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Arheologia Preistorică a Lumii Neolitic Şi Eneolitic

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Arheologia Preistorică a Lumii Neolitic Şi Eneolitic www.cimec.ro ACADEMIA INSTITUTUL ROMÂNĂ DE ARHEOLOGIE FILIALA IAŞI IAŞI VASILE CHIRICA DUMITRU BOGHIAN ARHEOLOGIA PREISTORICĂ A LUMII NEOLITIC ŞI ENEOLITIC EDITURA HELIOS IAŞI - 2003 www.cimec.ro ACADEMIA ROMÂNĂ INSTITUTUL FILIALA IAŞI DE ARHEOLOGIE IAŞI BIBLIOTHECA ARCHAEOLOGICA IASSIENSIS XII Editor VASILE CHIRICA VASILE CHIRICA, DUMITRU BOGHIAN ARHEOLOGIA PREISTORICĂ A LUMII I-PALEOLITIC - MEZOLITIC (V.CHIRICA) II-NEOLITIC ŞI ENEOLITIC (D.BOGHIAN) Coperta: Daniela Grapă ©Vasile Chirica, Institutul de Arheologie Iaşi, str.Lascăr Catargi, nr.18, Iaşi, România. ISBN 973-99952-8-4 www.cimec.ro CUPRINS Capitolul 10. Consideraţii generale şi cronologie ... 3 Capitolul 11. Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul în Orientul Apropiat ... 20 Capitolul 12. Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul în Asia Centrală ... 48 Capitolul 13. Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul în zona Indusului ... 55 Capitolul 14. Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul extrem-oriental şi sud-est asiatic ... 58 Capitolul 15. Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul din Africa ... 70 Capitolul 16. Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul din Europa ... 84 Neoliticul şi Eneoliticul carpato-danubiano-pontic ... 137 Capitolul 17. Societăţile producătorilor din zona americană ... 152 Glosar ... 154 Bibliografie ... 163 Ilustraţii ... 170 www.cimec.ro www.cimec.ro NEOLITICUL ŞI ENEOLITICUL Neoliticul şi, ulterior, Eneoliticul, au marcat importante cotituri în evoluţia generală a societăţii omeneşti, evidenţiate prin numeroase modificări culturale faţă de perioada anterioară, însoţite, în mod normal, şi de restructurări etnice care, din păcate, în lipsa unor izvoare scrise, nu le vom cunoaşte suficient niciodată. CAPITOLUL 10 CONSIDERAŢII GENERALE ŞI CRONOLOGIE Începând cu Epipaleoliticul, în unele zone ale Lumii Vechi, societatea umană a cunoscut o accelerare a dezvoltării sale istorice, fapt care s-a repercutat în apariţia unor noi şi complexe elemente ale structurilor economice, sociale şi spirituale la nivelul epocii neolitice (gr. neos/ νέος = nou), care face trecerea spre protoistorie, fiind una dintre cele mai însemnate cotituri culturale înregistrate de societatea umană. Ulterior, în interiorul acestei perioade istorice, o altă etapă de remarcabil progres a fost marcată de Eneolitic (Chalcolitic). Noua epocă a pietrei a fost decelată, pe baze tipologice, încă din secolul al XIX-lea, fiind cunoscute contribuţiile lui: John Lubbock (1865), Georg Nilson (1868), Gabriel de Mortillet (1883), denumită şi epoca pietrei şlefuite, în vreme ce, în secolul al XX- lea, Richard Pittioni propunea pentru aceasta, având în vedere 3 www.cimec.ro importanţa producţiei ceramice, termenul de Keramikum, caracteristicile sale fiind stabilite în urma unor asidui cercetări. Însumând toate achiziţiile tehnologice şi structurale, care sunt proprii noii epoci a pietrei, care păreau oarecum sincrone şi acumulate dintr-o dată, încă din 1929, cercetătorul britanic Gordon Childe, vorbea de o “revoluţie neolitică”, comparabilă, prin amploare şi consecinţe, evident respectând diferenţele temporale cu “revoluţia urbană” sau cu “revoluţia industrială”, din timpurile moderne. Ca argumente erau invocate: trecerea la practicarea cultivării plantelor şi la creşterea animalelor, realizarea uneltelor de piatră cioplită, şlefuită şi perforată, confecţionarea ceramicii etc.. Acelaşi specialist a schiţat şi un scenariu asupra felului în care s-a trecut la noul mod de viaţă, punând accent pe factorii climatici, obiectivi, specifici începutului Holocenului, care ar fi forţat unele comunităţi umane să adopte un nou comportament economic, social şi spiritual, cunoscut sub denumirea de ipoteza oazelor (în condiţiile aridizării climatului în preborealul şi borealul oriental, agricultura ar fi apărut şi s-ar fi practicat în anumite “oaze” situate în imensul spaţiu al Semilunii Fertile, unde este prezent şi noul mod de viaţă) (Childe, 1966). Cu toate acestea, multă vreme, Neoliticul a fost caracterizat drept epoca pietrei şlefuite, înţelegându-se că noua tehnologie de confecţionare a uneltelor şi armelor de piatră ar fi fost determinantă. Cercetările arheologice efectuate după cel de-al doilea război mondial şi utilizarea unor metode moderne de datare şi interpretare a vestigiilor au permis reconsiderarea vechilor concepţii şi abandonarea parţială a noţiunii de “revoluţie neolitică”, care a fost, tot mai frecvent, înlocuită cu cea de “transformare”, de “evoluţie neolitică”, procesul desfăşurându-se gradual, ipoteză la care subscriem şi noi, avându-se în vedere că cele mai multe dintre trăsăturile noului mod de viaţă au fost inventate la sfârşitul Paleoliticului superior şi în Epipaleolitic/Mezolitic, când a devenit, din ce în ce mai evidentă, schimbarea felului în care comunităţile umane îşi procurau resursele alimentare sau cum au realizat o serie de progrese tehnologice, cu implicaţii deosebite. Aceste transformări se datorează nu numai factorilor obiectivi, menţionaţi anterior, ci şi celor subiectivi, cum ar fi intervenţia directă, conştientă şi intenţionată a omului în natură, care l-au transformat treptat, din “prădător” şi consumator (vânător, 4 www.cimec.ro culegător, pescar etc.) în producător propriu-zis (cultivator de plante şi crescător de animale, în principal), cu un ansamblu de schimbări secundare, cu un nou comportament economic al omului, adaptativ şi preventiv alimentar, în faţa noilor provocări apărând elementele economiei de producţie, transmise, de atunci, până în prezent. În acest context, trăsăturile modului Neolitic de viaţă şi de gândire sunt deosebit de complexe, putându-se vorbi de noua perioadă istorică fără a fi acumulate, în mod obligatoriu, toate componentele sale. De aceea, a fost folosită, adesea, noţiunea de Neolitic aceramic (preceramic, Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Akeramikum) pentru o perioadă destul de îndelungată, perioadă, în care deşi s-a trecut la noul mod de viaţă, nu a fost, încă, inventată ceramica, şi, de aceea, na fost numită protoneolitic. În literatura de specialitate mai este cunoscut şi termenul de subneolitic, desemnând modul de trai al comunităţilor umane aflate la periferia Lumii Vechi care au adoptat unele componente ale Neoliticului, fie sub forma cultivării plantelor, fie în legătură cu creşterea unor animale domestice, fie confecţionarea ceramicii, lipsind alte trăsăturii. De asemenea, există mai mulţi termeni pentru a defini cea de- a doua parte a Neoliticului, când pe lângă piatră au început să fie utilizate şi unele metale: arama, aurul, argintul. Pentru a desemna perioada inaugurată de acest amplu progres tehnologic, legat, în special de cel al pirotehnologiilor, este întrebuinţat termenul de Eneolitic (lat. aeneus = aramă), (Äneolithikum, Enéolithique, Eneolithic), sinonim cu cel de Chalcolitic (gr. khalcos/χαλκως=aramă). În unele zone, unde cantitatea de piese de aramă este mare, chiar dacă nu o depăşeşte pe cea a uneltelor şi armelor de piatră, a fost întrebuinţată denumirea de epocă a aramei (Kupferzeit, Âge du Cuivre, Cooper Age) sau vârsta pietrei şlefuite şi a aramei (Steinkupferzeit, Âge de la Pierre et du Cuivre, Stone and Cooper Age). Deoarece Eneoliticul prezintă numeroase elemente de legătură cu perioada anterioară, pledăm pentru încadrarea acestui ultim stadiu neolitic tot în epoca pietrei şlefuite, având în vedere că antecedente există din perioada anterioară (vezi mai jos). În ceea ce priveşte periodizarea şi cronologia, epoca nouă a pietrei, cuprinsă între mileniile IX/VIII–IV/III bc, poate fi divizată în 5 www.cimec.ro două perioade distincte, cu evidente legături între ele: Neoliticul propriu-zis (mileniile IX/VIII–VI/V bc) şi Eneoliticul (mileniile VI/V–IV/III bc), fiecare cu subdiviziunile sale timpuriu, mijlociu şi târziu) şi cu specificităţi pentru fiecare zonă, fapt pentru care există scheme regionale şi microzonale. TRĂSĂTURILE MODULUI NEOLITIC DE VIAŢĂ ŞI GÂNDIRE Cultivarea plantelor reprezintă una dintre cele mai importante modificări comportamentale umane, produsă de Neolitic şi legată de trecerea de la stadiul preistoric, de “prădător” şi consumator, la cel protoistoric şi istoric, de producător al resurselor alimentare, fără ca noua epocă să însemne numai o “revoluţie alimentară”. Încă de la sfârşitul Paleoliticului superior şi al Epipaleoliticului diferitele comunităţi umane, din zona Semilunei Fertile, în special, care culegeau gramineele sălbatice–grâul sălbatic (speciile Triticum boeticum şi Triticum dicoccoides) (fig. 1), orzul sălbatic (Hordeum spontaneum) şi ovăzul sălbatic (Avena) etc.. şi o serie de leguminoase–lintea (Lens sp.), măzărichea (Vicia sp.) măzăroiul (Lathyris cicera), mazărea (Pisum sativum) au făcut trecerea către cultivarea plantelor. Domesticirea plantelor a fost o importantă achiziţie culturală a omului neolitic, care a avut drept urmare un răspuns biologic şi genetic, produs la nivelul populaţiilor de graminee, leguminoase, plante textile şi oleaginoase, provocat printr-o selecţie conştientă, o manipulare voită de către specia umană. Agricultura a implicat, deopotrivă şi obligatoriu, obţinerea de seminţe, cu scopul reproducerii acestora (graminee, leguminoase, plante textile şi oleaginoase etc.), în vreme ce agricultura pre-domestică şi neconştientă, s-a caracterizat prin culegerea şi folosirea de plante sălbatice, pentru scopuri alimentare, textile şi utilităţi diverse. În această viziune, cerealele au devenit o sursă importantă de hrană, cu potenţe reale, primare şi secundare influenţa acestora pentru nivelul de trai, reliefându-se prin aportul hidraţi de carbon şi, respectiv, de calorii. Zdrobite, frământate şi fierte au fost pregătite sub formă de fierturi, terciuri
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