when good things happen (I deserve it, I wished that seminary students were am a hard-worker, I am smart, and so on). required to take an introductory psychol- When something bad happens, we blame ogy course—taught from a theistic perspec- others. When something good happens, we tive—to better understand the wonders take credit for it. and brokenness of our human condition. It gets even more complicated when There is much that could be written on looking at bad events that happen to others. this topic, but in a short forum such as this When something bad happens to us, we I will limit my discussion to the topic of blame others; but when something bad pride. For centuries pride has been consid- happens to others, we tend to explain it as ered chief among the deadly sins—the sin being their own fault. from which other evils emerge. Not sur- Many of these attitudes are not deliber- prisingly then, one of the clearest conclu- ate acts of sin—in fact, we are probably not sions from scientific psychology is that we even aware of them—but they reflect what are proud. it means to be fallen humans living in a Like Yogi Bear—who claimed to be sinful state, and they have obvious impli- “smarter than the average bear”—most of cations for the life and work of Christian us see ourselves as smarter than we really counselors. Sin exacts a toll where it costs are. We also claim to be better leaders, bet- the most—in our close connections with ter workers, better parents and spouses, one another. Even if our relationships have better friends, and better money manag- not been jolted with the “big sins” of ers. Not only do we perceive ourselves as betrayal, they are still tainted by the daily more capable than we really are, we also sin of pride. We see ourselves more highly perceive ourselves to be more upright and than we ought, and those we care about moral than most others. People think they most have the same problem. We see oth- are better than others—more ethical, con- ers more negatively than we ought, and siderate, industrious, cooperative, fair, and they look at us through the same negative loyal. One polling expert put it this way: filter. Over time we feel tired, burned out, “It’s the great contradiction: the average fatigued by the work of closeness. And it’s person believes he is a better person than because we are sinners who live with other the average person.”1 Sixteen centuries ear- sinners, each of us beset with pride. lier Augustine bemoaned: “[My] sin was Beneath the armor of our pride we live all the more incurable because I did not as vulnerable men and women longing to judge myself to be a sinner.”2 be loved and known. Our hope is found in We also express pride in how we per- cautiously shedding our armor in the ceive our own successes and failures as safety of caring relationships, acknowledg- well as those of others. When something ing that we are vulnerable and needy, and bad happens, we tend to explain it by say- clinging to the possibility of grace. The ing it is someone else’s fault. It was not a work of Christian counselors is to provide fair test, the person next to me was mak- a safe place where people can shed their ing noise, the professor teaches poorly, and 88 armor, look honestly at themselves, and Secondly, our most disheartening find- find grace. ing at this time is that about forty percent of our couples appear to be on a rapid ENDNOTES divorce trajectory. We estimate that these 1R. L. Berke, as cited in Nicholas Epley couples will likely be divorced in approxi- and David Dunning, “Feeling ‘Holier mately five to ten years. These couples Than Thou’: Are Self-Serving Assess- seem to be overwhelmed by living the ments Produced by Errors in Self or Christian life and have little idea about how Social Prediction?” Journal of Personality to take the text of scripture and apply it to and Social Psychology 79 (2000) 861–875. their marital relationship. 2Augustine, The Confessions of St. August- Thirdly, we estimate that the remaining ine, trans. Hal M. Helms (Brewster, MA: forty percent of our couples are on a slow Paraclete, 1986) 80. divorce trajectory. If these couples stay on this trajectory they will likely divorce SBJT: What Are the Characteristics of the between the fifteenth and twentieth years Godliest Couples that You Have Seen in of their marriage. If our marital research is Your Marital Research Lab to Date? correct, then approximately eighty percent Charles Tackett: At The Southern Baptist of the couples in our research studies are Theological Seminary, we have been headed down the road toward divorce. conducting a Christian marital research Obviously, this does not mean that eighty project among local couples. There are percent of our couples will divorce. The real several characteristics that my research problem is much more severe than eighty team has uncovered at this point in time. percent of our couples being on the road Please note that we consider our findings toward divorce. It is that only twenty per- to be preliminary. Before I discuss these cent of our couples have even the foggiest characteristics it is important that I estab- idea of how to live a godly life as individu- lish the percentages of couples who are als and then as a marital couple. living in a godly relationship as husband Now it is appropriate to begin to and wife. First, our early finds suggest that describe some of the godly characteristics only about five percent of our couples are that our best couples have as a part of their honestly experiencing a godly Christ- daily lives as husband and wife. First, our Charles W. Tackett is Associate centered relationship with each other. best couples have established an excellent Professor of Psychology of Religion and This finding has utterly shocked us. The biblical foundation for their marriage. Spe- Christian Counseling at The Southern research team expected to find that about cifically, their standard is that as followers Baptist Theological Seminary. Dr. Tackett thirty percent of our couples would dem- of Jesus Christ they must live a Christ- has extensive experience in Christian onstrate a godly marital relationship. We centered life before God and before one counseling. He has served congrega- have found that an additional fifteen per- another. Also, their marital life, how they tions as a pastor in Kentucky, Ohio, and cent of couples are on a journey toward relate to one another, must be character- Oregon and works as a licensed clinical godliness in their marital relationship. ized by Christ-centeredness. Our best psychologist with a counseling agency These couples are seeking to grow in god- couples understand that even in marriage in Louisville, Kentucky. His professional liness as individuals and to promote godly they are servants of Jesus Christ. One memberships include the Christian patterns of thinking, emotion, behavior, young husband said it best, “When I see Association for Psychological Studies and Christ-centered spiritual living toward my wife in times of agreement and dis- and the Kentucky Psychological Asso- each other. agreement I must see the Lord on the cross ciation. 89 dying for her.” He further said, “When I Second, these husbands understand that see her this way, I am reminded of how their wives are also their sisters in the Lord. much she means to the Lord.” This young They understand that they must some- husband has learned to see his wife as first times promote her growth into holiness belonging to Christ because he (Christ) is and that there will not be a direct benefit the one who has given her salvation that they as husbands receive from this through his shed blood. His love for his work. In fact they may actually pay a per- wife is deepened by his understanding of sonal cost of the loss of convenience in life the past and present work of Christ in and for this promotion of holiness. Finally, these through his wife. husbands know that they must promote A second characteristic of our best holiness as it pertains to their wives’ couples involves the issue of headship/ growth and development into their God- ownership. Our best couples realize that assigned roles and functions as wives. They the husband’s headship does not mean have learned that they must discover with that he owns his wife. These husbands their wives the depth of God’s work in and realize that they do not possess their wives through the wives. because they did not create or save their In most churches we assume that if our wives. Many Christian men act as if they Christian couples are still married then are not just the head of their wives, but are they must be acting in a “godly enough truly the owners of their wives. These way,” otherwise they would be getting Christian men believe that because of their divorced. As our findings indicate, this position of headship they have the right to assumption is not necessarily true. It is control their wives. Our best husbands essential that Christian couples understand demonstrate a sacrificial headship before that a marital life that honors Christ will their wives when they make sure to put yield tangible benefits in this life and in their wives’ concerns first most of the heaven. time in their marriages. So far, all of our best wives have responded to this type of sacrificial headship by putting their hus- bands’ concerns first. These best couples do argue with each other, but they demon- strate a tendency to argue for the other spouse’s position and needs. A third characteristic of our best couples involves how the husband leads in the promotion of holiness in his wife’s life. Our best husbands promote holiness with a spiritually natural three-fold method. First, they have learned to lead by being a model of holiness for their wives. They do not push their wives toward holiness. They allow the attractiveness of a life lived for Christ to draw their wives toward a greater commitment and experience of holiness. 90 91 Book Reviews

The Pauline Writings: An Annotated (on individual letters, again subdi- Too late for inclusion appeared the Bibliography. By Mark A. Seifrid and vided under nine headings), Pauline interesting study of Bo Reicke, Randall K. J. Tan. IBR Bibliographies Theology (Comprehensive Treat- Re-Examining Paul’s Letters: The History 9. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002, 245 pp., ments, Narrative Framework, God, of the Pauline Correspondence, ed. D. P. $24.99 paper. Christ, The Spirit, Salvation (thirteen Moessner, I. Reicke (London: SCM, subdivisions), Eschatology, Israel, The 2001). To the helpful IBR series of bib- Church (8 subheadings, including one For each title the full bibliographi- liographies, two New Testament on Baptism), and Ethics (four sub- cal information is provided (a list of scholars of The Southern Baptist headings)). The volume closes with a abbreviations is included, pp. 13-16) Theological Seminary in Louisville, name index. and a short summary of the content, Kentucky, have added a remarkable Out of the wealth and plethora of depending on the size and importance tool for New Testament Studies. The Pauline studies the authors have of the contribution under discussion. volume offers excellent orientation selected 846 contributions, be they The annotations are throughout con- for all students of Paul, scholars and commentaries, articles or mono- cise and offer accurate summaries and seminary students alike. While the graphs. As there is a limit due to the occasionally assessments of the title emphasis is on Paul’s writings, the format of the series, the authors had listed. The evangelical stance of the volume also offers good coverage of to choose carefully and have pre- authors is evident in that they include the life and ministry of Paul. sented an altogether well rounded, important conservative and evangeli- The following subjects are representative picture of current schol- cal contributions which are occasion- included: (1) Bibliographical Tools arship of Paul, while noting older con- ally neglected or ignored by others. and Surveys; (2) History of Modern tributions of importance that still There is a large amount of cross- Interpretation; (3) Paul’s Conversion shape the present discussion. While referencing which makes the volume and Call; (4) History and Chronology one could of course easily add further useful for reference beyond the vari- of Paul’s Mission; (5) Overviews of titles to their selection (already beyond ous headings listed above, for good Paul’s Life and Thought; (6) Paul and the original limits), there are few titles reasons: “Anyone who studies Paul First-Century Judaism; (7) Paul and one could forgo without loss. Despite will (or, at least, ought to) quickly the Greco-Roman World; (8) Paul and resolutions to the contrary, I cannot recognise that the whole of his Jesus; (9) Paul and Earliest Christian- resist the temptation to add and thoughts hangs together. If one pulls ity (Paul and the Hellenists, Hymns, would like to mention (as an addition any one string of it, one finds oneself Creeds, and Confessions, Paul and His to 11.5 Pseudonymity) the helpful unraveling the whole. That means that Opponents, Paul and James); (10) study of A. Baum, Pseudepigraphie especially in the theological sections Paul’s Influence on Early Christian und literarische Fälschung im frühen of this bibliography a good deal of Tradition; (11) The Letters of Paul Christentum: Mit ausgewählten cross-referencing is necessary in order (Literary Studies, Linguistics and Quellentexten samt deutscher Überset- to get a good grasp of any particular Discourse Analysis, Rhetorical Criti- zung (WUNT II, 138; Tübingen: Mohr topic” (11). cism (with four subdivisions), Episto- Siebeck, 2001; cf. my forthcoming In accordance with the readership lography, Pseudonymity, The Pauline review in Novum Testamentum) and the of the IBR series and recent develop- Corpus, Paul and the Old Testament, excellent survey of research by M. ments in Pauline studies the authors The Paul of the Letters and the Paul Theobald, Der Römerbrief (Erträge der concentrate on English contributions, of Acts, Commentaries (divided under Forschung 294; Darmstadt: Wissen- though some German (e. g. P. Stuhl- nine headings)); (12) Special Studies schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2000). macher, Das paulinische Evangelium, 92 # 648; W.-H. Ollrog, Paulus und seine has been very helpful and has offered bines theological vigor and careful Mitarbeiter; # 650; A. Schlatter, Der my students and me much guidance biblical analysis on the topic of spiri- Glaube im Neuen Testament, # 660 or K. and saved me a tremendous amount tual warfare with a practical and rel- Haacker, “Glaube”, TRE, # 664) are of work! For me the authors have evant application to every facet of the included. While several important achieved their goal of providing “a life of the local congregation. French contributions could be added guide that will make the research Perhaps the most remarkable (some contributions and translations easier and more efficient for all seri- aspect of this book is how far afield it into English are listed, e.g. nos. 268, ous students of the Bible” (from the is from most current discussion—on 756) from a European evangelical authors’ preface). all sides—on the question of spiritual perspective one would like to see Seifrid is known (among others; warfare. Some readers may wonder C. Spicq’s, Saint Paul: Les Épitres cf. nos. 58, 619, 706) for his recent what the book has to do with spiri- Pastorales, 4. ed., Études Bibliques contribution to and co-editorship tual warfare at all. There are no man- (Paris: J. Gabalda, 1969, 2 vols.) (together with D. A. Carson and P. T. tras for binding ancestral demons, no included in the commentaries on the O’Brien) of Justification and Variegated prayer-walking strategies for map- Pastorals with its thorough and Nomism: Volume I: The Complexities of ping territorial spirits, and no lists of staunch defense of Pauline authorship Second Temple Judaism, WUNT II, 140 the names, rank, and serial numbers (I, 157-214). (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck/Grand of demonic principalities and powers. In view of its importance to the Rapids: Baker, 2001) and his excellent And yet, Lawless also avoids the exegesis of the Corinthian correspon- Christ, Our Righteousness: Paul’s Theol- equally disturbing overreaction to dence, Romans, and for Paul’s life and ogy of Justification, New SBT 9 popular spiritual warfare discussions. theology (unity of the one church of (Downers Grove/Leicester: Inter- It is fashionable in some sectors of con- Jews and Gentiles, his salvation- Varsity Press/Apollos, 2000). servative evangelicalism to treat the historical thinking), and a growing very idea of spiritual warfare as a recent scholarly interest, one wonders Christoph Stenschke joke—with evangelical novels detail- whether the Pauline collection would Wiedenest Bible College, ing angel/demon skirmishes in the not have deserved a subheading Bergneustadt, Germany skies above Anytown as exhibit A of under Paul and Earliest Christianity the loss of the evangelical mind. Some (cf. e. g. D. Georgi, Der Armen zu Discipled Warriors: Growing Healthy of this is legitimate criticism of undue gedenken: Die Geschichte der Kollekte Churches That Are Equipped for Spiri- speculation and market-driven sensa- des Paulus für Jerusalem, 2. Aufl.; tual Warfare. By Chuck Lawless. tionalism. But a great deal of such Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2002, 224 pp., scoffing about spiritual warfare is just 1994 and B.- M. Kim, Die paulinische $11.99 paper. unrecognized anti-supernaturalism— Kollekte, TANZ 38; Tübingen, Basel: A. an unconscious genuflection at the Francke, 2002). Beyond its potential Evangelical theologian Carl F.H. graves of David Hume and Friedrich for ecumenical thought, the Pauline Henry once wrote that his prayer for Schleiermacher. Lawless cuts through collection also has a bearing on today’s the next-generation church was not both the silliness and the cynicism Christian-Jewish dialogue. necessarily for more theologians or with a balanced, biblical perspective I have used Seifrid and Tan’s vol- more evangelists, but for theologian- on spiritual warfare. “Spiritual war- ume with great profit during the last evangelists and evangelist-theolo- fare isn’t about naming demons,” term in courses on The Life and Min- gians. Chuck Lawless is an answer to Lawless writes. “It’s about so living a istry of Paul, Exegesis of Romans, Henry’s prayer, as demonstrated by righteous life that our very life threat- New Approaches to the Exegesis of this helpful new volume on one of the ens the Enemy.” Romans, and Theology of Missions in most misunderstood ideas in contem- Lawless places the focal point of the New Testament. In all courses it porary evangelicalism. Lawless com- spiritual warfare where Scripture 93 does—on the life and mission of the Russell D. Moore place between dispensationalism and local congregation. He therefore pro- covenant theology. Covenant theology vides solid biblical, theological, and New Covenant Theology: Description, emphasizes the continuity between practical counsel on issues such as Definition, Defense. By Tom Wells and the OT and the NT, and typically worship, spiritual gifts, preaching, Fred Zaspel. Frederick, Maryland: argues that the moral law is norma- and pastoral leadership. This empha- New Covenant Media, 2002, xiv + 324 tive for today. For most exponents of sis is imperative for the contemporary pp., $19.95 paper. covenant theology the Sabbath com- church. After all, the apostle Paul mand is still in force, though the speaks of the very existence of the con- The relationship between the OT and injunction to rest is transferred to the gregation as a sign “so that through the NT, the law and the gospel, the Lord’s Day. Dispensationalism, even the church the manifold wisdom of old covenant and the new is one of with the changes that have been in- God might now be made known to the the most difficult problems in bibli- augurated with progressive dispen- rulers and authorities in the heavenly cal theology. No consensus has ever sationalism, stresses the discontinuity places” (Eph 3:10). The New Testa- been reached, and fresh proposals between the old covenant and the ment notes that the demonic powers from the standpoint of biblical theol- new, even though most dispensa- are scattered by the proclamation of ogy are welcomed. A new movement tionalists believe that the OT prophe- the gospel (2 Cor 4:4-6; Col 1:13) and within Reformed circles has been cies will be fulfilled literally in the through the sanctification of the developing for some years, and now, future. churches (Eph 6:10-18). And so, as in this work, we have a book length The hermeneutical principle of Lawless demonstrates, spiritual war- description and defense of what is NCT leads them in a different direc- fare means evangelistic, praying, called “New Covenant Theology” tion. Wells and Zaspel emphasize that disciple-making congregations on (henceforth NCT). Two prominent the Mosaic Covenant has come to an mission toward the fulfillment of the exponents of NCT have contributed end with the coming of Jesus Christ. Great Commission. to this work, Tom Wells and Fred Dividing the Mosaic law into the three Discipled Warriors is a helpful Zaspel. Both of these men serve as categories of civil, ceremonial, and resource for individuals confused pastors and have written various moral, and seeing the latter as still about spiritual warfare. But its useful- other studies over the years. One of binding is unpersuasive. The Sinai ness should not end there. Pastors can the virtues of this work is that is writ- Covenant has been set aside now that use this resource in a variety of ways— ten with a friendly and irenic spirit, Christ has come. Indeed, the Mosaic as part of Sunday school leadership even in the two chapters where they Covenant points to Christ and is ful- or deacon training as a church-wide respond to a recent book by Richard filled in Christ. They do not conclude discipleship curriculum or as part of Barcellos that critiques NCT. from this that believers are no longer new member orientation, for instance. What is NCT? NCT argues that the under moral norms. Rather, believers Such would serve to awaken Chris- scriptures should be interpreted in are subject to the law of Christ, and tians that the “ordinary” aspects of light of their eschatological fulfillment the law of Christ is discerned from the church life—witnessing, worship, in Jesus Christ. Whether we are speak- NT. Wells and Zaspel maintain that preaching, hospitality, etc.—are not so ing of OT sacrifices, the Passover, the many of the moral norms of the OT “ordinary” after all. They are instead temple, or the Mosaic law, all of these (nine of the ten commandments of the declarations of war against a rebel- OT practices and institutions must be Decalogue) continue to be normative. lious cosmic order that will one day understood in light of the newness They are normative, however, because collapse before the kingship of Christ. that has dawned with Jesus the Christ. they are part of Christ’s law, not That message can revitalize a congre- At first glance such a hermeneutical because they hail from the Mosaic law. gation with passion for the gospel and principle may seem to be uncontro- The Sabbath, on the other hand, is no longing for the Kingdom. versial, but NCT seems to occupy a longer binding upon believers. The 94 Sabbath points to the eschatological actually teaches that the law of Christ Abraham. rest believers have in Christ, and there is superior to and brings to an end the The authors may also underesti- is no need for believers to observe it specific Mosaic statutes addressed in mate the meaning of the commands today, for it was the sign of the Mosaic these verses. The text is extremely dif- in the Decalogue. The prohibition in Covenant that is no longer in force. ficult, but I am still more persuaded the tenth commandment against cov- The difference between NCT and by the view that Jesus rightly inter- eting may suggest that each one of the Covenant Theology is quite clear since prets misunderstandings of the OT commandments, even in their origi- the latter sees the Sabbath as norma- law. For example, the taking of oaths nal context, should not be limited tive for today. Wells and Zaspel con- is not absolutely prohibited by Jesus merely to external actions. Even centrate particularly on the role of the despite his words in Matt 5:33-37. We though Job did not receive the Torah, Mosaic Law, and in this sense they are see from Matt 23:16-22 that some his words in Job 31:1 seem to confirm closer to Dispensationalism. Still, the abused oath-taking through casuistry. this view in the injunction against hermeneutical principle, if applied An absolute prohibition of oaths is adultery: “I have made a covenant consistently, would likely lead to dif- also unlikely since Paul took oaths (cf. with my eyes; how then could I gaze ferent eschatological conclusions from Rom 1:9; 2 Cor 1:23), and even God at a virgin?” In some instances it seems what we see in Dispensationalism. swore by himself (Heb 6:13-17). Even that Wells and Zaspel strain to empha- Indeed, the hermeneutical principle of more important, Wells and Zaspel size the discontinuity between the OT interpreting the OT in light of the NT should clarify that NCT does not stand law and the law of Christ in order to is typical of the eschatology of most or fall on this issue in any case. Both emphasize the newness of what has who espouse Covenant Theology. truths may be explicated in Jesus’ min- come in Christ. But their basic thesis Hence, it may be the case that advo- istry, i.e., he rightly interprets the law can still stand even if the OT com- cates of NCT will truly occupy a place and he teaches that the law finds its mands are not merely external com- between Dispensationalism and Cov- fulfillment in Christ. Perhaps many mands. They rightly say that moral enant Theology. could agree that the content of the law norms for believers are summed up Wells and Zaspel focus on Matt of Christ is clarified through Jesus’ in Christ’s law, that Christ’s law 5:17-20 in four of their chapters and exposition of the law in Matt 5:17-20. includes many moral norms from the on the Sabbath in two others. Their Surely Matt 5:17-20 is important in OT, and that the Mosaic Covenant has interest is clearly in a proper under- determining one’s view of the law. been both abolished and fulfilled with standing of the law and its relevance Still, the authors provide little discus- the coming of Christ. for Christians today. They rightly sion of the Mosaic Covenant in its OT Tom Wells has an intriguing chap- argue that Matt 5:17-20 teaches that context. They discuss the OT law ter on creeds near the end of the book. the law reaches its eschatological ful- frequently and particularly the He worries that creeds may hinder us fillment in Christ and points to Christ. Decalogue, and yet the covenantal from engaging in biblical theology, They are also correct in saying that context in which the OT law is placed preventing us from seeing new truths Matt 5:17-20 points to discontinuity receives little attention. They empha- in God’s word. At the same time, he between the OT law and the NT law. size that the law cannot justify, but we acknowledges that creeds play an If Matt 5:17-20 teaches absolute conti- are not given much help in under- important role in codifying the essen- nuity, then it would follow that believ- standing the role of the Mosaic Cov- tials of the faith. He rightly suggests ers should practice circumcision and enant as a whole. One of the key issues that some matters in our creeds are observe food laws. But Matthew for NCT in the future is to explicate non-negotiables, while others are less clearly implies that food laws are no more fully in what sense the Mosaic important. This is an important word longer in force in Matt 15:1-20. On the Covenant is gracious and in what for Southern Baptists after the doctri- other hand, I am less convinced with sense it leads to death and is to be dis- nal conflicts of the last few years. The their contention that Matt 5:21-48 tinguished from the covenant with essentials of the faith must not be sur- 95 rendered. And yet there must be some an attempt to overcome the fragmen- faculty of the University of Glou- freedom to analyze creedal statements tation that sometimes characterizes cestershire, contributes a wonderful in the light of scripture. Otherwise, the theological projects, the editors inten- essay entitled, “A God for Life, and notion that scripture is our ultimate tionally chose contributors from both Not Just for Christmas! The Revelation norm becomes useless in practice. Our biblical studies and theological/ of God and Old Testament Wisdom seminaries must never deviate from philosophical studies in order to Literature.” Bartholomew provides orthodoxy, but neither should we produce a broader, more synoptic hermeneutical clues to help resolve allow our categories to become so approach to the crucial and founda- challenges to the veracity of wisdom hardened and rigid that any question- tional issue of the trustworthiness of literature (especially Proverbs and ing of confessional statements is God. The editors and most of the con- Ecclesiastes). He proposes the use of excluded. Otherwise, we are saying tributors come from the Reformed a broader “character-consequence that we have already arrived at a tradition. nexus” rather than the narrow “act- perfect expression of the truth— There are too many articles to consequence structure” which is often something rather hard to believe! In describe adequately in this review, but utilized to attempt to falsify a prov- conclusion, Wells and Zaspel have each article carries its own weight. erb. The truthfulness of the proverbs examined the relationship between This reviewer found a number of the is to be measured in reference to life- the Mosaic law and the law of Christ biblical studies articles to be particu- long character, not merely individual from the standpoint of biblical theol- larly helpful. These are not simplistic actions. Bartholomew proposes the ogy. In my mind their solution is defenses of God’s trustworthiness, but wise use of “contradictory juxtaposi- basically correct, but we can all be thoughtful essays which incorporate tion” in interpreting Ecclesiastes, in sharpened by further discussion and the best of contemporary hermeneu- which joyful “carpe diem” passages study. tics in defense of the truth of Scripture. are often juxtaposed with hebel (“van- The contributors not only construct ity”) sayings. These juxtapositions of Thomas R. Schreiner interesting defenses of the trust- opposites are intentionally enigmatic worthiness of God’s Word, but these and call upon the reader to trust God The Trustworthiness of God: Perspectives specialists also provide a useful sur- in the absence of clear understanding. on the Nature of Scripture. Edited by vey of current-day hermeneutical dis- Bartholomew also argues that wisdom Paul Helm and Carl R. Trueman. cussions within various genres of literature is grounded in the doctrine Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002, 303 Scripture. of creation, and thus should be given pp., $28.00 paper. Among the Old Testament con- a holistic reading rather than an tributors, Gordon McConville of the individualistic or privatized interpre- Few theological books are of such University of Gloucestershire in tation. quality that they deserve to be read “Divine Speech and the Book of P. J. Williams of Tyndale House in by every person in the theological Jeremiah” utilizes speech-act theory to Cambridge attempts to square the disciplines, but The Trustworthiness of construct a defense of the connection trustworthiness of God with the inci- God is just such a “must read” book. between both the book of Jeremiah dent in 1 Kings 22 in which the Edited by Paul Helm, Professor of and the speech of the prophet, and the prophet Micaiah first communicates theology and philosophy at Regent speech of the prophet with the speech a false message to the king of Israel, College, and Carl Trueman, Associ- of God. He argues, contra many con- and then God sends a “lying spirit” ate Professor of church history and temporary interpreters, that the book upon the prophet to deceive the king. historical theology at Westminster of Jeremiah is a reliable reflection of Williams outlines various possible Theological Seminary, the book con- not only the prophet’s speech, but of interpretive approaches while affirm- sists of sixteen essays written by an God’s words. ing that in the end, against all odds, international cast of contributors. In Craig G. Bartholomew, also on the the events come to pass precisely as 96 God had said they would, and the Timothy Ward, curate of Crow- Steve W. Lemke truthfulness of His Word is vindicated. borough in East Sussex, England, con- New Orleans Baptist Among the New Testament con- structs an interesting argument in Theological Seminary tributors, Donald Macleod of Free “The Diversity and Sufficiency of Church of Scotland College provides Scripture.” Addressing the post- A Dictionary of Samaritan Aramaic. By a thorough summary of Jesus’ use of modern themes of polyphony and Abraham Tal. Handbook of Oriental Old Testament passages in “Jesus and intertextuality, Ward proposes that Studies. Part 1 Ancient Near East, 50. Scripture.” Drake Williams, a minis- the various diverse genres of Scrip- Leiden: Brill, 2000, vol. 1: xlii + 446 ter in the Central Schwenkfelder ture be interpreted via “traditional pp., vol. 2: xliv + 524 pp., $276.00. Church and an adjunct faculty mem- intertextuality” (comparing various ber at Biblical Theological Seminary, canonical scriptural accounts) and The author, Emeritus Professor at Tel- contributes an interesting article that “canonically limited polyphony” Aviv University and presently editor utilizes a careful exegesis of Romans (theological affirmations from Scrip- of the Historical Dictionary of the 3:1-4, 9:6-29, and chapter 11 to link the ture are diverse, but neither monoto- Hebrew Language (The Academy of The faithfulness of God to Israel with the nous nor cacophonous). In perhaps Hebrew Language), is a recognized trustworthiness of God’s Word in the the best-argued article in the book, expert in Samaritan Aramaic. He has Old Testament Scripture. David Sebastian Rehnman of Johannlund published a critical edition of its major Instone-Brewer, also of Tyndale House Theological Seminary in Sweden text, Samaritan Targum of the Pentateuch in Cambridge, contributes a marvel- defends a realist conception of revela- (Tel-Aviv, 1980-83) and written exten- ous article on “Paul’s Literal Interpre- tion. sively on Samaritan Aramaic and tation of ‘Do Not Muzzle the Ox.’” The book concludes with two Hebrew as well as on Samaritan stud- Instone-Brewer argues that Paul’s interesting responses for which the ies in general. words should be understood literally editors unfortunately give no specific Samaritan Aramaic was the spoken (not allegorically) because the apostle explanation for their inclusion. Colin and literary language of the Samari- is utilizing the rabbinical hermeneu- Gunton of King’s College in London tan community in Palestine from tical technique of qal wahomer. , in which challenges Paul Helm’s assertion of approximately the second to the “ox” is understood as a shorthand for divine immutability, offering instead twelfth century AD when it suc- all animal and human servants. If an a Trinitarian theology that affirms cumbed to the influence of Arabic ox earns its reward through physical God’s constancy and calls upon the (following the rise of Islam) as well as labor, how much more should God’s church to model the trustworthiness to Medieval Hebrew. Although study servants deserve adequate compensa- and faithfulness of God. Francis of Samaritan Aramaic began in the tion for their spiritual labor? Watson of the University of Aberdeen western world in the seventeenth In the theological and historical contributes a concluding “Evangelical century, a reliable dictionary could not studies section, Gerald Bray’s article Response” which affirms that the be produced until the present time on “The Church Fathers and Their Use trustworthiness of God affirmed in because only in the last decades have of Scripture” provides a number of Scripture is seen most clearly through reliable critical editions of original illustrations of the confidence that the the gospel and Jesus Christ. texts in this dialect been produced. church fathers had in Scripture. Carl This gloriously diverse book The sources for A Dictionary of Trueman’s article emphasizes that the affords insights from a number of Samaritan Aramaic (DSA) cover three Protestant tradition is ectypal, not perspectives on the trustworthiness periods: (1) an early period up to the archetypal theology, and thus relies on of God. It is not easy reading, but the fourth century represented by the Scripture as a consequence of a high diligent reader will discover many family of MS J of the Samaritan degree of confidence in God’s trust- gems in this delightful and thought- Targum (ST), (2) a main period from worthiness to keep His promises. provoking volume. the fourth to tenth centuries repre- 97 sented by the family of MS A of ST, a and extant grammatical forms. This Biblical Theology: Retrospect & Prospect. chronicle called Asat. ır, liturgical approach, however, is abandoned Edited by Scott J. Hafemann. Down- poems, and a collection of Samaritan when few instances are found. ers Grove/Leicester: InterVarsity/ midrashim called Tibat°° Marqe, (3) a Michael Sokoloff, also an expert in Apollos, 2002, 300 pp., $25.00 paper. late period from the tenth century Aramaic and author of A Dictionary of onward represented by a chronicle Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzan- The death of biblical theology has called Tulida, which has many words tine Period (1990, 2002) and A Dictio- been proclaimed more than once in absorbed from Arabic and Hebrew. nary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the the last generation, and yet the disci- DSA is arranged by roots, like A Talmudic and Geonic Periods (2002), has pline continues to live on. This work Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old published a major review article of represents the essays delivered at the Testament by F. Brown, S. R. Driver, DSA in Aramaic Studies 1 (2003): 67- Wheaton Theology Conference of and C. A. Briggs. Since guessing the 101. In addition to the issues already 2000. As with other multi-author verbal root of a noun or adjective is raised, he notes that Tal rarely gives works we are not treated to a uni- difficult for the dictionary user and lexical parallels for derived words, dimensional program for biblical indeed scholarly guesswork by the and cites comparative material from theology, but a number of different lexicographer for many words, Tal the texts themselves, thus depriving proposals for the discipline. provides at the beginning an index of the reader of gaining information on The book begins with an essay by eighteen pages, three columns each, the range of usage listed by other the editor, Scott Hafemann, which to aid in finding words according to related lexicons. Also, apart from reflects the title of the book. He pro- their roots. While this arrangement ST, the texts are cited by manuscript vides the landscape for the direction follows the practice of early Arabic folio number rather than by page of the remainder of the book. The book dictionaries, most lexicographers of number in readily available editions. is split into four different sections: 1) Semitic languages have abandoned This does not help the average user. The OT as the foundation for biblical this practice in the last century and The citing of secondary literature is theology; 2) the witness of the NT as employed a strictly alphabetical one sided and focuses on Tal’s own the culmination of biblical theology; approach. In any case, the arrange- articles. Approximately 32 pages of 3) the unity of the Bible as the chal- ment of DSA entails a hybrid approach Sokoloff’s article consist of a list of lenge of biblical theology; and 4) the since loanwords must be listed alpha- corrections of errors, mostly due to prospect of biblical theology. The four betically. poor copy-editing. This reviewer sections will provide the outline for DSA is ostensibly bilingual giving noted an atrocious number of errors this review. equivalents and translations of texts in the English Introduction. The first section investigates the in Modern Hebrew and English. In spite of the drawbacks one OT as the foundation of biblical the- The constant shift between right-to- cannot but express profound gratitude ology. The authors in this part of the left and left-to-right modes of writing for a long labor of love giving us the book give brief descriptions of the task is difficult to follow at times. The first complete dictionary of Samaritan of OT theology or illustrate how it bilingualism, however, is deceptive Aramaic. Had the dictionary been should be carried out. John Sailhamer because often only the first illustrative properly reviewed before publication maintains that OT theology should text is translated into English and the both by other scholars as well as by focus on the final form of the text as rest are given only in Modern Hebrew. copy-editors, most of the problems we have it in the Hebrew Bible. Brian Thus DSA will be difficult for English could have been easily eliminated. Toews argues that Genesis 1-4 intro- readers to use. duces the OT as a whole and is pro- The entries for verbs which are Peter J. Gentry grammatic for the rest of OT theology. more prolifically used are divided into He relates the law, the prophets, and separate sections according to stems the writings to the inaugural chapters 98 in Genesis, highlighting the themes of perspectives. Greg Beale charts a course for NT God, his word, humankind, and the Richard Schultz surveys a number theology under the rubric “new cre- earth. William Dumbrell suggests that of different proposals for doing OT ation,” which functions under the Genesis 2:1-17 foreshadows the new theology by focusing on their work in umbrella of the “already but not yet.” creation. The Sabbath points to Genesis, including the work of Ronald Beale makes a good case for the eschatological rest, and the garden Clements, Brevard Childs, Frank- importance of the new creation theme, anticipates God’s sanctuary, which is Lothar Hossfeld, William Dumbrell, but it is doubtful that this theme cap- ultimately fulfilled in the new Jerusa- John Sailhamer, Paul House, Rolf tures the center of NT theology. Peter lem of Revelation 21-22. Adam is Rendtdorff, Bruce Birch, et al. Despite Stuhlmacher writes a partially auto- God’s priest-king in the garden, the common methodology shared by biographical essay on biblical theol- enjoined with the task to extend God’s many practitioners, Schultz argues ogy, reflecting on his writing and rule over the entire world. Dumbrell’s that in too many cases the actual shape teaching for many years. Stuhlmacher emphasis on the new creation antici- and structure of Genesis is ignored. insists that the central message of the pates Greg Beale’s essay in the NT Canonical theology should be wed- gospel can be discerned through his- section, though I am skeptical of ded to the literary features of the text. torical criticism and established on an Dumbrell’s suggestion that humans Gerald Wilson examines the exegetical basis. fell but nature is left untouched. A Psalms, directing our attention to the The third segment of the book tack- canonical reading, that includes Rom order of the collection and to the order les the issue of the unity of the Bible. 8:18ff, militates against such a conclu- and diversity of the Psalms. The mes- Christopher Seitz’s essay indicates sion. sianic configuration of the Psalms is that the conference was not one in One of the most fascinating essays particularly explored. Jay Wells articu- which all agreed. He disagrees is Stephen Dempster’s proposal lates the “figural” character of the bib- strongly with Hartmut Gese and Peter regarding the relationship between lical text which he thinks is central to Stuhlmacher that the canon of Scrip- geography and genealogy and domin- displaying canonical unity. He distin- ture was still open in the first century ion and dynasty. Dempster thinks the guishes his view from a typological A.D., insisting that it was closed before order of the Hebrew Tanak provides approach, but the definition he applies the coming of Christ. Nicholas Perrin the structure for doing OT theology. to figural representation could also be sets forth a dialogic conception of the Dempster helps us in particular to assigned to typology. unity of the testaments by applying perceive the importance of David Part two of the book presents the Hans Robert Jauss’s literary theory to for OT theology. Furthermore, he witness of the NT as the culmination the task of biblical theology. Stephen rightly discerns thematic connections of biblical theology. James Scott Fowl repristinates Irenaeus’s rule of between various books in the OT. Are focuses on the restoration of Israel as faith and rejects the historicism of Sailhamer and Dempster suggesting the basis for biblical theology. Scott Wrede and Räisänen in doing biblical that the Tanak represents the order for represents an approach to biblical theology. Daniel Fuller challenges doing OT theology or an order? The theology that is represented today in progressive dispensationalism and former hypothesis is too dogmatic and the scholarship of N. T. Wright. covenant theology to examine the would suggest that the early church Andreas Köstenberger usefully traces law-gospel from the standpoint of with its canonical order could not do the unity and diversity of the NT, biblical theology instead of pre- OT theology at the same level. We arguing for unity in diversity. He dis- conceived theological dogmas. Ted should expect, on the other hand, to avows a single center, maintaining Dorman compares and contrasts the discern illuminating connections in that it is “more promising to search for programs for biblical theology advo- the structure of the Tanak since OT a plurality of integrative NT motifs” cated by Oscar Cullmann and Francis theology can be studied profitably (154). The essay concludes by focus- Watson. Dorman, like Fuller and from a number of mutually enriching ing on God, Christ, and the gospel. apparently contra to Fowl, sides with 99 Cullmann, maintaining that we must acknowledged today. worship in all the wrong places—the explore matters like gospel and law roads to Canterbury, Constantinople, and justification and sanctification Thomas R. Schreiner or Rome. Hart’s analysis of contem- from the standpoint of biblical theol- porary evangelicalism is enriched ogy. Recovering Mother Kirk: The Case for with a keen eye for contemporary The book closes with part four Liturgy in the Reformed Tradition. By movements, and a rich historical which articulates the prospect for bib- D.G. Hart. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003, imagination. Hart is thus able, for lical theology. Paul House sketches in 263 pp., $24.99 paper. example, to draw on Gresham a program and approach for doing Machen’s role in the Fundamentalist- canonical biblical theology. House The evangelical marketplace is Modernist Controversy of the 1920s to believes that each book should be probably not going to be set aflame inform his analysis of the current investigated individually in pursuing by a volume advocating a “high- Evangelicals and Catholics Together biblical theology. Though such an church Presbyterianism.” That is phenomenon. approach is useful in delineating the precisely Hart’s point, however. With Despite these strengths, the volume distinctive themes of each writer, I am this book, he seeks to address first his has several problematic features. A hesitant to endorse this as the method own denominational kinsmen, call- key weakness of this volume is the for doing biblical theology. No one ing them to find their identity not just thinness of Hart’s biblical argument, method can capture the breadth and in doctrinal formulations, cultural if indeed one can say that there is a depth of the canon. Biblical theology transformation, or personal piety, but biblical argument to be found in these can also be prosecuted usefully with in the structure and worship of the pages. The Scripture index includes a thematic or historical approach, and church. In many respects, a Baptist less than 30 biblical references. Most thereby some connections will be evangelical reading this volume is of these are fleeting afterthoughts that evident that are not as clear in a eavesdropping on an ongoing con- barely touch on the biblical material. book-by-book approach. It must be versation among our Presbyterian Instead, Hart cites the Westminster acknowledged that no single brothers and sisters. It is, however, an Confession of Faith—chapter and approach can elucidate the whole of important conversation—especially verse—as a proof-text throughout the biblical theology. Finally, Graeme given the bankruptcy of evangelical work. Doubtless Hart was intending Goldsworthy insists that biblical ecclesiology in most sectors of con- to speak to his fellow Presbyterians, theology should be the heartbeat of servative Protestantism. who already hold to a Reformed con- Christian ministry and Christian edu- Hart’s latest contribution has sev- fessional understanding of Scripture. cation. Biblical theology should not be eral significant strengths. He rightly Even so, Hart’s vision of a biblically- relegated to the academy, but should magnifies the centrality of the church reformed church falls flat with such inform and inspire the church. in the purposes of God in salvation, anemic attention to Scripture itself. The authors in this volume do not pointing to the historic designation of This is especially true when there is speak with one voice on every matter. the church as the “mother” of believ- such a massive amount of biblical Scholars differ on the matter of a cen- ers. He also helpfully highlights the material weighing in on the subject at ter, and on the status of the OT canon. significance of worship, not just as a hand—from, among many other And yet the authors think there is such means of sanctification for the indi- things, the Old Testament foundations a thing as biblical theology, that the vidual believer, but as the approach of the covenant community to the theology of the whole Bible is unified, of the community before the heavenly Pauline references to the church as and that this unity is to be discovered Mount Zion (Heb 12:18-29). Hart mystery and as the Body of the by studying and explicating the bibli- rightly notes that it is the lack of grav- Messiah to the Hebrews passages on cal text. It is gratifying to see that the ity found in our worship that leads apostasy and worship. Instead, Hart need for biblical theology is still many evangelicals to seek biblical argues for such things as the reading 100 of formal prayers by the ordained one that does not so easily fit the NT. nurture of the faith (1 Tim 1:15-16). clergy without any serious interaction In so doing, he sounds like a carica- Much is at stake in this discussion with how such fits with the biblical ture of distorted Reformed theology. beyond simply the timing and man- revelation on the priesthood of believ- He critiques the church growth move- ner of baptism, although that is ers (1 Cor 12;1 Pet 2:9). Even when ment for the abuses that would make important. At stake is the way in Hart is right—on the issue of the the church an issue of “brand loyalty.” which the church views its children— ordination of women to the pastorate, But he then goes on to criticize the very as covenantal Christians to be nur- for example—he relies on church desire to see the lost come to know tured or as unregenerate sinners to be authority in matters of ordination Christ. It “might be wrong for Chris- both nurtured and evangelized. rather than on the relevant biblical tians to lust after a new car, it may also Hart’s ecclesiological proposal also data on the issue of male/female roles be unhealthy to long for bigger suffers from his enduring commit- in the church. churches,” Hart writes. “In both cases, ment to a “spirituality of the church” As a result of this lack of biblical God is sovereign, and it is the model, which he derives from the argumentation, Hart presents a model Christian’s duty to accept the limits.” thought of Machen and nineteenth- of the church without much interac- Thus he proposes that Presbyterian century southern Presbyterians such tion with the hermeneutical issues that churches replace “church growth” as R. L. Dabney and applies to a call might challenge his ecclesiological with “elect reach.” It is hard to think for withdrawal from contemporary vision. Hart wants to move the of any sentiment more foreign to the “culture wars” engagement over ecclesiological assumptions of missionary impulse of the NT than social and cultural issues. Southern covenant theology to their logical this. Jesus and His apostles long not Baptists should be well familiar with conclusions. Thus, he dismisses as only for bare proclamation—but for a this understanding of the mission of “revivalism” the conversionism of great harvest of redeemed humanity the church, since it is the grid through most of American evangelicalism. For and the growth of His church. Is Jesus which our forebears argued against Hart, the church marks out her mem- “lusting” as one lusts for a new car churches speaking out against human bers by visible signs of a visible com- when He weeps over Jerusalem, long- slavery. Hart remarks that this isola- munity—baptism, the Lord’s Supper, ing that they might be saved? Is the tion is “extremely attractive” in an covenantal worship—rather than apostle Paul guilty of an “unhealthy era when evangelical Christianity is through the kinds of invisible experi- balance” when he agonizes for the sometimes confused with whatever ential signs he sees so valued in salvation of multitudes of his country- happens to be articulated in the “revivalism” and “pietism.” And yet, men (Rom 9:1-5; 10:1)? Republican Party platform. Hart’s is this not precisely the point of the Hart’s understanding of the Great infatuation with the “spirituality” doc- new covenant? The people of God Commission is limited largely to basic trine, however, glosses over its inter- are marked out not through exter- human reproduction, as the church nal inconsistencies. As historian Paul nal markings such as circumcision christens the covenant children born Harvey has demonstrated, the “spiri- but through the experience of cir- into her. As such, he holds that the tuality” claim of the nineteenth cen- cumcision of the heart, sharing the model for the Christian life is that of tury was far less “apolitical” than it knowledge of God in Christ and the Isaac rather than that of Paul. The appeared, since a refusal to address anointing of His Spirit (Gal 6:15-16; child of the covenant should gradu- “political” issues was itself a political Phil 3:3; 1 John 2:20). Hart here sim- ally awaken to his or her covenant act, propping up the status quo of a ply assumes an OT model of the responsibilities. And yet, the apostle slaveholding society. But, more impor- covenant community. Paul does indeed seem to see himself tant than whether the “spirituality of Hart likewise assumes a model of as the prototype of the Christian life, the church” is attractive or consistent the Great Commission that logically even when writing of the gospel to a is the question of whether it is true. fits his ecclesiological assumptions— young man who had grown up in the Hart does not interact with the 101 exegetical and theological claims of biblical basis, theological integrity 1901 and it was limited to Western what he dismisses as “world-and-life- and pastoral encouragement. Our movements, for the most part. Pen- view theologians.” A growing cadre righteousness is not found in our own tecostal historiography in the last of scholars—many from within Hart’s faith, but in Christ to whom we come couple of decades has made it clear own tradition—have made a compel- in faith. Here a great transaction takes that there were “Pentecostals” before ling biblical case that the church in the place with Christ taking on our sin Topeka and before Azusa Street. In NT is seen as an approximation of the and, in return, granting to us by vir- addition, the greatest growth of the eschatological Kingdom—and thus tue of our union with Him an alien movement has been outside the West. is compelled to speak to every aspect righteousness not our own. This is an So, this new edition takes cognizance of life. These biblical arguments are important defense of an historic doc- of those matters and the result is a ignored. trine which is now being questioned, much larger and certainly a much Despite its problems, Recovering even within evangelical circles. With more valuable resource. Mother Kirk is in many ways a step in joy I commend its wide and careful In addition, many articles have the right direction. In an earlier era, consideration. New perspectives are been updated and rewritten. The competing ecclesiological books pro- not always better perspectives. This new article on the “Charismatic liferated precisely because the is certainly true in this instance. Movement” by Peter Hocken is a very churches actually took the doctrine of fine treatment. The article on exorcism the Body of Christ seriously. Evangeli- Daniel L. Akin by Charles Kraft, while it raises some cal theology desperately needs to eyebrows, is an important statement. recover a conversation on the doctrine The New International Dictionary of The article on Baptist Pentecostals of the church. Despite its problems, or Pentecostal and Charismatic Move- and Charismatics is a nice summary, perhaps because of them, Recovering ments. Edited by Stanley M. Burgess though it leaves the impression that Mother Kirk may play a role in initiat- and Eduard M. Van Der Maas. Grand Pat Robertson is no longer a Baptist, ing such a conversation. Rapids: Zondervan, 2002, xxxii + 1278 having embraced Charismatic pp., $49.99. renewal. This is not the case. Russell D. Moore Anyone interested in Pentecostal/ When the first edition of this impor- Charismatic renewal will want to Counted Righteous In Christ. By John tant work came out in 1988, it was obtain this volume. If nothing else, it Piper. Wheaton: Crossway, 2002, 125 apparent both that it was an indis- provides the researcher with quick pp., $12.99 paper. pensable reference tool and at the references to the increasingly complex same time a limited one. It was world of Pentecostal/Charismatic This book is a spirited theological important because there was nothing renewal. I highly recommend it. and biblical defense of the classic like it available and because the work affirmation of the imputed righteous- was so well done. Some of the finest Chad Owen Brand ness of Jesus Christ to believers. It scholars in the Pentecostal/Charis- is my judgment that John Piper matic tradition had contributed Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in makes the argument and makes it articles on a host of issues, persons, the Old Testament. By Philip S. John- well, responding primarily to the events, and groups relevant to the ston. Downers Grove: InterVarsity challenge to this doctrine set forth theme of the dictionary. I bought a Press, 2002, 288 pp., $20.00 paper. by Robert Gundry, who claims, with copy and used it frequently in my others, that “the doctrine that Christ’s research into matters Pentecostal. But What appears to be at the outset a righteousness is imputed to believing the work was limited both in its chro- simple treatise on hell is in fact a com- sinners needs to be abandoned” nological and geographical scope. It prehensive linguistic, exegetical, and (p. 44). Piper argues for the doctrine’s pretty much started with issues in historical analysis of the concept of 102 afterlife in the Old Testament. This joining one’s ancestors in the afterlife the norm. book is a popular version of Philip or as formulaic phrases used for The last part of the study contains Johnston’s dissertation and scholarly national leaders and not representa- two chapters entitled: Communion research on the topic. Most scholarly tive of Bronze and Iron Age second- Beyond Death (Chapter Nine) and treatises on the concept of the after- ary burials as is commonly postulated Resurrection from the Dead (Chapter life tend to approach the topic from in the scholarly literature. Ten). Johnston examines pertinent an “History of Israelite Religion” The second part discusses the texts. He notes that interpretation has approach and treat the text as later Underworld—terms used to refer to veered between reading later Jewish documents that interject the theology the underworld (Chapter Three), the and Christian eschatology of later of Yahwism during the time of Psalmists use of the term (Chapter periods back into the texts or denying Hezekiah and Josiah. These studies Four), and descriptive terms of the that there was any post-mortem indi- tend to highlight select texts (e.g. underworld (Chapter Five). Johnston vidual hope until the Maccabean teraphim in the homes of Laban and demonstrates that Sheol was the most period (p. 18). Johnston concludes that David, Saul and the Endor witch) to common term (other terms are the pit there are a few texts that hint at some define normative Israelite belief and destruction), but concludes that form of continued communion with regarding the afterlife as similar to Sheol was used as “an infrequent God, but there are only two that refer the larger Ancient Near Eastern theme and an unwelcome fate” (p. 85). to a future individual resurrection. World. Other studies have analyzed In this section Johnston examines Philip Johnston has presented his the archaeological data on burial the use of “earth” and “water” with case thoroughly and persuasively. customs of the Iron Age. These the underworld. He illustrates that One glaring omission is that Johnston studies have also concluded that these are metaphors, and the Hebrew does not interact with the many treat- Israel’s early religious beliefs were writers do not have an elaborate or ments of Israelite Religion, archaeol- similar to those throughout the An- defined description of the under- ogy, and cult practices associated cient Near East. Johnston’s work is world as found in other contemporary with the dead. Granted, a monograph inductive and provides a detailed cultures. whose goal is to present scholarly synthesis of all the biblical, textual The third part contains three chap- research to non-specialists should not (ANE), and cultural data and arrives ters dealing with the Dead. Chapter rehash the various scholarly views; at a more nuanced description of the Six discusses names of the dead (e.g. but these should be addressed and concept of Sheol in the Old Testa- Rephaim, “gods”), Chapter Seven dis- summarized in the introduction, espe- ment. The book is systematic in its cusses necromancy in the Hebrew cially since Johnston’s conclusions approach—discussing each text and Bible, and Chapter Eight addresses are in opposition to the prevalent its context. whether Israel had an ancestor cult. It scholarly opinion. Nevertheless, in The book is divided into four parts is in this third part of the study that light of Johnston’s study, scholars each with two or three chapters deal- Johnston rejects current scholarly will have to reevaluate current theo- ing with a specific topic of the study. opinion that Israel adopted practices ries and models of the concept of The first part discusses death in gen- of communicating with the dead or afterlife in the Old Testament. His eral, focusing on its use in the biblical had an elaborate system of the under- work will also serve as the reference text and burial and mourning prac- world. While there is the use of terms for the development of theology and tices associated with death. The author borrowed from other Semitic lan- exegesis of the biblical text. This presents the many euphemisms used guages (particularly Ugaritic) and book’s premise and accessibility to in the text for death and the variety of examples of necromancy—these are non-specialists should place it on the practices. Johnston interprets the exceptions to the general practice and reading lists of Old Testament, Sys- phrases “gathered to his people” and should be viewed as anomalies within tematic Theology, and Hermeneutics “slept with his fathers” as indicating the wider Israelite culture rather than courses. It should be included in the 103 library of any person who teaches or studies the biblical text.

Steven M. Ortiz New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary

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