Issues in Religion and Psychotherapy

Volume 30 | Number 1 Article 3

4-1-2006 Theistic Psychotherapy P. Scott Richards

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Theistic Psychotherapy

P. SCOTT RICHARDS, PHD

Brigham Young University

This article describes theoretical and empirical work that has been done during the past few decades to develop a theistic framework and approach for psychotherapy. It provides a brief summary of the reasons a theistic strategy for counseling and psychotherapy is needed, then explores its theological, philosophical, theoretical, and empirical foundations. The article suggests future directions of theistic psychotherapy and invites Latter-day Saint professionals to join the effort to bring this framework and approach more fully into the therapeutic mainstream and into their own practices.

uring the past 25 years, my colleague Allen E. I describe a theistic framework that Dr. Bergin and I have D Bergin and I have devoted much of our scholar­ proposed for mainstream psychotherapy and review its ly effort to developing a theistic spiritual strategyl for theological, philosophical, theoretical, and empirical foun­ mainstream mental health professionals. Given the dations. I discuss future directions for a theistic strategy fact that in the Western Hemisphere and in Europe in theory; research, education, and training.2 I conclude more than 80% of the population profess belief in by extending an invitation to Latter-day Saint mental one of the major theistic world religions (Barrett & health professionals to help bring a theistic framework Johnson, 2002), we think a theistic strategy is needed and approach for psychotherapy more fully into their own in mainstream psychotherapy to provide a culturally work, as well as into the professional mainstream. sensitive framework for theistic clients (Bergin, 1980, 1991; Richards & Bergin, 2000). In addition, there is THE NEED FOR A THEISTIC ALTERNATIVE: much healing potential in the theistic world religions PROBLEMS WITH SCIENTIFIC NATURALISM (Benson, 1996; Richards & Bergin, 1997). We believe that if more fully accessed by psychotherapists, the Although not all scientists are atheistic or agnostic, spiritual resources found in the theistic religious most scientists and behavioral scientists during the traditions, those that are in harmony with the truths past century have adopted scientific naturalism as the of the restored gospel, could enhance the efficacy of primary underlying assumption of their theories and psychological treatment. research (Griffin, 2000). According to the philosophy In this article I briefly discuss problems with the of scientific naturalism, "the universe is self-sufficient, prevalent approach of scientific naturalism and affirm without supernatural cause or control, and ... in all the need for a theistic strategy for psychotherapy. probability the interpretation of the world given by the sciences is the only satisfactory explanation of reality" P. Scott Richards, PhD, is a Professor in the Counseling Psychology and (Honer & Hunt, 1987, p. 225). Scientists who accept Special Education Department at Brigham Young University. Address scientific naturalism assume that human beings and for correspondence: P. Scott Richards, PhD, 340 MCKB, Brigham Young the universe can be understood without including God University, Provo, UT 84602. E-mail: [email protected] or divine influence in the scientific theories, including

10 THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY RICHARDS --_.------theories of therapeutic change and healing, or in the 2001). Scientific naturalism also constrains, biases, interpretation of research findings. and ultimately forecloses many conceptual and clini­ As the central dogma of science (Leahey, 1991), scien­ cal options that would otherwise be open to therapists tific naturalism received relatively little critical scrutiny and researchers (Slife, 2004; Slife et aL, 1999). Finally, during the 20th century; however, during the past couple scientific naturalism conflicts with the worldviews of of decades a number of scholars have carefully exam­ the major theistic world religions, thereby failing to pro­ ined this worldview and found it wanting (e.g., Griffin, vide a culturally sensitive psychotherapy framework for 2000; Jones, 1994; Plantinga, 1991, 1993). Scientific religious clients who seek assistance from mental health naturalism carries with it a number of philosophical professionals (Bergin, 1980). In my view, a theistic per­ commitments that are problematic for science, including spective provides a radically different and more positive sensationism, materialism, and atheism. These philoso­ framework upon which to build theories of psychology phies are problematic because they prevent "the scien­ and psychotherapy. tific community from providing rational explanations for a wide range of phenomena" (Griffin, 2000, p. 36). A THEISTIC STRATEGY FOR PSYCHOTHERAPY They are also inconsistent with empirical evidence and with"hard-core common sense beliefs"- beliefs that are Theistic psychotherapy is a comprehensive orientation "inevitably presupposed in practice" by both laypersons that includes a theistic conceptual framework, a body and scientists (Griffin, 2000, pp. 36, 99). of religious and spiritual therapeutic interventions, and To escape religious contamination and establish psy­ guidelines for implementing theistic perspectives and inter­ chology and psychiatry as respected sciences, Sigmund ventions (Richards & Bergin, 2005). The foundational Freud, along with early founders of the behavioral tra­ assumptions of this approach "are that God exists, that dition (i.e., Watson, Thorndike, Skinner, Hull, Wolpe, human beings are the creations of God, and that there Bandura, Rogers) and other early leaders of the behav­ are unseen spiritual processes by which the link between ioral sciences, accepted the prevailing scientific phi­ God and humanity is maintained" (Bergin, 1980, p. 99). losophies of the day (Karier, 1986; Wertheimer, 1970). It also assumes that people who have faith in God's power Although it was not always done explicitly or even and draw upon spiritual resources during treatment will deliberately, they built their theories on faith in the have added strength to cope, heal, and grow. No other worldview and philosophical assumptions of scientific mainstream tradition has adequately incorporated theistic naturalism (Karier, 1986; Leahey, 1991). Their foun­ spiritual perspectives and practices into its approach, and so dational axiom of faith was that human behavior could this orientation fills a void in the field. be explained naturalistically: i.e., without resorting to As my colleagues and I have explained in more detail spiritual or transcendent explanations. As a result, all of elsewhere (Richards & Bergin, 1997,2005), our theistic the mainstream psychotherapy traditions-including strategy is integrative in that we advocate that spiritual the psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic-existential, interventions should be combined in a treatment-tai­ cognitive-behavioral, and family systems traditions, as loring fashion with a variety of standard mainstream well as the many variations of therapy based upon these techniques, including psychodynamic, behavioral, approaches-are grounded in the theology and philoso­ humanistic, cognitive, and systemic ones. The strategy phy of scientific naturalism. is empirical in that it is grounded in current research Not only is the scientific naturalistic worldview prob­ about psychotherapy and spirituality and will continue lematic for natural and behavioral scientists, but in my to submit its claims to empirical scrutiny. The strategy view it poses insoluble problems for contemporary men­ is ecumenical in that it can be applied sensitively to tal health practitioners and researchers who attempt to people from diverse theistic religious traditions. Finally, apply it (Bergin, 1980; Griffin, 2000; Richards & Bergin, our strategy is denominational in that it leaves room for 1997; Slife, 2004; Slife, Hope, and Nebeker, 1999). psychotherapists to tailor treatment to the fine nuances Scientific naturalism provides an impoverished view of of specific religious denominations. In our view, these human nature upon which is difficult to build theories four characteristics are essential for any viable spiritual of personality and therapeutic change (Griffin, 2000, approach to psychotherapy.

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As illustrated in Figure 1, the conceptual frame­ work for theistic psychotherapy includes (a) theological premises that are grounded in the theistic worldview, THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY -I I (b) philosophical assumptions that are consistent with APPROACHES the theistic worldview, (c) a theistic personality theory, Theistic-Integrative and (d) a theistic view of psychotherapy. These concep­ Theistic-Interpersonal I tual foundations provide a rationale embracing (1) why Theistic-Family Systems Theistic-Cognitive spiritual interventions are needed in psychotherapy, (2) Theistic-Humanistic what types of spiritual interventions may be useful, and Theistic-Psychodynamic (3) when such interventions might appropriately be L ...... --.J implemented. Our theistic conceptual framework does not, however, tell psychotherapists specifically how to THEISTIC VIEW OF implement spiritual interventions in treatment, nor PSYCHOTHERAPY does it tell them how to integrate such interventions Meta-Empathy, Inspiration with mainstream secular perspectives and interventions. Therapeutic Valuing We recognize that a theistic strategy can be applied Spiritual Practices and Techniques I in practice in numerous ways, as illustrated in recent Spiritual Assessment publications (e.g., Richards & Bergin, 2004; Sperry & I Spiritual Goals I Shafranske, 2005). I now briefly describe the theologi­ Ecumenical and Denominational L cal, philosophical, theoretical, and empirical foundations of theistic psychotherapy. THEISTIC PERSONALITY THEORY THEOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS Marriage, Family and Community Benevolent Power The theological foundations of theistic psychotherapy

Inspired Integrity, Faithful Intimacy I are grounded in the worldview of the major theistic Agency, Moral Responsibility world religions. There are five major theistic religious Eternal Spiritual Identity, Spirit ofTruth I I traditions in the world: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, --_. ------_. ---- _J G" Zoroastrianism, and Sild1ism (Smart, 1994). Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the major theistic religions THEISTIC PHILOSOPHICAL of the Western world. Zoroastrianism and Sikhism FOUNDATIONS are theistic religions whose followers live mainly in Theistic Holism, Contextuality India. Approximately 60% of the world's population Altruism, Theistic Relationism Moral Universals, Agency profess adherence to one of these religions (Barrett & Scientific Theism, Methodological Pluralism.. J Johnson, 2002). .-----_.__._------Although there is great diversity between and within these five world religions in terms of specific religious THEISTIC WORLDVIEW beliefs and practices, at a more general level they share OR THEOLOGY a common worldview. According to the theistic world­ Life after Death view, God exists, human beings are the creations of Good and Evil God, there is a divine purpose to life, human beings can Spiritual Communication with God communicate with God through prayer and other spiri­ Humans are creations of God tual practices, God has revealed moral truths to guide God exists j human behavior, and the human spirit or soul continues Figure 1. TheologicaL PhilosophicaL TheoreticaL and Applied to exist after morral death (Richards & Bergin, 1997). Foundations of a Theistic Spiritual Strategy Compared to the scientific naturalistic worldview, the theistic worldview provides a dramatically different

12 THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY RICHARDS position from which to build theories oftherapeutic change the mortal body. This eternal spirit is ofdivine creation and and an approach to psychotherapy (Bergin, 1980). worth, and it constitutes the lasting or eternal identity of the individual. The spirit"interacts with other aspects ofthe

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS person to produce what is normally referred to as personal­ ity and behavior" (Richards & Bergin, 1997, p. 98). Our theistic framework for psychotherapy is grounded According to our theistic view ofpersonality develop­ in a number ofphilosophical assumptions about human ment, people who believe in their eternal spiritual iden­ nature, ethics, and epistemology, including scientific the­ tity, follow the influence of God's spirit, and live in har­ ism, theistic holism, human agency, moral universalism, theistic mony with universal moral principles are more likely to re/ationism, altruism, and contexuality (Richards & Bergin, develop in a healthy manner socially and psychologically 2005). These philosophical perspectives are gaining sup­ (Richards & Bergin, 1997). Spiritually mature people port among contemporary scientists and philosophers have the capacity to enjoy loving, affirming relation­ of science (e.g., Griffin, 2000; Jones, 1994; Slife, 2004; ships with others, they have a clear sense of identity and Slife et al., 1999), providing a positive and defensible values, and their external behavior is in harmony with philosophical foundation for a theistic framework of their value system (Bergin, 1980). They also feel a sense personality theory and psychotherapy. of closeness and harmony with God, and they experi­ To fully discuss all of these assumptions and their ence a sense of strength, meaning, and fulfillment from implications is beyond the scope of this presentation, their spiritual beliefs. People who neglect their spiritual although this has been done more fully elsewhere (e.g., growth and well-being or who consistently choose to Bergin, 1980, 1991; Howard & Conway, 1986; Jones, ignore the influence of God's spirit and do evil are more 1994; Richards & Bergin, 2005; Slife, 2004; Slife et al., likely to suffer poor mental health and disturbed, unful­ 1999; Slife & Williams, 1995; Williams, 1992). Table filling interpersonal relationships. 1 briefly defines the philosophical assumptions of the Therapeutic change and healing can be facilitated theistic framework and summarizes their conceptual through a variety of means, including physiological, strengths for mental health professionals. Here it can psychological, social, educational, and spiritual inter­ be seen that the assumptions underlying the theistic ventions. But complete healing and change require orientation provide a dramatically different foundation a spiritual process. Therapeutic change is facilitated in contrast with natutalistic assumptions upon which and is often lTlOre profound and lasting when people to build theories of personality and therapeutic change heal and grow spiritually through God's inspiration (Richards & Bergin, 2005). and love. This may occur in a variety of ways, but it often involves an affirmation of clients' sense of spiri­ THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS tual identity. When clients experience a deep affir­ mation of their eternal spiritual identity and worth A theistic spiritual perspective has direct implications during prayer or other spiritual experiences, the event for the ways clinicians conceptualize human personal­ is often life transforming for them. Such experiences ity and the change processes that characterize growth, help heal their sense of shame or feelings of badness, development, and healing. Integrating such content into and this renewal often reorients their values from a mainstream clinical theory, research, and practice is a for­ secular or materialistic value system to a more spiri­ midable undertal

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Table 1. Philosophical Foundations ofTheistic Psychology and Psychotherapy

Philosophical Perspective Strengths for Behavioral Scientists and Psychotherapists

Scientific Theism: God is the ultimate creative and control­ + Provides a richer, more positive view of the world and human ling force in the universe and the ultimate reality. Human nature than scientific naturalism.

beings can understand God and the universe, although + In harmony with the spiritual worldviews of most people, thus this knowledge will always be incomplete and distorted. the majority of psychotherapy clients. Scientific (rational and empirical) methods can discover + Leaves room for common realities that most people presuppose some aspects of reality, but spiritual ways of knowing (intu­ in practice, including agency, responsibility, meaning and purpose, ition and inspiration) are also needed. Epistemological and genuine love and altruism, and invisible realities such as spiritual methodological pluralism are endorsed. communion with God.

Theistic Holism: Humans are holistic spiritual beings, and + Affirms the spiritual worth and unlimited potential of human cannot be reduced simply to biology, mind, or relation­ beings.

ships. They are composed of an eternal spirit or soul. The + Affirms the eternal nature of the human soul and personality.

human spirit interacts with and influences other dimen­ + Avoids dehumanizing people into smaller, mechanistic, determin­ sions of reality, including the physical, cognitive, emotional, istic parts. interpersonal, and cultural. Humans cannot be adequately + Provides a positive view of human nature-a view that may help understood by reducing or dividing them into smaller units lead to a more"positive psychology" in the mainstream behavioral or by ignoring the spiritual dimension. sCIences.

Agency: Human beings have moral agency and the capacity to + Affirms the reality of human agency, choice, responsibility and choose and regulate their behavior. Human behavior has ante­ accountability, and thus is consistent with beliefs that are presup­ cedents, such as biological and environmental influences that posed in practice by virtually all psychotherapists and clients.

may limit a persons choices in some situations, but not his or + Acknowledges that agency is not absolute and that all events, her agency. Choices have consequences. including human actions and emotions, have meaningful anteced­ ents (e.g., biological realities, environmental influences, uncon­ scious processes, childhood experiences) that can set some limits on human choices. ------~------I

Moral Universalism: There are universal moral principles or + Affirms the importance of values and lifestyle choices in human values that influence healthy psychological and spiritual devel­ development and functioning. opment, although the application ofthese values may vary + Provides a moral and ethical framework or rationale that thera­ depending on the time, context, and other competing values. pists and clients can use to evaluate whether values and lifestyle Some values are more healthy and moral than others. choices are healthy.

+ Helps therapists and clients avoid the incoherency of ethical rela­ tivism, which differs from cultural relativism. ------~~------j

Theistic Relationism: Human beings are inherently relation­ + Helps therapists and clients avoid a narrow, individualistic focus that al. Humans can be understood through the study of their can lead to preoccupation with self and alienation from others.

relationships with other human beings and with God. + Affirms the importance of relationships and community and encourages social conscience and connection with others and with God. ------1

Altruism: Human beings often forego their own rewards + Affirms the value of self-sacrifice and service to others and there­ (pleasure) for the welfare of others. Responsibility, self-sac­ by helps promote love and relationships.

rifice, suffering, love, and altruistic service are valued above + Promotes treatment goals and interventions that are concerned personal gratification. with familial and societal welfare. ------j

Contfxtllality: At"least some of the properties and qualities + Reminds therapists about the importance of context and culture of things... come from outside the thing-in its context" in treatment.

(Slife, 2004, p. 48). There are real phenomena that are + Affirms the importance of tailoring treatment interventions to fit contextual, unique, and private-phenomena that are not the unique issues and characteristics of each client. necessarily empirically observable, generalizable, or repeat­ + Reminds therapists, clients and researchers that non-observable, able (e.g., transcendent spiritual experiences). infrequent, and private experiences may be real and important.

------_._------~ This figure was reprinted from P. S. Richards & A. E. Bergin (2005). A spiritual strategy fa,- counseling and psychotherapy (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Used by permission of the authors and publisher.

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I refer readers to other sources for more information (Bergin, 1980, 1991). Although there is great diversity about this topic (e.g., Bergin, 2002; Emmons, 1999; in beliefs and practices between and within the theistic Miller & Delaney, 2005; Olson, 2002; Richards & religions, they agree that human beings can and should Bergin, 2005). transcend selfish hedonistic tendencies in order to grow spiritually and to promote the welfare ofothers. There is THEISTIC VIEW OF PSYCHOTHERAPY also general agreement that values and principles such as integrity, honesty, forgiveness, repentance, humility, love, The sacred writings of all of the major theistic reli­ spirituality, religious devoutness, marital commitment, gious traditions affirm God's power to inspire, comfort, sexual fidelity, family loyalty and kinship, benevolent use and heal. Our theistic orientation assumes that clients of power, and respect for human agency promote spiri­ who have faith in God's healing power and draw upon tual enlightenment and personal and social harmony the spiritual resources in their lives during psychological (Bergin, 1991; Richards & Bergin, 1997). treatment will receive added strength and power to cope, Such values provide theistic psychotherapists with a heal, and grow (Richards & Bergin, 1997). Theistic psy­ general framework for evaluating whether their clients' chotherapists, therefore, may encourage their clients to lifestyles are healthy and mature and for choosing thera­ explore how their faith in God and their personal spiri­ peutic goals. Although therapists must permit clients to tuality may assist them during treatment and recovery. make their own choices about what they value and how Another contribution of our theistic orientation is they will apply these values in their lives, we think it that it provides a body of spiritual interventions that would be irresponsible for therapists not to share what can be used in working with the spiritual dimension of wisdom they can about values when their knowledge clients' lives, including praying for clients, encouraging and ideas are relevant to their clients' problems (Bergin, clients to pray, discussing theological concepts, mak­ 1991; Richards et al., 1999). ing reference to scriptures, using spiritual relaxation There are many other distinctive views underlying a and imagery techniques, encouraging repentance and theistic psychotherapy approach, including the purpose forgiveness, helping clients live congruently with their of psychotherapy, the nature of the therapeutic relation­ spiritual values, self-disclosing spiritual beliefs or expe­ ship, ethical considerations for conducting psychothera­ riences, consulting with religious leaders, and recom­ py, components of a psychological-spiritual assessment, mending religious bibliotherapy (Richards & Bergin, the purpose of spiritual interventions, and the responsi­ 1997). Most of these spiritual interventions have been bilities of the therapist and client. It is beyond the scope practiced by religious believers for centuries; they have of this article to discuss ethical and process consider­ endured because they express and respond to the deep­ ations for theistic psychotherapy, but this has been done est needs, concerns, and problems of human beings elsewhere (Richards & Bergin, 1997,2004,2005). Table (Benson, 1996; Richards & Bergin, 1997,2000). 2 summarizes some additional distinguishing character­ Another aspect of our viewpoint is that both thera­ istics of our theistic view of psychotherapy. pists and clients may seek, and on occasion obtain,

spiritual enlightenment to assist in treatment and recov­ EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS ery by entering into meditative or prayerful moments (Richards & Bergin, 2005). Spiritual impressions can A large body of research is consistent with and pro­ give therapists and clients important insight into prob­ vides support for many aspects of the theistic framework lems, as well as ideas for effective interventions or heal­ described above. It is beyond the scope ofthis article to dis­ ing strategies. cuss these findings in detail, but here I briefly mention four A distinctive view of our orientation is that it asserts scholarly domains that have provided an empirical founda­ that a theistic moral framework for psychotherapy is tion for our theistic strategy: (1) research on religion and possible and desirable. By moral framework, we mean health, (2) research on human virtues and strengths, (3) that there are general moral values and principles that research on near-death, spiritual, and anomalous healing influence healthy human development and functioning experiences, and (4) research on the outcomes of spiritu­ which can be used to guide and evaluate psychotherapy ally-oriented treatment approaches.

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Table 2. Distinguishing Chatacteristics ofTheistic Psychotherapy

Goals ofTherapy Therapist's Role in Role of Spiritual Clients' Role in Nature of Relationship Therapy Techniques Therapy

Spiritual view is part of Adopt an ecumenical Interventions are viewed I Examine how rheir Unconditional positive an eclectic, multisystemic therapeutic stance and, as very important for religious and spiritual regard, warmth, genuine- I view of humans, and so when appropriate, a helping clients under- beliefs and activities ness, and empathy are therapy goals depend denominational stance. stand and work through affect their behavior, regarded as essential on the client's issues. Esrablish a warm, sup- religious and spiritual emotions, and foundations for therapy. Goals directly relevant to pot·tive environment in issues and concerns and relationships. Make Therapists also seek to the spiritual dimension which the client knows for helping clients draw choices about what role have charity or brotherly include the following: (a) it is safe and acceptable on religious and spiri- religion and spirituality and sisterly love for clients help clients affirm their to explore his or her tual resources in their I will play in their lives. and to affirm clients erer- erernal spiritual identity religious and spiritual lives to assist them in Set goals and carry out nal spiritual identity and , and live in harmony with beliefs, doubts, and con- better coping, growing spiritual interventions worth. Clients are expected the Spirit ofTruth; (b) cerns. Assess whether and changing. Examples designed to facilitate to form a working alliance assess what impact reli- clients' religious and of major interven- their spiritual and and share in the work of gious and spiritual beliefs spiritual beliefs and tions include cognitive emotional growth. Seek I change. Clients must trust have in clients' lives and activities are affecting restructuring of irra- to use the religious the therapist and believe wherher they have unmet their mental health tional religious beliefs, and spiritual resources thar it is safe to share their spiritual needs; (c) help and interpersonal rela- transitional figure tech- in their lives to assist religious and spiritual clients use religious and tionships. Implement nique, forgiveness, medi- them in their efforts to beliefs and herirage with spiritual resources to help religious and spiritual tation and prayer, scrip- heal and change. Seek the therapist. Clients must them in their efforts to interventions to help ture study, blessings, God's guidance and know that the therapist cope, change, and grow; clients more effectively participating in religious enlightenment about highly values and respects (d) help clients resolve use their religious and services, practicing spiri- how to better cope, heal, their autonomy and free- spiritual concerns and spiritual resources in tual imagery, journaling and change. dom of choice and that it is

doubts and make choices their coping and growth about spiritual feelings, safe for them to differ from I about the role of spiritu- process. Model and repenting, and using the the therapist in their beliefs ality in their lives; and (e) endorse healthy values. client's religious support and values, even though help clients examine their Seek spiritual guidance system. rhe therapist may at times spiritualiry and continue and enlightenment on I disagree with their values their quesr for spiritual how best to help clients. and confront them about growth. unhealthy values and life- ~ style choices. This figure was reprinted from P. S. Richards & A. E. Bergin (2005). A spirittia/stmtegy for coullselillg (wd psychothempy (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Used by permission of the authors and publisher.

Research on religion and health. Most of the research of religious commitment and involvement, a finding that on religion and health has examined the relationship is consistent with the conclusions of numerous other between measures of religious commitment and various literature reviews of the past two decades. accepted indicators ofphysical and mental health. Several Religiously active people show lower rates of incidence recent books provide up-to-date and comprehensive for a vast array of diseases, including heart disease, reviews of the empirical research on religion, spirituality, hypertension, immune system dysfunction, cancer, and and health (e.g., Koenig et aL, 2001; Pargament, 1997; age-related disability. Religious people tend to live longer. Plante & Sherman, 2002). Coping tends to be better for disease, pain, death, and The Handbook of Religion and Health (Koenig et aL, other forms of stress. Recovery rates from surgery are 2001) is a particularly comprehensive resource on this better for religiously active individuals. Religious people topic, reviewing over 1600 empirical studies. These stud­ are also less likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors such ies provide strong support overall for the health benefits as cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use, and high-risk

r6 THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY RICHARDS ------sexual behaviors. Members of certain religious groups measured by church attendance, is negatively associated are also more likely to follow healthy diets (Koenig et with delinquency. Finally, numerous studies have found al., 2001; Plante & Sherman, 2002). that religiously committed people report fewer suicidal Many studies have shown that religiously committed impulses and more negative attitudes toward suicide, people tend to report greater subjective well-being and and they are less likely to commit suicide than are non­ life satisfaction. Several large epidemiological studies religious people. have found negative relationships between religious Research on human virtues and strengths. After becoming participation and psychological distress. Studies have President of the American Psychological Association in also shown that people who are religiously active tend 1997, Seligman (2002) coined the term positive psychology to have lower levels of hostility and stronger feelings of and called on psychologists to change their focus "from hope and personal control than those who are not. a preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in People who engage in religious coping (e.g., praying, life to also building the best qualities in life" (p. 3). He reading sacred writings, meditating, seeking support also asserted: from religious leaders and community) during stress­ ful times tend to adjust better to crises and problems. We have discovered that there are human strengths that Evidence shows that people who turn to God for help act as buffers against mental illness: courage, future­ in coping with stress have lower levels of anxiety, less mindedness, optimism, interpersonal skill, faith, work depression, greater self-esteem, and higher psychosocial ethic, hope, honesty, perseverance, the capacity for flow competence. and insight, to name several. Much of the task of pre­ Many studies have provided evidence that people vention in this new century will be to create a science who are intrinsically religious report less anxiety, of human strength whose mission will be to understand including less death anxiety, than those who are not. and learn how to foster these virtues in young people. These persons also experience more freedom from (Seligman, 2002, p. 5) worry and neurotic guilt (i.e., guilt in the absence of wrongdoing, resulting in depression, anxiety, or In response to Seligman's call, numerous journal obsessions) than do less religious people. Several articles and book chapters have been published about studies with non-clinical samples have shown that positive psychology, as well as several books (e.g., religious commitment is usually associated with McCullough, Pargament, & Thoresen, 2000; Seligman lower levels of depression. Some evidence also sug­ & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lopez, 2002). gests that church attendance is strongly predictive of In general, the findings to date support the idea that less depression in elderly people. human virtues such as forgiveness, spirituality, gratitude, Studies have consistently shown that people who ultimate concerns and spiritual strivings, hope, faith, attend church are less likely to divorce than those who love, and humility are positively associated with healthy do not. Studies have also consistently shown a positive human functioning (Snyder & Lopez, 2002). These relationship between religious participation and marital findings are consistent with the teachings of the major satisfaction and adjustment. theistic world religions who have long espoused and Considerable evidence indicates that those with high sought to promote such human virtues and strengths levels of religious involvement are less likely to use or abuse (Park, 2003). alcohol, with lower rates among members of denomina­ Research on spiritual experiences. A growing body of tions that discourage or prohibit alcohol consumption. qualitative and quantitative research is exploring the There is also extensive evidence that religiously committed types of spiritual experiences people have, including people are less likely to use or abuse drugs. near-death and other death-related experiences, mysti­ Many studies have shown that religious denom­ cal and spiritual experiences, and spiritual and faith inations that have clear, unambiguous prohibitions healings. For example, in his pioneering study, Moody against premarital sex have lower rates of premarital sex (1975) identified a number of elements that seem to and teenage pregnancy than others. Research has characterize many near-death experiences (NOE): (a) consistently shown that religious commitment, as feeling ineffability, (b) hearing oneselfpronounced dead,

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(c) experiencing feelings of peace and quiet, (d) hearing sacred or divine; (d) pleasant-accompanied by feelings unusual noises, (e) seeing or passing through a dark tun­ of peace, bliss, and joy; (e) paradoxical-defying logic. nel, (f) leaving ones body, (g) meeting spiritual beings, Some people report sensing inner subjectivity, unity of (h) experiencing a bright light or being of light, (i) hav­ all things, timelessness and spacelessness, and loss of ing a panoramic life review, U) sensing a border or limit, self (Spilka et aL, 1985). Research has shown both mild (k) coming back into the body. and extreme types ofmystical experiences-the extreme Many other studies during the past two decades have ones adding distinctive elements such as dramatic mood provided general confirmation of the nature and reality swings or the use of various ascetic practices (Wulff, ofthe NDE. It is now a well accepted fact that anywhere 2000). Although more studies are needed, research to from 5% - 30% of those who come close to death have a date suggests that mystical experiencing is not usually NDE (Greyson, 2000). A number of well documented associated with psychopathology, but is most often cor­ case reports of near-death experiences, as well as sev­ related with better psychological functioning (Spilka et eral carefully conducted research studies, have made it aL, 1985; Wulf£ 2000). There is also some evidence that increasingly difficult for skeptics to discount near-death mystical experiences may promote therapeuric healing experiences as simply physiological or psychological epi­ and change (Wulf£ 2000). phenomena (e.g., Ring & Cooper, 1997; Sabom, 1998; In addition to these classic aspects of mystical experi­ van Lommel, van Wees, Meyers, & Elfferich, 2001). ence, people throughout the ages have reported a variety Although they have attracted less research, a variety of other types of spiritual manifestations, including of other death-related experiences have been reported (a) "hearing" the voice of God within their minds, (b) in the literature, including (a) visions or visitations of receiving spiritual impressions and insights, (c) having the deceased to their loved ones; (b) dreams, visions, an inspirational dream or vision, (d) experiencing the and other premonitions of the living that a loved one presence (or spirit) of God, (e) feeling the presence of has recently died or is going to die; and (c) near-death deceased loved ones, (f) feeling loved and forgiven by visions where someone who is about to die sees and God, (g) receiving flashes of insight and inspiration describes loved ones who have previously passed on when confronted with difficult problems, (h) experienc­ (Morse, 1994a). ing feelings of awe, gratitude and oneness with God and Mystical and spiritual experiences also have important others, and (i) receiving spiritual impressions or warn­ implications for a theistic orientation. Such experiences ings that protect self and/or loved ones from danger are not well understood by naturalistic scientists, but (Griffin, 2000; Miller & CDeBaca, 1994). Such experi­ they are common and have been subjects ofconsiderable ences sometimes come unbidden and unexpected, but at scholarship (e.g., Hood, 1995). In a June 2002 Gallup other times accompany religious practices such as pray­ survey, 41% of Americans indicated that they had had ing, meditating, worshipping, participating in religious a "profound religious experience or awakening that rituals, and studying scriptures. changed the direction of [their livesr (Gallup, 2003, Many types of spiritual experiences are normative in p. 7). This confirms previous surveys that have consis­ various theistic religions, and the report of such experi­ tently found that more than 30% of Americans report ences is not usually associated with psychopathology life-changing religious experiences (Gallup, 2003). Such (Sanderson, Vandenberg, & Paese, 1999). Furthermore, findings have been replicated with much consistency spiritual experiences often provoke major life changes in numerous other surveys, including one conducted in and positive and enduring transformations in the values Great Britain (Hay & Morisy, 1978). and lifestyles of those who experience them (Miller & Considerable research has been done about the nature CDeBaca, 1994). of mystical and spiritual experiences and their psy­ Human history is also replete with accounts of mirac­ chological and religious correlates (Spilka, Hood, & ulous faith healings and other unexpected recoveries Gorsuch, 1985; Wulf£ 2000). Most mystical experiences from serious illness and injury (Benor, 1993). Although seem to be (a) noetic-perceived as a valid source of a proportion of these accounts are probably not genu­ knowledge, (b) ineffable-incapable ofbeing adequately ine or may be "spontaneous" remissions, many of them described, (c) holy-perceived as an encounter with the have occurred in modern times, are medically well

18 THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY RICHARDS

documented, and cannot be explained in the context of the materialistic and naturalistic scientific worldview. conventional biomedicine (Benor, 1993; Benson, 1996; We believe that a better understanding of such spiritual Krippner & Achterberg, 2000; Levin, 2001). experiences could have important implications for sci­ Studies and case reports examining the phenomenol­ ence and humanity. ogy of spiritual and anomalous healing experiences have Research on spiritually oriented treatment approaches. found that during the time such healings takes place, Empirical research on religious and spiritual issues it is not uncommon for people to "see religious figures in mental health and psychotherapy has expanded or balls of great white light, to have special dreams or rapidly during the past two decades. In a comprehen­ visions, and to feel heat and tingling in the location of sive Psychological Bulletin review, Worthington, Kurusu, the problem" (Krippner & Achterberg, 2000, p. 363). McCullough, and Sanders (1996) examined 148 empiri­ Positive emotions and long-term improvements in men­ cal studies on religion and psychotherapy, which pro­ taL spiritual and physical well-being have also been vided considerable insight into "( a) religion and mental reported by those having these experiences (Benson, health, (b) religion and coping with stress, (c) religious 1996; Krippner & Achterberg, 2000; Levin, 2001). people's views of the world, (d) preferences and expecta­ Many people attribute their healing and recovery to tions about religion and counseling, and (e) religious cli­ spiritual beliefs, practices and influences, such as prayer, ents' responses to counseling" (p. 451). They concluded meditation, guided imagery, sense of purpose, and faith that the methodological quality of this research has rather than to medical treatment (e.g., Achterberg & improved to the point of approaching "current secular Lawlis, 1989; Benson, 1996; Hirshberg & Barasch, standards, except in outcome research" (Worthington et 1995; Krippner & Achterberg, 2000). aL, 1996, p. 448). Since the publication of Worthington Findings concerning near-death, spiritual, and healing et aL's review, there have been several updates of the experiences provide further evidence of the role of spiri­ research literature in this domain, including a meta­ tual realities in human functioning. Although wrench­ analysis of religiously accommodative outcome studies ing to traditional empirical philosophies, they continue (McCullough, 1999) and several narrative reviews (e.g., to accumulate, often from surprisingly reliable witness­ Worthington & Sandage, 2001). es. We are aware, of course, of the various naturalistic Although relatively few experimental therapy outcome explanations that have been offered to account for near­ studies of religious and spiritual therapies have been death experiences, parting visions, faith healings, and conducted, their number is increasing (Worthington other spiritual experiences, such as oxygen deprivation & Sandage, 2001). Six experimental outcome studies to the brain, chelTlically induced hallucinations, psycho­ have compared standard and religiously accommodative logical defenses, delusions, irrationalities, and so on (e.g., versions of cognitive, cognitive-behavioral, or rational Blackmore, 1993; Groth-Marnet, 1989; Morse, 1994; emotive behavior therapy (McCullough, 1999). In gen­ Ring, 1980; R. K. Siegel, 1980). However, those who try eraL these studies have provided evidence that theistic to explain all spiritual experiences in naturalistic terms cognitive therapy that makes use of scriptures, religious seem more incredulous than those who are willing to imagery, and references to Christian theology tends stretch their theoretical boundaries to take in evidence to be equal to standard cognitive therapy at reducing from the invisible, spiritual, but real world. William depression and to be superior at increasing spiritual James, perhaps the greatest of American psychologists, well-being. Three experimental outcome studies have was willing to do this (James, 1902/1936). also investigated the effectiveness of a Muslim-accom­ The "methodological imperialism" of some naturalists modative cognitive therapy approach for anxiety and constrains the creativity needed to address the increas­ depression (Azhar, Varma, & Dharap, 1994; Azhar ingly robust indicators of'other" realities. We hope that & Varma, 1995a, 1995b). According to these studies, scientists will approach the study of spiritual and other those clients who received the religiously accommoda­ anomalous experiences with open minds. We hope that tive treatment approach tended to have better outcomes they will not rule out theistic understandings of these than those who received a standard secular treatment, experiences a priori simply because such understand­ although weaknesses in methodology call for tentative­ ings call into question the prevailing assumptions of ness about these findings.

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Several other recent outcome studies of spiritual treat­ Progress has been made in conceptualizing and measur­ ment approaches with other clinical issues and populations ing religion and spirituality, including the publication of have been conducted, including a spiritual growth group for a handbook of religious and spiritual measures (Hill & eating disorder inpatients (Richards et al., 2001), a spiritually Hood, 1999). In addition to textbooks on the psycholo­ integrated reminiscence group for assisted-living facility adults gy of religion, chapters on the psychology of religion are (Emery; 2003), a religiously integrated forgiveness group for beginning to appear in introductory psychology texts college women who had been wronged in a romantic rela­ (Hester, 2002). Research in the psychology of religion tionship (Rye & Pargan1ent, 2002), a spiritually informed interfaces with and influences scholarship in personality cognitive-behavioral stress management workshop for college psychology (e.g., the study of spiritual transcendence, students (Nohr, 2001), a spiritually focused therapy group ultimate concerns, spiritual transformation), develop­ for cancer patients (Cole, 2000), a spiritually focused puppet mental psychology (e.g., the study of religious and therapy for adults with chemical dependency (Vizzini, 2003), spiritual development), positive psychology (e.g., the and psycho-spiritual manualized individual therapy interven­ study of virtues such as gratitude, forgiveness, humil­ tion for female sexual abuse survivors (Murray-Swank & ity), psychotherapy (e.g., the study of spirituality, health, Pargament, 2004). These studies, in general, have found that and healing), and many other areas of psychology, and theistic integrative interventions are equivalent to and some­ so the study of the psychology of religion is likely to times more effective for religious clients than standard secular strengthen the empirical foundations of a theistic strat­ treatment approaches. Collectively they represent an increasing egy in psychology. Many other topics are relevant to a body of evidence that spiritual treatment approaches may be theistic, spiritual strategy for which recent progress has effective with a wide variety ofclinical issues and populations. been made, but that need continues to attract scholarly attention (Richards & Bergin, 2005). FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR A THEISTIC STRATEGY Education and clinical training. For many years religion and spirituality were neglected as aspects of diversity in Impressive progress has been made during the past education and training. During the past decade this has two decades, but much work remains to be done ifa the­ changed to some degree. For example, religion is now istic strategy is to take a place of equality and influence recognized as one type of diversity in the American in mainstream psychology and psychotherapy. I will Psychological Associations ethical guidelines (APA, now briefly describe some future directions for a theistic 2002a) and in APA's Guidelines on Multicultural Education, strategy in theory, research, education, and training. Training, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists Theory and research. Perhaps the most pressing research (APA, 2002b). Increasing numbers of multicultural need is for more outcome studies with actual clients on books and journal articles are giving at least some specific spiritual interventions and on spiritual-secular attention to religious and spiritual aspects of diversity. integrative treatment approaches (McCullough, 1999; Furthermore, many prominent multicultural scholars Richards & Bergin, 2000; Sperry & Shafranske, 2005; and a majority of mental health professionals now Worthington et al., 1996; Worthington & Sandage, acknowledge that religion and spirituality are impor­ 2001). Additional studies that document the effective­ tant aspects of multicultural diversity (Crook-Lyon, ness of spiritual treatment approaches are essential. We O'Grady, & Richards, 2004; Sue, Bingham, Porche­ endorse the call by Worthington et al. (1996) for more Burke, & Vasquez, 1999). research on psychotherapy with religiously and culturally Although the majority of professionals now believe that diverse groups because to date most theory and research religion and spirituality are multicultural issues, most grad­ in this domain has focused on the Judeo-Christian reli­ uate training programs in the mental health professions gious traditions and Western (Euro-American) cultures still do not systematically address these topics (Bishop, (Richards & Bergin, 2000). Avila-Juarbe, & Thumme, 2003; Richards & Bergin, 2000; Much scholarly work has also been done during the Shafranske, 1996, 2000; Shulte, Skinner, & Claiborn, past two decades in the psychology ofreligion (Emmons 2002). Recent surveys suggest there is a gap between pro­ & Paloutizian, 2003), which has great relevance to a fessional beliifs and practice regarding inclusion of religion theistic framework for psychology and psychotherapy. and spirituality in multicultural training.

20 THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY RICHARDS

Shafranske and Malony (1996) have offered a number psychiatric nurses' training, which has helped lead to ofsuggestions to help remedy the lack ofgraduate train­ the implementation of courses about spirituality by the ing in religious and spiritual issues. They opined that majority ofU.S. medical schools (Puchalski et al., 2000). the ideal curriculum would include four components: The Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious "a 'values in psychological treatment' component, a 'psy­ Values in Counseling (ASERVIC), a division of the chology of religion' component, a 'comparative-religion' American Counseling Association, has published pro­ component, and a 'working with religious issues' com­ fessional practice guidelines for counselors concerning ponent" (Shafranske & Malony, 1996, p. 576). Their religion and spirituality (Young, Cashwell, Wiggins­ recommendations are still current. I also appreciate Frame, & Belaire, 2002). Efforts are also underway the suggestions offered by Brawer, Handal, Fabricatore, within Division 36 (Psychology of Religion) of APA Robers, & Wajda-Johnston, (2002). They recommended to develop professional practice guidelines for psy­ that training directors do the following: L Enhance their chologists who work with religious and spiritual clients. awareness of and sensitivity to issues of religion and I hope that accrediting organizations, including the spirituality and develop an academic environment that American Psychological Association, will soon require encourages students to gain knowledge and personal all graduate training programs in the mental health pro­ understanding of these issues. 2. Be knowledgeable of fessions to provide a substantial training component in religious systems, including traditions, language, cul­ religious and spiritual aspects of diversity and practice. ture, and assessment measures. 3. Integrate training in religion and spirituality into already existing courses. AN INVITATION TO LATTER-DAY SAINT 4. Ask faculty members who share an interest in reli­ PSYCHOTHERAPISTS gion and spirituality to identify themselves as mentors for current students and potential applicants. 5. Invite Our theistic strategy for psychotherapy has been guest speakers who are knowledgeable in the areas of formulated broadly with the hope that it will be suit­ spirituality and religion. 6. Make books and publications able for mental health professionals from a variety of on religious and spiritual issues available to students. 7. theistic religious traditions, including many branches Inform students about conferences that examine issues within Judaism, Islam and Christianity. We think this of spirituality and religion. is most appropriate for an orientation that emerges I wish that every graduate training program in the from the professional mainstream. It must appeal to mental health professions would incorporate these rec­ a broad range of practitioners and clients and not be ommendations. Some training in religious and spiritual too denomination specific. This will make it useable aspects of diversity can take place in existing multicul­ in the wide spectrum of training programs and clinical tural classes. Spiritual perspectives could also receive facilities that serve a diverse but mainly theistic public. some coverage in the courses in counseling theories Denomination-specific practices can be developed with­ that are required by most programs. Some of the in this broad orientation for use in parochial settings by leading introductory textbooks on counseling and psy­ qualified clinicians. chotherapy now devote space to the topics of religion Most psychotherapists do not use the term theistic to and spirituality (e.g., Corey, 2005; Ivey, Ivey, Myers, & describe their therapeutic orientation, possibly because Sweeny, 2005), which should make it easier for instruc­ it has not previously been offered as an option for main­ tors to include this as a component of their classes. It is stream professionals. Allen Bergin and I have offered also essential that graduate students receive supervision this as a valid option in our most recent publications from professionals with expertise in religious issues and (Richards & Bergin, 2004, 2005). We have proposed diversity (Bishop, Avila-Juarbe, & Thumme, 2003). the term theistic psychotherapy as a general label for psy­ I am pleased with the progress that has been made in chotherapy approaches that are grounded in the theistic bringing religious and spiritual aspects of diversity and worldview. Theistic psychotherapy refers to a global psy­ psychotherapy practice into training during the past chotherapy orientation or tradition, comparable to the decade. For example, Larson, Lu, and Swyers (1996) psychodynamic, humanistic, and cognitive traditions, developed a model curriculum about spirituality for not to the psychotherapy of a specific denomination,

21 VOLUME 30 AMCAP JOURNAL 2006 such as Latter-day Saint, Protestant, Carholic, Jewish, influence can assist clients and therapists in their jour­ or Islaniic therapies. We also use the term theistic psycho­ neys of healing and growth. therapy ro describe approaches that begin with a theistic A therapist who responds "yes" ro all or most of the foundation but also absorb and integrate interventions following questions fits our definition of a theistic psycho­ from mainstream secular approaches. therapist: 1. Do you believe in God or a Supreme Being? We proposed the term theistic psychotherapist ro refer 2. Do you believe that human beings are creations of to psychotherapists who believe in God and who incor­ God? 3. Does your theistic worldview influence your porate theistic perspectives and interventions to some view of human nature and personality theory? 4. Do degree into their therapeutic approach. Since surveys your theistic beliefs influence your ideas about human have shown that approximately 30 - 50% of psycho­ dysfunction and therapeutic change? 5. Do your theis­ therapists are members of one of the theistic world reli­ tic beliefs have any impact on your relationship with, gions, believe in God, and use spiritual interventions in assessment of, or intervention with your clients? 6. Do their professional practices (e.g., Bergin & Jensen, 1990; you believe that God, or the Spirit of God, can enhance Richards & Potts, 1995; Shafranske, 2000; Shafranske the therapeutic process? & Malony, 1990), many therapists could appropri­ I do not think therapists must incorporate all of our ately be called theistic psychotherapists. At least, they might conceptual framework or process guidelines into their include the term theistic in describing their approach. psychotherapy approach in order to be regarded as I wish to emphasize that theistic psychotherapists are not theistic psychotherapists. In my view, counselors and psy­ spiritual advisors, nor do they have any ecclesiastical chotherapists who believe in God in a manner that is authority. To the contrary, theistic psychotherapists must be generally consistent with the theistic world religions and cautious to avoid engaging in any practices that should whose beliefs appreciably influence their theoretical per­ be reserved for ecclesiastical leaders, and they should spective and therapeutic approach are theistic psychothera­ make sure their clients understand they have no such pists, regardless ofwhat mainstream secular perspectives authority. Theistic psychotherapists are licensed mental and interventions they select. health professionals who integrate spiritual perspectives I believe that our theistic strategy is compatible with and interventions with their secular training and inter­ the professional beliefs and practices of most Latter-day ventions in an ethically sensitive and effective manner Saint mental health professionals. Over the years many of (Richards & Bergin, 2004, 2005). my LOS colleagues have shared with me their therapeutic We assume that most, if not all, theistic psychotherapists experience and wisdom during informal conversations, will integrate theistic perspectives and interventions during presentations at AMCAP conventions, through with one or more of the mainstream secular psycho­ publications in the AMCAPJournal, and in several research therapy traditions. Thus psychotherapists who combine studies that I have conducted (e.g., Chamberlain, Richards, theistic concepts and interventions with psychodynamic & Scharman, 1996; Richards, Berrett, Hardman, & Eggett, ones might wish to describe their therapeutic approach in press; Richards & Potts, 1995a, 1995b). Their insights as theistic-psychodynamic (e.g., Shafranske, 2004). Those have had a major influence on my thinking and writing who combine theistic and cognitive perspectives and about how to conduct psychotherapy from a theistic per­ interventions could describe their approach as theistic­ spective. I am indebted to them for their contributions. cognitive (e.g., Tan & Johnson, 2005); those who combine I recognize that there are major conceptual and techni­ theistic and interpersonal perspectives and interventions cal inconsistencies within secular therapy traditions, as could describe their approach as theistic-interpersonal (e.g., well as between secular and theistic frameworks (Bergin, Miller, 2004), and those who combine the theistic with 1980; Slife, 2004; Slife & Williams, 1995). The process of several mainstream secular traditions could describe developing a conceptually consistent and sound theistic their approach as theistic-integrative (Hardman, Richards, orientation is not necessarily easy. The first step consists & Berrett, 2004; Richards, 2005). By using the terms of carefully examining the theological, philosophical, and theistic psychotherapy and theistic psychotherapist broadly, theoretical assumptions that underlie both the theistic we hope to bring some unity and strength to a diversity orientation and the secular orientations in which the thera­ of practitioners who have faith that God's spiritual pist has been trained (Slife, 2004; Slife & Williams, 1995).

22 THEISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY RICHARDS

Therapists will undoubtedly find that to be conceptually worldview, in particular, contributes important insights consistent they have to abandon, revise, or reframe some into previously neglected aspects of human nature, of the secular perspectives and interventions they accepted personality, therapeutic change, and practice of psycho­ earlier in their careers. It is beyond the scope of this article therapy. I invite Latter-day Saint psychotherapists to to discuss such changes in more detail, but this has been join in this important work. I believe that our ability to done elsewhere (O'Grady, Bartz, Boardman, & Richards, more fully understand and assist all ofthe human family 2006; Richards & Bergin, 2005; Slife, 2004). will be enhanced by these efforts.

CONCLUSION I would like to thank Allen E. Bergin for his mentoring and support i/l my career and for laying a foundation for the development of a theistic A more spiritually open zeitgeist now exists m the framework for psychotherapy. r also wish to thank Brent D. Slife and sciences and health professions. The movement to Richard N. Williams, whose courageous work on the philosophical aspects integrate spiritual perspectives and interventions into ofpsychology and Christianity has influenced my thinking in many positive mainstream psychology and psychotherapy has matured ways. I also wish to thank all of my friends and colleagues at AMCAP and continues to gain momentum. I agree with Jones who have shared their imigl?ts about the gospel and psychotherapy with (1994) who argued that religious worldviews can con­ me over the years. I would also like to thank jeremy Bartz and Kari A. tribute to the progress of psychological science and O'Grady, two outstanding doctoral students and friends, whose enthusiasm practice "by suggesting new modes of thought ... and perceptive insights have helped me refine my thinking agreat deal about and new theories" (p. 194). I think that the theistic theistic psycl?otherapy.

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FOOTNOTES 1 Consistent with Liebert and Liebert (1998), I use the 2 Portions of this have been adapted from several books that I term strategy to tefer to a broad theoretical orientation or have co-authored and co-edited including Richards & Betgin framework (e.g., psychoanalytic, dispositional, environmental, (1997, 2000, 2004, 2005) and from my Presidential Address representational), which provides perspectives regarding to Division 36 (Psychology of Religion) of the American personality theory and therapeutic change, assessment and Psychological Association that was presented in Washington, measurement, interventions for psychological treatment, and DC, on August 20, 2005. research philosophy and methodology.