Management of Fish Resources in Two Different City Archipelagos. Ices Cm 2001/Y:01

Home , Gothenburg archipelago, Gothenburg Municipality, Norway bullhead, Onsala, Stockholm archipelago

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ICES CM 2001/Y:01

MANAGEMENT OF FISH RESOURCES IN TWO DIFFERENT CITY ARCHIPELAGOS

Hans Ackefors1and Christer Olburs2

1Department of Zoology, Stockholm university, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden, +46-8-164020, fax +46-8-167715, e-mail: [email protected] 2WWF Sweden, Ulriksdals Slott, SE-17081 Solna, Sweden, +46-8-6247417, fax +46-8-851329, e-mail: [email protected]

The objectives of this paper are to describe the basis for management of fish resources in two different archipelagos, outside densely populated regions on the east-coast and west-coast of Sweden. The coastal zone of Stockholm area with more than 1 ½ million inhabitants and Gothenburg area with about 1 million have a great impact on the coastal zones. The areas that drains into the coastal waters of both regions are very large with many industries, agriculture, forestry and urban areas. The sea areas outside the two cities are of different characters, one with marine water of high salinity and the other with brackish water, resulting in ecosystems with very different fish faunas. On the west-coast the marine fish and shellfish species dominate with more than 30 species of some commercial interest. On the east-coast the fishfauna is a mix of species of marine and fresh water origin. In total there are 10 species of commercial interest. The marine species, cod and herring and sprat, dominate the catches in the Baltic. During the last 50 years the diversity of highly migratory species, especially in the west-coast area, has declined. The management of fish resources in a heavily densely populated area is especially difficult. For historical and biological reasons different ways of management have been developed. In the main part of the archipelagos on the east-coast privately owned water including fishing right exists, in contrast to the west-coast with no private ownership except fishing rights on oyster ground. The structure of the professional fisheries in the two areas also show great differences. On the west-coast many fishermen work full-time with fisheries while the east-coast fishermen often combine the fishing with other occupations. In the former area the commercial dimension in fisheries has been more important and the fishing industry has had a great impact on the societies along the coast. The pre-requisites for management of the fishery are thus very different between the two areas. There is an urgent need to improve the management of the fish resources in the areas for biologically and socio-economical reasons. Within the EU framework there is a possibility for the regional and local management of fish populations in the coastal zone. In this paper we discuss the need for and possibilities of a regional and local management of fish populations in the coastal zone.

1. Introduction

Coastal zone management and integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) are concepts more and more commonly used. The word management in this context is sometimes used as a synonym to planning which can create much confusion. A strict definition of the geographical limitations of the “coastal zone” is lacking. According to some authors the coastal zone reaches at least 50 km inland. In a near future the majority of the citizens will live in that zone. The outer limit is usually considered to coincide with the territorial (water) border, 12 nm outside the base line.

The cities in the coastal zone use the aquatic environment for many purposes; building, construction, discharge of sewage water, shipping etc. Almost every aspect of the aquatic environment is heavily affected by human activities and hence the fish fauna including the fishery. On the other hand the professional and recreational fisheries also influence the resources including the environment. The management of the fish resources in a coastal zone is especially complicated in densely populated areas. The fundamentals of management can be summarised as; What to manage? Who is the manager? and How to manage?

Since the borders of the administrative units (County and Municipality) are not in accordance with biological, hydrographical and geomorphological units , the management of fish populations are difficult. The smallest administrative unit is the Municipality. Its jurisdiction comprises not only the land area, but also the coastal water out to 12 n.m. according to Swedish law. On the regional level the County Board is responsible for the co- 2 ordination of the management of aquatic resources in those Municipalities situated within the County. On the central level the Swedish Government is responsible that all decisions are in accordance with international agreements and regulations as well as national legislation. The management of the fish resources is thus not a simple matter.

The management of fish resources consists of two parts, on one hand the managements of the resource itself from a conservation perspective and on the other hand the management of the resource from an exploitation perspective. By tradition the latter perspective has dominated and has been based on the Fishery Act. However, both aspects of the fish resources must be considered according to Swedish legislation.

The overall management system for the environment and the fishery on central level is administrated by two bodies; viz. Environment Protection Board and National Fishery Board ( Ackefors and Grip 1995).

Gothenburg and Stockholm are the two biggest cities in Sweden both situated at the coast with wide archipelagos between the urban areas and the open sea. Both cities were founded at river mouths, which form estuaries with vast drainage areas.

The a correct/good management of the aquatic resources is particularly important close to big cities. The environmental impact on the fish resources may be great, even at large distances from the cities. To elucidate the difficulties for the management of the fishery resources we have chosen the Gothenburg area on the Swedish west-coast and the Stockholm area on the east-coast as examples. Two coastal areas with some basic similarities but also great differences.

2. The cities and the urban areas

Gothenburg and the County of Västra Götland

Gothenburg was founded on the initiative of the king Gustav II Adolf in 1619 at the river mouth of Göta älv. However, not until the area around Gothenburg became Swedish territory in the middle of 17th century, Gothenburg became an economical, administrative and economic center with strategic importance for the whole western Sweden. The port became important for the trade of especially iron and wooden goods. Another boom occurred after the East-Indian Company was founded in 1731. During the herring period from about 1750 until 1809 Gothenburg became the most important center for the herring trade. Later on Gothenburg also became a very important industrial center with many mechanical industries and shipyards. It is the seat of the County Board for Västra Götaland County. The Gothenburg Municipality has got more than 400 000 inhabitants. Together with the 49 Municipalities in Västra Götaland the population size is around 1.5 million inhabitants.

The archipelago area is situated within four Municipalities; Gothenburg, Öckerö, Kungälv and Kungsbacka. The coast and some of the comparatively few islands have a large population of permanent residents. Many of the inhabitants are commuters to Gothenburg where they work. Ferries give good connections to Gothenburg. There is an increasing population with both permanent residents and a large population with leisure houses in the archipelago. Fishing and shipping is still of a great importance.

Stockholm and the County of Stockholm

Already in the 13th century there were inhabitants on the island at the outlet of the large lake Mälaren into the Baltic. The oldest documents where the city is mentioned are from July 1252 when Birger Jarl established Stockholm as an administrative center. Stockholm is since that time the capital of Sweden with the Government and Parliament residing in the city. The number of inhabitants increased slowly until 17th century. During that century the population size increased from 6 000 to 60 000. In the 19th century the population size increased from 100 000 in 1860 to 364 000 in 1915. The Municipality of to-day has got 750 000 inhabitants. Including the surrounding Municipalities the Great Stockholm has nowadays 1 150 000 inhabitants. The population density is 280 ind. km-2 as compared to 21 ind.km-2 for the whole country. The Stockholm County consists of 26 Municipalities of which many are situated along the coast.

The archipelago consists of 30 000 islands and skerries and is a very big asset for the population in Stockholm as recreation areas. The archipelago is very variable with an inner archipelago with a large permanent residential population. In the middle archipelago there are a lot of islands covered by forest and finally the outer archipelago 3 with lots of barren islands. The population of the inner archipelago is usually commuters to Stockholm area. There are more than 11 000 permanent residents mostly in the inner and middle archipelagos. There are more than 30 000 families with leisure houses and about 100 000 owners of leisure boats. There are a good public transportation systems to some of the islands. Nearly 4 000 of the permanent residents on the islands are employed in the archipelago, only about 50 in the commercial fishery.

3. The administrative units of the coastal zones

There are two important administrative levels of the areas, the County and the Municipality. The County Board is the regional government and has got the overall functions for the planning but also for the management of some environmental issues that concerns fish resources and the fishery. In the County Board there are departments among other things for the environment, the fishery, the commercial development, and the administration.

Swedish municipalities have the responsibility for much of the planning of land and coastal areas inside the 12 nautical miles. Outside 12 nautical miles the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) begins until 200 nautical miles or out to the midline between countries situated close to each others. In this context we will focus on the planning of the coastal waters and the hydrological units which can be described as basins of different size. The overall units have been described by SMHI (Anon. 1994) and are called coastal or sea water areas (c.f. Fig. 4.4.).

The archipelagos of Gothenburg and Stockholm

The administrative units are not functional when you handle the hydrological and the biological units of a coastal area. The urban coastal zone of Gothenburg and its archipelago can be divided into 13 distinct coastal water areas, or basins, which are either managed singly or shared by the 4 municipalities. (The sea areas can be divided into sea basins with thresholds which separate the various basins).

In the Stockholm area the situation is more complicated because of the much larger archipelago area and also because a larger number of municipalities. No less than 13 municipalities have parts in the 86 distinct water basins identified in the Stockholm archipelago. Most oft the municipalities have minor parts but others like Nynäshamn; Haninge , Tyresö but especially Österåker, Värmdö and Norrtälje have very large archipelago areas with many basins as illustrated in the table below.

County of Västra Götaland- west-coast of Sweden County of Stockholm- east-coast of Sweden Municipalities (4) Basins in the archipelago Municipalities (13) Basins in the archipelago 13 basins 86 basins Kungälv Hake fjord Botkyrka Botkyrka Kungälv Älgöfjord Botkyka Näslandsfjärden Kungälv Marstrandsfjorden Botkyrka Hallsfjärden Kungälv Sälö fjord Botkyrka Kaggfjärden Kungälv Källö fjord Nynäshamn Fållnäsviken Kungälv Nordre Älvs fjord Nynäshamn S Konabbsfjärden Öckerö Stora Kalvsund Nynäshamn Konabbsfjärden Öckerö Björköfjorden Nynäshamn Dragfjärden Göteborg Dana fjord Nynäshamn Nynäsviken Göteborg Rivö fjord Nynäshamn Gårdsfjärden Göteborg Asperöfjorden Nynäshamn Mysingen Göteborg Askims fjord Nynäshamn Horsfjärden Kungsbacka Onsala kustvatten Haninge Fåglaröfjärden Haninge Sandemarsfjärd Haninge Hanstensfjärden Haninge Jungfrufjärden 4

Haninge Gränöfjärden Tyresö Åvaviken Tyresö Vissvassfjärden Tyresö Ällmorafjärden Tyresö Kalvfjärden Tyresö Erstaviken Tyresö Ingaröfjärden Värmdö Baggensfjären Värmdö Nämndöfjärden Värmdö Björnöfjärden Värmdö Tranaröfjärden Värmdö Våmfjärden Värmdö Lagnöström Värmdö Kolström Värmdö Grisslingen Värmdö Kalkkobbsfjärden Värmdö Bulleröfjärden Värmdö Sollenkrokafjärden Värmdö Brandfjärden Värmdö Björkskärsfjärden Värmdö Rödkobbsfjärden Värmdö Getholmsfjärden Värmdö Eknösundet Värmdö Möja söderfjärd Värmdö Möja västerfjärd Värmdö Kanholmsfjärden Värmdö Breviken Värmdö Älgöfjärden Värmdö Skagsfjärden Värmdö Sandöfjärden Värmdö Solöfjärden Värmdö Torsbyfjärden Waxholm Waxholmsfjärden Lidingö Askrikefjärden Nacka Skurusundet Danderyd Lilla Värtan Stockholm Strömmen Täby Stora Värtan Österåker Kyrkfjärden Norrtälje Stenfjärden Norrtälje Uddjupet Norrtälje Lökharan Värmdö Högfjärden Värmdö Gillögafjärden Värmdö Ormskärsfjärden Norrtälje Nö Kobbfjärden Norrtälje Nåtfjärden Norrtälje Vidingefjärden Norrtälje Kobbfjärden Värmdö Kallskärsfjärden Österåker Svartlögafjärden Värmdö Träsköfjärden Österåker Gälnan Norrtälje Skatfjärden Norrtälje Blidösund Norrtälje Gräsköfjärden Norrtälje Yxlaområdet Norrtälje Ålandsfjärden 5

Norrtälje Norrfjärden Österåker Östra Saxarfjärden Österåker Västra Saxarfjärden Österåker Trälhavet Österåker Säbyvik Norrtälje Söderarms skärgård Norrtälje Granhamnsfjärden Norrtälje Tjocköfjärden Norrtälje Norrtäljeviken Norrtälje Vätösundet Norrtälje Björköfjärden Norrtälje N Lidöfjärden

The managers of the land and sea areas

The County Board and the Municipalities

On the Swedish west-coast there are no private waters and the responsibility for the its management is the County Board and the Municipalities. On the Swedish east-coast there are private waters in the inner and middle parts of the archipelago. This means that in some cases the landowners are responsible for the management. Most of the land in both areas are privately owned even though a substantial part is owned by the state, the municipality and some other organisations like foundations as the “skärgårdsstiftelsen” (Archipelago Foundation) and managed by them directly or indirectly by them.

One important aspect of the private ownership of land areas in the coastal zone close to the urban areas is that the main part of the land and water areas are owned by people not living there permanently but using it mostly for recreational purposes. This is especially important in the Stockholm area where the main part of the waters in inner and middle part of the coastal zone area are private, often with a very unclear and complicated situation concerning the fishing rights.

Other important bodies

Many issues and problems could not be dealt with within the borders of one single municipality. To handle issues concerning the waters and quality of the coastal waters (or catchment areas) in the region, the coastal municipalities in both regions have organised themselves in a conservation society "vattenvårdsförbund". The body, called BOSAM, on the west-coast is very useful for monitoring the coastal waters. Their work has been used to classify the waters on the Swedish west-coast in categories of quality requested by EC. The EC adopted quality standards for shellfish waters in October 1979 ( Ackefors 2000). By using the Norwegian system for classification the waters are now classified in five categories from slightly polluted waters (I) to very strongly polluted waters (V). All waters on the Swedish west-coast belong to category I or II depending on the substances measured.

Landowners

The main responsibility for the management of the coastal land areas are the landowners. The majority of them are private persons even if the state, the county, the municipality and foundations may have substantial land areas in the coastal zone. However, the characteristic feature of areas close to cities is that the land is own by not permanent residents having their leisure houses in the archipelago or along the coast. The landowners of the east- coast of Sweden have a great importance for the management of the fishery, as they in most cases have an almost exclusive(apart from the angling fishery) fishing right in the nearby water basins. In the outer archipelago area there is a complicated but rather well defined border between the private and public waters. However, the fishing right is not so simple in many cases as the right is bound to the property. The fishing rights associated to the land property are in many cases unclear.

4. The geographical and hydrological units

The coastal zone is a transition area between land and sea. The influence is thus significant from both from land and the sea areas. The drainage area is usually very large. E.g. in the Baltic the drainage area is four times larger than the Baltic itself. In Fig.4.1 the catchment areas of Sweden are shown .Through Gothenburg and Stockholm there are large watercourses flowing. The courses themselves were originally the main causes for the establishment of a population. In Gothenburg the river Göta Älv drains an area larger than 50 120 km2 and in Stockholm the Norrström an area close to 22 650 km2 (Fig. 4.2.) Water pollution might therefore have its origin from very distant areas. The average flow in Göta älv is 575 m3 sek-1 and the corresponding value for Norrström is 168 m3 sek-1(Fig.4.3.). The river Göta älv drains the largest lake in Sweden (lake Vänern) and the Norrström the third and the fourth largest lakes in Sweden, viz. lake Mälaren and lake Hjälmaren. In addition to those large rivers there are a number of smaller drainage areas. In the Gothenburg region 23 smaller watercourses and in Stockholm 31 smaller water courses fall into the coastal waters. And in addition to this there are many very small and temporary watercourses. Many of those watercourses have great importance for anadromous fish species as trout which is an important prey for the sportfishermen.

Figure 4.1 Main catchment areas of Sweden according to SMHI

60000

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Fig. 4.2 Drainage areas of river Göta Älv (Gothenburg) and Norrström (Stockholm)

Average flow m3/sek

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0 Göta älv Norrström

Fig. 4.3 Average flow through river Göta Älv (Gothenburg) and the water course Norrström (Stockholm)

The coastal zone and the archipelagos with the basins

Both Gothenburg and Stockholm are situated inside archipelagoes with hundreds of islands and skerries.

The concept archipelago referring to the part of the topography which is situated above water surface, thus the land area. Under the water surface the archipelago consists of a system of basins which are bordered by thresholds. The basins are thus demarcated from each others by islands and shallow thresholds. From a hydrological point of view they can be considered as functional units defined by a certain size, a least threshold depth and a least cross section ( Anon. 1994). According to this definition the coastal zone outside Gothenburg consists of 13 basins. Outside Stockholm the area is much larger and consists of 86 basins.

Coastal water

On the other side of the inner basins there is a transition zone often called costal water zone. The outer border line for a coastal water is not unambiguously defined but can be generalised by the depth curve of 20 m. The 8 reason is that the wave action have little impact below 20 m depth. This depth is very often close to the compensation depth for primary production. The freshwater flow from water courses follow the coastline due to the coriolus force. This means that many coastal areas get a long coastal water zone.

Sea area

The division of larger sea areas on both sides of Sweden consists of several units according to SMHI (Anon. 1994)( Fig.4.4). Gothenburg coastal zone is situated in the boundary areas between the Kattegat and the Skagerrak. Both those areas are connected to the North Sea and the Atlantic. Stockholm archipelago adjoins the part of the Baltic which is called the north Gotland Sea and the southern part of the Åland Sea.

Fig. 4.4 Subdivisions of sea and coastal areas according to SMHI (Anon 1994)

5.The water resources

The basins of the archipelagoes are similar to drawn out estuaries. The supply of freshwater is large in the inner basins close to the mouthpart of the large water courses which influence the flora and fauna comprehensively. The flow follow main routes. The long way from Norrström in Stockholm out to sea is 60 km and the water body passes about 13 basins before it reaches the coastal waters of the Stockholm archipelago and further through the coastal water and out to the north Gotland basin in the Baltic (cf. Fig.4.4.). The water of river Göta Älv has a considerable shorter distance through 2-3 basins before it reaches the coastal water of Gothenburg archipelago and further out to Kattegat and Skagerrak coastal waters.

In the figures below an outline of the differences in water parameters are given based on three sites on the east- coast and three sites on the west-coast, viz. at the mouthpart of the water course, in the acrhipelago and one sea station. The depths are from 5-10 m. The parameters temperature, salinity, tot-N, tot-P and in some cases chlorophyll.

Sites for measuring the water quality

Site latitude longitude Depth Year and Source Slussen (inner Stockholm) 59,19 18,04 8 2000, Stockholm Vatten Sollenkroka (Stockholm archipelago) 59,22 18,40 8 2000, Stockholm Vatten BY 31, Sea station on the east-coast 58,35 18,14 10 2000, SMHI/SHARK Älvsborgs bridge (Gothenburg) 57,41 11,54 5 1998, BOSAM Danafjord (Gothenburg archipelago) 57,40 11,41 10 1998, BOSAM P2, Sea station on the west-coast 57,52 11,18 10 2000, SMHI/SHARK

Fig.5.1.The sampling station for biological and hydrological datat (SMHI, SHARK)

Temperature in the various sites

Temperature curves (5-10 m depth) show great similarities between the various sites, in some cases displaced. An important difference is that that the archipelago in the Stockholm area is usually covered with ice for a period of three month. In the west-coast we experience super-cooled water during cold winters and very seldom ice, because of the big flow from river Göta Älv (Fig.5.2.) 11

Temperature

12 P2 Danafjord 10 Älvsborg bridge

oC Slussen 8 Sollenkroka BY 31 6

0 123456789101112 month

Fig.5.2. The temperature curves for various sites in the Gothenburg and Stockholm areas.

Salinity

The salinity in the sea areas outside Gothenburg are Kattegat/ Skagerrak with about 20 PSU while the surface waters outside Stockholm is only about 6 PSU. There is a gradually increase of salinity from the inner archipelago to the outer sea areas in surface waters are obvious, particularly in the Gothenburg area (Fig.5.3)

Salinity (5-10 m)

40,0 35,0 30,0 P2 25,0 Danafjord Älvsborg bridge 20,0

PSU Slussen 15,0 Sollenkroka 10,0 BY 31 5,0 0,0 123456789101112 month

Fig.5.3. The salinity curves for various sites in the Gothenburg and Stockholm areas.

Nutrients

The outflow of the nutrients nitrogen (Fig.5.4.) and phosphorus (Fig. 5.5.) in archipelagos from the cities are conspicuous. They contain the drainage flows, sewage treatment water flow and various diffuse sources. Nitrogen measures as umol/L (N-tot) at the various sites show high values in the inner sites and high fluctuations during the years. The same is true for phosphorus.

Total Nitrogen

P2 50 Danafjord Älvsborg bridge umol/l 40 Slussen Sollenkroka 30 BY 31

0 123456789101112 month

Total Phosphorus

2,50

2,00

1,50 Danafjord Älvsborg bridge

ol/l Slussen um Sollenkroka 1,00 BY 31

0,50

0,00 123456789101112 month

Figs 5.4. and 5.5. Showing the concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen measured as µmol/L during one year.

Chlorophyll

The sea sites show conspicuous differences in the chlorophyll concentrations with an obvious peak in the Baltic during April followed by smaller peaks in July and September. In the Skagerrak/ Kattegat the chlorophyll concentrations show a smaller peak in March followed by larger ones in June and August (Fig.5.6.)

P2 3 BY 31

0 123456789101112

Fig.5.6. The chlorophyll concentration measured as µg/L during a year at the sea stations P2 (Gothenburg area) and BY31 (Stockholm area). (please, see map 5.1.)

Discharge of treated sewage water

The discharge of sewage water affects the living conditions in the water and thus the fish fauna. Both cities discharge their treated sewage water in the inner basins of their archipelagos. Even if the water treatment is relatively efficient, the composition of the effluents result in a substantial amount of organic matter, phosphorus and nitrogen, heavily affecting the water quality especially in the inner parts and lowering the quality of the coastal area with effects on environment and recreation.

It's a considerable amount of sewage water which is discharged into the archipelagos , for Stockholm it is about 4 % of the average flow of the river Norrström. It is paradox that the treated sewage water is discharged in very important recreational areas. A better solution would be to move the points of discharge to spots further out to the sea where a more efficient mixing with the sea water can take place.

It is obvious that the discharge of phosphorus has decreased from 80 tons per year to about 30 tons in the year of 2000 in Stockholm area ( Fig. 5.7.) In Gothenburg area the discharge is bigger at least from 1994 and onwards. During the peak years the discharge was 100 tons per annum

The discharge of nitrogen ( 5.8.) from Stockholm treatment plant was high in the beginning of the period (4 500 tons) but has later decreased to less than 2 000 tons. In Gothenburg the discharge has never exceeded 2 500 tons and was around 1 300 tons in the year of 2 000.

Total phosphorus

120

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s 80

Stockholm

tonne 60 Gothenburg ic tr e

m 40

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Fig.5.7. The discharge of phosphorus in tons from the sewage treatment plants in Stockholm and Gothenburg.

Total Nitrogen

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tonne 2500

ic Gothenburg tr e

m 2000

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0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Fig.5.8 The discharge of nitrogen in tons from the sewage treatment plants in Stockholm and Gothenburg .

The BOD 7 values have varied considerably during the years in the Gothenburg sea area with a peak of 2 500 tons in 1995. In Stockholm sea area station it has decreased from about 1300 to 500 tons in the year of 2000. 15

BOD 7

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Stockholm

tonne 1500 Gothenburg ic tr e

m 1000

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0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Fig.5.8 The BOD7 values for the sewage discharge from Gothenburg and Stockholm.

Nutrients from other sources

A great deal of the nutrients which are discharged has its origin from the drainage areas. This is obvious if you study the percentage of freshwater in treated discharge water (Fig. 5.9). Both Göta Älv and Norrström contain large amount of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Relative average flow Stockholm

Sewage water

Norrström

Relative average flow Gothenburg

Sewage water

Göta älv

Fig. 5.9 The relative average flow of sewage waters (blue sector) and river water (red sector) in Stockholm and Gothenburgh archepelagos.

Total phosphorus to the Stockholm archipelago from sewage and Norrström

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1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 m 2000 e ag rrströ P sew P No

Total nitrogen to the Stockholm archipelago from sewage and the river Norrström

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1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 m 2000 e ag rrströ N sew N No

Phosphorous from two sources to the Gothenburg archipelagofrom sewage and river Göta älv

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0 1992 1993 1994 Göta älv 1995 1996 1997 Sewage 1998 1999 2000

Total Nitrogen from two differnt sources to the Gothenburg archipelago from sewage and river Göta älv

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0 1992 1993 1994 Göta älv 1995 1996 1997 Sewage 1998 1999 2000

Eutrophication as a threat to the fish fauna

The sea areas surrounding Swedish mainland have very different characteristic features. The two main components are the Baltic sea basin in the east, which is a brackish water environment with low and stable salinities, and the Kattegat and the Skagerrak basins in the west with brackish water of high and variable salinities in the Kattegat. Along the coast of Skagerrak there is brackish water of high salinity and full marine waters in the outer Skagerrak. The semi-enclosed sea area of Baltic has a low diversity of animals and the opposite is the case in the Kattegat and Skagerrak.

The Baltic Sea is one of the largest brackish water areas on Earth, some 377,000 km2 , with a fourfold larger drainage area (1,745,000 km2 ), extensive industrial activity, and a population of 85 million ( Elmgren and Larsson 2001). This has a great impact both on the fish populations, and on the fishery in the area. The coastal fishery is thus on one hand threatened from land activities but it is also threatened by the off-shore fishery.

The eutrophication of sea areas nowadays is a fact. And the reason for the eutrophication with wide areas of oxygen deficit in the Baltic is caused by antropogenic sources ( Elmgren and Larsson, 2001). The paper by those authors gives a good survey of the relation between sediment, hydrographic conditions, nutrients and various sources of nutrient discharges to the Baltic.The long series of investigations show the eutrophication-related ecological changes in the Baltic Sea and the Kattegat on the west-coast have been caused primarily by increased antropogenic nutrient inputs mainly after World War II. The authors summarized the effects as:

Reduced water transparency, which has reduced submersed vegetation, affected fish stocks, and lowered the value of the coast for tourism, recreation, and nature conservation. Increase of noxious algal blooms. Cyanobacterial blooms, in the open seas particularly of the toxic, nitrogen-fixing genus Nodularia, are the main problem; however, a number of fish kills by the prymnesiophyte Prymnesium parvum have been reported from the Baltic proper coastal zone. The former is stimulated by low inorganic N/P ratios; the latter is thought to be favoured by high N/P ratios.

Increased areas of oxygen-deficient bottom waters occur in the Baltic area. While not easily perceived at the surface, except in extreme cases, oxygen deficiency will kill fish and invertebrates and change nutrient cycling ways that mostly enhance eutrophication (positive feedback).

Changes in fish stocks have been both positive, due to increased food supply(e.g. pike-perch in Baltic archipelagos) and negative (e.g. oxygen deficiency reducing Baltic cod recruitment).

1, 249 000 tons of nitrogen from riverine load, coastal point sources and atmospheric load are discharged to the Baltic sea annually. In addition nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria add further 200,000- 400,000 tons nitrogen per year to the sea. The agriculture is by far the largest nitrogen source. Others are combustion in domestic heating, transport, and industry is the second largest source. Sea transport contributes as well. Municipal sewage is also a considerable nitrogen source for the Baltic as a whole and locally. Industry emissions into water can be locally important, as can aquaculture. However, the phytoplankton community is considered to be nitrogen limited in the Baltic. The reason for the scarcity of nitrogen is the huge nitrogen sink into the sediment. The bacterial denitrification is the main contributor to the sink.

The load of phosphorus to the Baltic is 56 000 tons annually. The single largest source of phosphorus is municipal sewage (including individual households), released either directly at the coast or into inland waters (Elmgren and Larsson, 2001).

On a national basis Sweden have eliminated gross fecal pollution since the early 20th century, but nutrient removal efforts started only in 1970s. Phosphorus removal has already been a success in lakes, and now implemented around Stockholm archipelago that connects the city to the Baltic. The same is true for the Gothenburg region where lots of nutrients are removed by the treatment plant Ryaverken. The phosphorus removal would reduce the algal biomass is the inner archipelago but would also lead to increased export of nitrogen to the nitrogen-limited inner archipelago of Stockholm. As predicted , phosphorus removal limited blooms of cyanobacteria. The treatment plants have now started to reduce the nitrogen discharge in order to reduce phytoplankton blooms. This is true for Danish waters where a series of major phytoplankton blooms, which also affected Swedish waters, became the starting signal for major research programs on marine eutrophication in Denmark. The relationship between phosphorus, nitrogen and iron in waters for initiating phytoplankton blooms are described by Elmgren and Larsson (2001).

6. The fish fauna

The total amount of fish species in Swedish waters is about 250 species which is about one percent of the described species in the world (Kullander 2000). There are great differences between our two investigated areas. In the nearly marine area outside Gothenburg 129 species have been identified. In addition a few more fresh water species may be found at the entrance of the freshwater rivers. In the Stockholm archipelago about 50 species have been regularly found in the brackish water and another ten species can be characterised as rare guests. The table below is a compilation from two sources ( Lagenfelt 1989 and Olburs 2000). 20

Scientific name Common name, after Gothenburg Stockholm Wheeler A 1978. archipelago archipelago Myxine glutinosa Hagfish X

Lampetra fluviatilis Lampern X

Chimaera monstrosa Rat-fish X

Alopias vulpinus Thresher X Cetorhinus maximus Basking shark X Lamna nasus Porbeagle X

Galeorhinus galeus Tope X Prionace glauca Blue shark X Galeus melastomus Black-mouthed dogfish X Scyliorhinus canicula Dogfish X

Etmopterus spinax Velvet belly X Somniosus microcephalus Geenland shark X Squalus acanthias Spurdog X

Raja batis Skate X Raja clavata Roker X Raja oxyrinchus Long-nosed skate X Raja radiata Starry ray X

Acipenser sturio Sturgeon X

Anguilla anguilla Eel X X Conger conger Conger X

Alosa alosa Allis shad Alosa fallax Twaite shad X Clupea harengus Herring X X Sardina pilchardus Pilchard X Sprattus sprattus Sprat X X Engraulis encrasicolus Anchovy X

Abramis bjoerkna Silver bream X Abramis brama Bream X Abramis vimba Zährte X Alburnus alburnus Bleak X Carassius carassius Crucian carp X Leuciscus idus Ide X Leuciscus leuciscus Dace X Phoxinus phoxinus Minnow X Rutilus erythrophthalmus Rudd X Rutilus rutilus Roach X Tinca tinca Tench X

Argentina silus Greater argentine X Argentina sphyraena Argentine X

Scientific name Common name, after Gothenburg Stockholm Wheeler A 1978. archipelago archipelago Osmerus eperlanus Smelt X

Coregonus albula Vendace X X Coregonus sp. Whitefish X Salmo salar Atlantic salmon X X Salmo trutta Trout X X

Esox lucius Pike X

Maurolicus muelleri Pearlsides X

Lampris guttatus Opah X Trachipterus arcticus Deal-fish X

Gadus morhua Cod X X Melanogrammus aeglefinus Haddock X Merlangius merlangus Whiting X Micromesistius poutassou Blue whiting X Pollachius pollachius Pollack X Pollachius virens Saithe X Trisopterus esmarkii Norway pout X Trisopterus luscus Bib X Trisopterus minutus Poor cod X Brosme brosme Torsk X Ciliata mustela Five-bearded rockling X Enchelyopus cimbrius Four-bearded rockling X Gaidropsarus vulgaris Three-bearded rockling X Lota lota Burbot X Molva dypterygia Blue ling X Molva molva Ling X Coryphaenoides rupestris Roundhead rat-tail X Malacocephalus laevis Softhead rat-tail X Merluccius merluccius Hake X Phycis blennoides Forkbeard X Raniceps raninus Tadpole-fish X

Lophius piscatorius Angler X

Zeus faber Dory X

Belone belone Garfish X X

Gasterosteus aculeatus Stickleback X Pungitius pungitius Nine-spined stickleback X Spinachia spinachia Fifteen-spined stickleback X X Entelurus aequoraeus Snake pipefish X Nerophis lumbriciformis Worm pipefish X Nerophis ophidion Straight-nosed pipefish X X Syngnathus acus Greater pipefish X Syngnathus rostellatus Nilsson´s pipefish X Syngnathus typhle Deep-snouted pipefish X X

Chelon labrosus Thick-lipped grey mullet X 22

Scientific name Common name, after Gothenburg Stockholm Wheeler A 1978. archipelago archipelago Liza ramada Thin-lipped grey mullet X

Agonus cataphractus Hooknose X Cottus gobio Bullhead X Micrenophrys lilljeborgii Norway bullhead X Myoxocephalus scorpius Bull-rout X X Taurulus bubalis Sea scorpion X X Triglops murrayi Moustache sculpin X Triglopsis quadricornis Four-horn sculpin X Cyclopterus lumpus Lumpsucker X X Liparis liparis Sea-snail X X Liparis montagui Montagu´s sea-snail X Chelidonichthys gurnardus Grey gurnard X Chelidonichthys lucerna Tub gurnard X Helicolenus dactylopterus Blue-mouth X Sebastes norvegicus Red-fish X Sebastes viviparus Norway haddock X

Ammodytes marinus Raitt´s sandeel X Ammodytes tobianus Sandeel X X Hyperoplus lanceolatus Greater sandeel X X Anarhichas denticulatus Jelly cat X Anarhichas lupus Catfish X Brama brama Ray´s bream X Callionymus lyra Dragonet X Callionymus maculatus Spotted dragonet X Trachurus trachurus Scad X Aphia minuta Transparent goby X Crystallogobius linearis Crystal goby X Gobius niger Black goby X X Gobiusculus flavescens Two-spotted goby X X Lebetus scorpioides Diminutive goby X Lesueurigobius friesii Fries´s goby X Pomatoschistus microps Common goby X X Pomatoschistus minutus Sand goby X X Pomatoschistus pictus Painted goby X Centrolabrus exoletus Rock cook X Ctenolabrus rupestris Goldsinny X Labrus bergylta Ballan wrasse X Labrus mixtus Cuckoo wrasse X Symphodus melops Corkwing wrasse X Dicentrarchus labrax Bass X Mullus surmuletus Red mullet X Gymnocephalus cernuus Ruffe X Perca fluviatilis Perch X Sander lucioperca Zander X Pholis gunnellus Butterfish X X Scomberesox saurus Skipper X Orcynopsis unicolor Plain bonito X Scomber scombrus Mackerel X Thunnus thynnus Blue-fin tunny X Boops boops Bogue X Pagellus bogaraveo Red sea-bream X 23

Scientific name Common name, after Gothenburg Stockholm Wheeler A 1978. archipelago archipelago Spondyliosoma cantharus Black sea-bream X Chirolophis ascanii Yarell´s blenny X Lumpenus lampretaeformis Snake blenny X X Trachinus draco Greater weever X Xiphias gladius Swordfish X Lycodes vahlii Vahl´s eelbout X Zoarces viviparus Viviparous blenny X X

Arnoglossus laterna Scaldfish X Phrynorhombus norvegicus Norwegian topknot X Psetta maxima Turbot X X Scophthalmus rhombus Brill X Zeugopterus punctatus Topknot X Glyptocephalus cynoglossus Witch X Hippoglossoides platessoides Long rough dab X Hippoglossus hippoglossus Halibut X Microstomus kitt Lemon sole X Platichthys flesus Flounder X X Pleuronectes limanda Dab X Pleuronectes platessa Plaice X Buglossidium luteum Solenette X Solea solea Sole X

Mola mola Sun-fish X

It is obvious from the table above that the fish fauna in Gothenburg area is much more diversified. The fauna in both areas are dominated by fewer species. In Gothenburg about 89 species are found regularly and in Stockholm area about 40 species. Within the areas there are also some threatened species. The Environmental Protection Board and the Swedish Threatened Species Unit have put 17 of the above mentioned species on the “red list” (see table below).

"Threatened" fish species in the Gothenburg and/or Stockholm archipelago

Order/Family Scientific name Common name Status PETROMYZONTIFORMES Petromyzontidae Lampetra fluviatilis Lampern (EN) LAMNIFORMES Alopiidae Cetorhinus maximus Basking shark (VU) Alopiidae Lamna nasus Porbeagle (VU) CARCHARHINIFORMES Scyliorhinidae Scyliorhinus canicula Dogfish (DD) RAJIFORMES Rajidae Raja batis Skate (EN) Rajidae Raja clavata Roker (VU) ACIPENSERIFORMES Acipenseridae Acipenser sturio Sturgeon (RE) CLUPEIFORMES Clupeidae Alosa fallax Twaite shad (DD) SALMONIFORMES Salmonidae Salmo salar Atlantic salmon (VU) GADIFORMES Lotidae Ciliata mustela Five-bearded rockling (DD) 24

Lotidae Gaidropsarus vulgaris Three-bearded rockling(DD) SCORPAENIFORMES Cottidae Micrenophrys lilljeborgii Norway bullhead (DD) Cottidae Triglopsis quadricornis Four-horn sculpin (NT) PERCIFORMES Gobiidae Lesueurigobius friesii Fries´s goby (DD) Labridae Centrolabrus exoletus Rock cook (DD) Stichaeidae Chirolophis ascanii Yarell´s blenny (NT) Pleuronectidae Hippoglossus hippoglossusHalibut (VU)

RE=regionally extinct, EN= endangered, VU=vulnerable, NT= near threatened, DD= data deficient

In addition to those 17 species, the blue fin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and perhaps also the swordfish (Xiphias gladius) might be added. Those earlier appearing fishes have disappeared from Swedish waters. Porbeagle, salmon and halibut are still fished commercially although they may be considered as vulnerable.

Commercial fish species

About 40 fish species of certain importance are landed in the commercial fishery on the west-coast ( more information in section 7). In addition Norway lobster, crab and lobster are fished. Only small amounts of blue mussels and oysters are fished. However, the farming of blue mussel is of some importance.

On the east-coast there are about 10 species of commercial importance. The recreational fishery is also aiming for the same species. And in addition some freshwater species appear in the coastal zone. In total 20 species on the west-coast and 15 species on the east-coast are caught in the recreational fishery.

Fish populations

The basic unit in taxonomy is the concept of species. The species can form many separate populations in distinct geographical areas with isolated reproduction units, e.g. herring in the Baltic or in the Skagerrak. For the conservation purposes the population unit is the most useful one. The populations are not static and a dynamic exchange of spawning populations may occur in some areas due to migration. The migratory behaviour may mix populations during certain parts of the year. This makes it more difficult to take conservation measures for certain populations.

For populations of species occurring in both areas, it is interesting to note their ability to adapt themselves to local conditions. This is true for trout which reproduce themselves in small rivers. The juveniles remain in the rivers 1-2 years before they return to sea and their feeding area. On the east-coast there are largely grown specimens which start early to feed on herring. On the west-coast the juveniles approach the entrance of the river mouth during winter where the lower salinity is favourable for them. In the Stockholm area the trout migrate out into the archipelago to their feeding areas while the trout on the west-coast remain feeding in the mouths of the rivers.

Herring is another species which have adapted themselves to various living conditions on the west-coast and the east-coast. On the east-coast the herring reach a length of about 20 cm while the herring on the west-coast may reach lengths of more than 30 cm. The reasons are manifold. The low salinity in the Baltic force the herring to spend more energy on osmo-regulations to keep up their inner salinity concentrations. The zooplankton species are smaller, mostly less than 1mm, while on the west-coast they can e.g. consume copepods of sizes up to 4mm and euphausiads of 10-15 mm.

Migrations

Most species migrate although some species as pike remain within a small home range area. But many species migrate from spawning areas to feeding areas and winter areas where they can remain for months within the 25 same area. For conservation measures this means that it is a must to know the detailed biology of the species. For many species, even the commercial ones the knowledge is very limited. It is of great importance for management measures that we know the migration pattern e.g. into the archipelago and out from the archipelago. With acoustic devices it is nowadays possible to follow the migration routes of various age classes in and out from the coast. For e.g. herring, the juveniles remain in the archipelago while the adults, after the spawning in the spring, migrate to sea.

7. The Swedish fishery

Fishing vessels

All Swedish vessels are registered in districts (areas) along the coast. GG-vessels belong to Municipalities in Gothenburg, Kungsbacka, Kungälv och Öckerö. In addition the municipalities Stenungsund och Tjörn ,which are not included in this study, belong also to that district. SM-distriktet embraces Stockholm county; Botkyrka, Danderyds, Haninge, Lidingö, Nacka, Norrtälje, Nynäshamns, Stockholms, Södertälje, Tyresö, Täby, Vaxholms, Värmdö and Östhammar municipalities, of which Södertälje och Östhammar are not included in this study. A comparison of the two districts indicate the the various importance of the fishery in the two areas with many more vessels on the west-coast and on the east-coast. By definition coastal fishery is performed mainly by vessels smaller than 12 m and fishing within 12 n.m. limit and are away from their home port less than 24 hours per fishing occasion (Fig. 7.1.).

Fi shi ng v e sse l s

250

200

150

Number 100

0 Distr ict Size class <12m 12m-

Fig.7.1. The number of fishing vessels smaller than 12 m and larger than 12 m in the Stockholm district (SM) and the Gothenburg (GG) district in the year 1999.

The largest vessels registered in the GG district devote themselves to long distance fishing in the off-shore areas of the Baltic and fishing with pelagic trawl, very often pair-trawling. The target is sprat and herring in the Baltic aimed for reduction. However, sometimes the vessels are fishing close to the coast which lead to a tense relationship between coastal fishermen on the east-coast and the ”intruder” from the west-coast. Coastal fishermen in the Baltic have requested that the trawl limit should be moved further out to sea. The vessels from the west-coast are larger and can be characterised as modern “industrial trawlers”.

On the east-coast, fishing have mainly been performed in the archipelago or in the coastal zone. During s short period in the 1980s when the supply of cod was good, investments in larger vessels were made. But after some good years they were obliged to start fishing in the southern Baltic and later on sell their boats.

The landings by the professional fishery

Although the number of full-time fishermen have decreased from more than 12 000 in 1948 to about 2000 in 1998 the amount of fish landed is more or less the same. From 1981 until 1991 the total annual Swedish landings varied between 200 000 and 270 000 metric tons (Fig. 7.2.). The figures include small figures for the Atlantic, North Sea and with the main part coming from Kattegat, Skagerrak and the Baltic. During most of the years the catches in the Skagerrak+ Kattegat including small catches in the North Sea equal the catches in the Baltic including the Sound. From 1992 and onwards the catches increased very much in the Baltic mainly due to a comprehensive industrial fishery for sprat and herring. The total landings from all areas exceeded 300 000 tons and in two years (1995 and 1998) they even exceeded 400 000 tons. The industrial fishery amounted to 72% and 79%, respectively during those two years. The main part of the that fish came from the Baltic.

Swedish fishery 1981-1999

450000

400000

350000

300000

The Atlantic s 250000 The North Sea

tonne The Kattegat+ Skagerrak ic

tr 200000 The Baltic

Me Total 150000

100000

50000

0 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Fig. 7.2. The Swedish fishery in the Atlantic, North Sea, Skagerrak+ Kattegat, the Baltic including the Sound 1981-1999.

From table 7.1. it is obvious that the main part of the landing in Swedish fishery is industrial fish, mainly consisting of sprat and herring from the Baltic or the west-coast. According to Sjöstrand (1999) about 70% comes from the Baltic and the rest from the Skagerrak and the Kattegat. The landings in 1998 amounted to 80% of the weight and the value to about 1/3 of the total value. In 1999 the amount had decreased to about 73.5% (Table 7.1.). Herring aimed for food consumption ( 46 090) was ranked as number two in commercial landings followed by cod (22 596). 5 751 tons of sprat was landed mainly for the canning industry. Even if the amount of fish landings were rather low for a lot of species, the value of the landings was comparatively high especially for deep water prawn, Norway lobster, eel and mackerel.

Table 7.1. The most important fish species including industrial fish by weight in the Swedish fishery 1999. The weight is given in tonnes and round weight according to SCB (2001).

Species tonnes ranking % of the total landing Industrial fish 241 167 1 73.5 Herring 46 090 2 14.0 Cod 22 596 3 6.9 Sprat 5 751 4 1.8 Mackerel 4 985 5 1.5 Deep water prawn 2 289 6 0.7 Saithe 1 635 7 0.5 Norway lobster 2 289 8 0.4 Eel 594 9 0.2 Witch 501 10 0.2 Plaice 405 11 0.1 27

Salmon 399 12 0.1 Flounder 274 13 0.1 Turbot 159 14 0.1 Total Landing 328 206 100

Swedish landings from the Kattegat and Skagerrak

Swedish fishery in the Kattegat and Skagerrak areas consists of fish species, crustacean- and mollusc species. The landings of fish species have usually varied from 100 000 up to 140 000 metric tons per year (Cf. Fig. 7.2). From 1996 and onwards the figures have dropped to 50 000 - 60 000 tons. The crustacean landings have varied between 1900 tons and 2 700 ton during the 1980´s. In the 1990s the catches have increased to 3500 metric tons. The main part consists of Norway lobster and deep-water prawn. Very minor catches are taken of mollusc species as blue mussels and oysters.

The backbone of the fishery on the west-coast has always been herring, sprat and cod. Herring landings peaked 1992 when 114 000 were landed. From 1982 until 1995 the landings were in the order of 60 000 to 114 000 tons. In 1996 and onwards the landings dropped to 40 000 tons or less. The Swedish sprat landings, aimed for the canning industry, were mostly in the order of 5 000 tons to 10 000 tons. In 1994 35 000 tons were landed and thereafter the landings fell to 3000- to 7000 tons. The annual sprat landings for all nations together have been 60 000 to 100 000 tons from 1974 until 1981. After that the landings for sprat amounted to only 10 000 to 40 000 tons until 1994 when nearly 100 000 tons were caught. The Swedish cod landings have been around 3 000 to 8 000 tons during the mentioned period. For all nations together in the Kattegat area, the landings were 8 000 to 23 000 tons during the mentioned period.

Sole catches in the Kattegat and the Skagerrak areas, are very important as this species is a high price species. The landings have increased from 400 tons in the beginning of the period to 1200 to 1 400 tons in the middle of 1990s. During the latter period the Swedish landings were 60 to 90 tons. The TAC for 2 000 is 850 tons.

The mackerel landings have varied from 600 tons up to 4 000 tons annually.

Norway lobster is also a commercially important species. The total landings have varied from 1600 tons to 5 000 tons during the period 1960 –1999. From 1981 until 1999 the Swedish landings have varied from 600 up to 1250 tons annually. The deep-water prawns was during the same period 900 up to 2 500 tons annually.

The fishery of cod in the inner part of the coastal zone

The commercial fishery for cod in the inner coastal zone is carried out with cod nets, purse seine, troll line, hand line, fyke nets, pollack nets, cod nets, crab nets, flounder nets, pots, bottom nets and drag nets. The high diversity of gears makes it difficult to compare the fishing efforts in various areas as well comparing the results from scientific trawl hauls.

By studying the catches of cod in the inner coastal zone, using the fishermen´s logbooks, the present landings amount to 100 metric tons. 80-90% of the yield was taken with cod net. During the early 1900s four to fem times that amount were landed. The coastal fishery of cod correspond to 5-10% of the total cod fishery (Svedäng 2001a).

The commercial fishery for cod in the Kattegat area

Cod is caught mainly in the trawl fishery or as bycatches when trawling for Norway lobster and sole ( Sjöstrand 1999). The TAC for 2000 is 6 400 tons. The fishing mortality is too high and must be diminished to 40% of the value for 1998. The spawning biomass has decreased very much since 1970s when catches went up to 20 000 tons compared to 7 000 tons of which Swedish fishermen caught 3 000 tons ( cf. Fig.7.3.)

The Swedish Fishery in the Baltic

The brackish water in the Baltic imply that rather few species occur in the area. The commercial crustacean species do not occur neither molluscan species. The low diversity means that the fishery mainly consists of herring, sprat, cod and salmon. In addition to that there is a fishery for freshwater species which can adapt to low salinities. In the inner part of Gulf of Bothnia the salinity is down to 2 or less PSU (ppt) and in the Baltic proper the surface salinity is 6-8 PSU. In the Bottom waters of the southern, e.g. the Bornholm basin the salinity is around 20 PSU. This means that in the southern Baltic you can catch “real” marine species as mackerel and various flatfishes. Turbot and flounder can tolerate very low salinities and may occur up to Åland Sea or even more to the north, while others as plaice and dab have the northern distribution limit further to the south.

The total herring landings from the Baltic proper have decreased from more than 400 000 tons in the end of 1970s until less than 300 000 tons in the end of 1990s ( Sjöstrand 1999). In the central Baltic proper the corresponding figures are 300 000 to 200 000 tons. According to the advice from ICES the total fishing mortality must be reduced to F=0.17 to admit the spawning population to increase to 1 million tons. The Swedish fishery have varied up and down from 40 000 to 150 000 tons. During later years a large share of the catches have been used as industrial fish for reduction.

The sprat catches have increased dramatically from 1990s and onwards to more than 500 000 tons. The proposed advice for 2000 is a TAC of 192 000 tons with a fishing mortality not exceeding F= 0.35 (30%). The Swedish catches were insignificant in the 1980s but in the 1990s they increased to 163 000 tons during the peak year 1996 Nearly everything of this yield is used for reduction.

The cod landings increased to 450 000 tons in the middle of 1980s . The reason was better hydrographical conditions in the Bornholm basin with lots of oxygen and good yearclasses in the beginning of 1980s. Since then the conditions have deteriorated and the catches decreased to 60 000 in 1993 and have since then increased a bit. The TAC advice for 2000 is 44 600 tons. The Swedish cod catches have decreased from about 65 000 tons in 1985 to 17 000 tons in 2000 (Fig.7.3). The Swedish salmon fishery in the Baltic have varied from 400 tons to 1200 tons during 1980s. In the 1990s the catches have decreased from 1250 tons to 400 tons in 1999.

In the Baltic there is a very important Swedish fishery for eel which have varied between 400 tons and 800 tons from 1981 until 1999. To support this fishery there are stockings of glass eel in Swedish rivers.

Cod landings from the Baltic and the Kattegat+Skagerrak

70,000

60,000

50,000

Baltic Yield

s 40,000 n to c tri

Me 30,000

20,000 Kattegat and Skagerrak Yield

10,000

0 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1195 1996 1997 1998 1999

Fig.7.3. Swedish cod landings 1982-2000 29

The cod has been overexploited in the Baltic in the end of 1970s. In the beginning of the 1980s there were agreements on TAC, later on there were no agreements within IBSFC and thereafter there were agreements again. It is obvious from the figure that more cod was caught than the recommended TAC before 1983. Some years during the 1990s the landings were lower than TAC. For 2002 there is a recommendation to stop all fisheries in that area for cod.

Cod landings and TAC in the Baltic

500 400 300 TAC 200 Landning

Metric tons 100 0

70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20

Fig. 7.4. The total cod landings for all nations and the TAC in the Baltic (Sjöstrand 1999)

The landings of freshwater fish species in the Baltic are locally important for the the fishery. Pike-perch, pike and perch and a few other species have varied from 300 and 800 tons. Especially pike-perch is a very expensive species in the market. Another important fish is whitefish where the catches have fluctuated between 300 and 600 tons during the period except for one year when it was less.

Coastal fishery

The professional fishery along the coast is still a small-scale fishery mainly with vessels less than 12 m. The number of vessels and fishermen are decreasing as the profitibility is rather low. The infrastructure for that fishery is not very good concerning landings and distribution. The competition from the off-shore fishery is large and the influence from that fishery on the fishpopulations have decreased the asset in the coastal zone. Another problem for the coastal fishery is the predation by seals and cormorants.

Swedish landings from the coastal waters of the Swedish west-coast

In this section we compare the coastal fishery with the whole Swedish fishery in the Skagerrak + Kattegat.

40000

35000

30000

25000

Metric tonnes 20000

15000

10000

5000

0 g n Eel h ce b r Sprat a ai r Herri te Sole ter Witc Pl s c b Mackerel o lobs n a ay l Edible rw ope No Eur

Fig. 7.5. Comparison of the Swedish coastal fishery for selected species in statistical area 4456 according to logbook information (front row) with the fishery in the whole Swedish fishery in the Kattegat and Skagerrak (back row).

Fishery by vessels from the SM-district (Stockholm district)

The number of professional fishermen has decreased significantly during the last 50 years. During the 1980s there was a slight increase in the number of fishermen due to the temporary good supply of cod. The number of fishermen is now about 50 and their mean age is high, about 50 years, and the recruitment is low. (Blomqvist et al 1996). The landings from the coastal fishery is very low as indicated in Fig. 7.6. In 1996 cod landings dominated followed by eel and herring. The most valuable species are eel and zander from the economical point of view. Unfortunately the cod landings decrease more and more due to the depleted stock in the southern Baltic. During the 1980s cod fishery was the backbone also of the inshore fishery.

Landings Stockholm 1996, vessels <12m

Metric tonnes

0 Eel Herring Whitefish Salmon Trout Pike Cod Perch Zander Turbot Flounder Fish species

Fig.7.6. The landings by vessels (smaller than 12 m) from the SM-district (Stockholm area) in 1996. 31

If the landing statistics from larger vessels from Stockholm district you get another picture than that from the smaller vessels (Fig. 7.7.). It is obvious that the larger vessels have fished in another parts of the Baltic mainly the southern part. The total value of the landings from Stockholm district registered vessel is between 10 and 20 million SEK. However, it may be observed that most of the catches in private waters are not included in the statistics. This is obvious concerning the eel fishery.

Landings Stockholm 1996, vessels <12m and 12m-

900

800

700

600

500 Metric tonnes 400

300

200

100

0 Eel ish ef out r it Herring T h vessel Pike Salmon Cod W size Perch rbot ander 12m- u Z T <12m ounder l F

Fig. 7.7. The landing statistics from the SM-registered vessels (Stockholm area) from 1996. Front row vessels smaller than 12 m and back row vessels larger than 12 m.

Impact of off-shore fishery on the coastal fish populations

A very comprehensive off-shore fishery is carried out in the Baltic proper. The target species are herring and sprat aimed reduction purposes. This is a new development during the last decade. The impact of that fishery on the costal fish populations is unclear but it is a cocern for the coastal fishery. If bycatches of valuable fish species are taken in that fishery it will probably hurt the coastal fishery.

The recreational fishery

The recreational fishery has increased very dramatically during the last 50 years in Sweden. About half a million Swedes are very interested in reacreational fishery. Most of them can be characterised as anglers . The total landings of the recreational fishery is estimated to about 80 000 tons. Of that quantity the anglers take about 50 000 tons.

The estimate of the number people involved recreational fishery is variable. From one source the number of recreational fishermen in the Stockholm archipelago is estimated to 46 000. Their annual landings were estimated from 1 000 to 1 200 tons, corresponding to 22-25 kg per fishermen. It is notable that the licensed professional fishermen landed only 92 tons according to logbook statistics. This is only professional fishermen with vessels less than 12 m ( Andersson 1998).

The fishing pressure is very variable in the different parts of the archipelago. But is it obvious that the landings of the recreational fishery is dominant for all species except cod and eel.

In the Gothenburg region artisanal fishery is aimed for trout, lobster, crab, mackerel, plaice, dab, flounder and shrimp while the sportfishery is aimed for trout, mackerel, dab, flounder, cod and whiting ( Olsson 2000).

Problems in the Swedish coastal commercial fishery in general and the Gothenburg and Stockholm areas in particular according to the National Fishery Board

In a recent report from the National Fishery Board the problems for the small-scale coastal fishery is outlined (Anon. 2001). The authors have tried to summarize the critical issues and added own views on the same matter. It is obvious that the professional fishery in off-shore areas influences the small scale fishery in coastal waters. At the same time the coastal fishery is influenced by the polluted waters discharged from land areas close to the coast. In fact all polluted water from the catchments areas influences the coastal fishery. In order to get an overview of the problems they are summarized below

Problems

1.Decreasing population sizes of the fish stocks 2.Overexploitation of fish stocks in the off-shore areas 3. High catches of undersized fish 4. Bycatches of other species than the main objective for fishing 5. Bycatch of mammals and birds 6. Ghost fishery 7. Competition and conflicts between professional fishery and recreational fishery

Regulations and gear

Gears must be modified to avoid catching undersized fish or species as by catches. This is very important in the coastal zone of the Swedish west-coast, where we have a small-scale fishery for eel and shellfish species as lobster, crab and Norway lobsters with traps.

1.Trawl limits, must be moved further out to sea- conflicts between various groups of fishermen small scale fishermen versus large scale fishery esp. trawl fishery 2. Limit the number of gears for recreational fishermen 3. Gear must be modified to avoid catching undersized fish 4. Most trawlers do not have selective devices in their trawls. 5. Minimum size of fish species must be changed to guarantee a sustained population

Environmental impact of pollution

Fishermen in the coastal zone suffer from all kinds of pollution discharged in the sea from land. This is also valid for environmental impact from shipping industry. Shallow waters are often nursery areas and they might be damaged as well as spawning areas. Industrial pollution influences as well as pesticide pollution from agriculture activities the quality of the fish product, resulting in accumulation of foreign substances in the flesh.

1. Eutrophication – spawning and nursery areas are destroyed. 2. Eutrophication- oxygen depletion in bottom waters 3. Industrial pollution – water quality 4. Pesticide pollution from agriculture areas 5. Accumulation of foreign substances in fish flesh

Biotic factors

The damage from seal populations and cormorants are problems which have to be solved. HELCOM is considering a managing plan for the seal populations in the Baltic. Permissions are given to shoot seals in restricted areas by Swedish authorities. Permissions are also given to control the reproduction of cormorants in certain areas by destroying the eggs.

1. Damage to fishing net by seal population 2. Competition for fish by seal population 3. Competition for fish by cormorants

Administrative issues

1.Private and public owned waters restrict the fishery for professional fishermen

2. Competition between recreational fishery and professional fishery

3. Conservation areas for fishery versus public right of fishing

Management measures and proposals for the Baltic fish populations in the Stockholm coastal area according to Anon. 2001.

1. Fish resources

1. Industrial fishery for herring and sprat 2. Restore the cod stock 3. Measures to be implemented for strengthen the eel population 4. Migration routes for sea trout from sea to rivers must be restored to enhance the population. 5. Stocking of pearch, pike, pike-perch and white fish

2. Biotic problems

1. Management of seal populations 2. Frightening devices to avoid seal predation on fish catches 3. Technical devices for preventing seals and harbour porpoises to be entangled in fishing gears 4. Management of cormorant population

3. Environmental problems

1. Management of discharges of polluted water to the Baltic from land areas 2. Management of oil spills from sea traffic 3. Restrictions of pollution from vessels

4. Administrative problems

1. Fishermen must be more involved in management plans 2. Local citizens must also be more involved in coastal conservation areas 3. Solving the problems between various categories of professional fishermen.

Distant industrial fishery in Swedish waters- a conflict

It is well-known that bigger and bigger fishing vessels have been built with the aim of fishing fodder fish (industrial fish) used for fish meal and fish oil production. The investment in such vessels is of course very large, often exceeding 50 million SEK per vessel. This means that they must fish lots of fish to pay the large costs for their vessels. The fishing in waters outside the trawl limit will however, influence the stocks inside the trawl limits. This is now a real conflict between the small-scale fishermen, fishing for human consumption. This conflict is even worse in the Baltic areas as fishing vessel from the Swedish west-coast are fishing in the Baltic. The problems are interalia that bycatches of valuable fish species, which could have been used for human consumption. Even if they have got sorting devices onboard to take care of that fish for the human market, the fishery exploit also resources, which is the basis for the small-scale fishery along the coast. This fishery is considered as one of the general problem for the coastal fishery.

Management and proposals for the west-coast populations of fish and shellfish species (Anon. 2001)

1. Distinguish between management of Norway lobster fishery with traps and trawls 2. Movement of trawl limit further out to sea 3. Ageing material in traps can minimize the risk for ghost fishing 4. Traps for Norway lobster make it possible to keep animals living- better adaptation to the market is possible 5. Minimum size of 85 mm carapace length for lobster must be increased. 6. Introduce a ban to use other gears than traps for lobster fishery 7. Escape openings in crab traps would decrease the catch of small lobster 8. Introduce management measures to prevent American lobster species to be established on the Swedish west-coast 9. Introduce lobster sanctuaries 10. Restrict recreational fishery of lobster 11. Increase selective devices in cod ends of trawls to decrease by catches 12. Improved knowledge about fish and shellfish populations 13. Professional fishermen must be encouraged to fish sea trout 14. By catches by purse seine fishing boats using light fishing for sprat at night should be investigated 15. More knowledge about spawning and recruitment for certain species is needed.

8. Scientific investigations and monitoring

The landing statistics give a skew picture of the true population sizes. The need for scientific investigations are obvious. There are many results from such investigations. The changes of the population structures are obvious in a period with increasing fishing pressure. Some recent results of performed investigations have given some valuable results of the present alarming situation.

Cod investigations in outer coastal zone and offshore conditions

The catch per effort of cod on the Swedish west-coast has nearly decreased by 50% since the beginning of 1980s until 1990s. Calculated as the catch per trawl hours, the decrease is from 105 kg to 60 kg. The average weight per cod was significantly higher in the 1980s (0.77 kg) compared to 1990s ( 0.58 kg) (Svedäng 2001a). The number of large cods (>45cm) is always higher in the Kattegat areas than in the Skagerrak area. In the 1990s the catches were only 5-6 large cods per trawl hour.

In the Kattegat and Skagerrak inside the trawl limit

Scientific investigations of demersal fish in the coastal waters in 2000 indicate that cod and pollack have been severely reduced at the coast ( Svedäng et al. 2001b). It is obvious that the catch per effort was very small for most species. In deals with both commercial and non-commercial fish species. Inside the trawl limit the number fish specimens per trawl hour were greatest for plaice and dab, 294 and 445 resp. (Table 8.1). The number of whiting was 91, flounder 41, long rough dab 36, cod 31, gray gunard 19, and haddock 16 per trawl hour. The average number per trawl hour was about 1000 specimens, which means that for the other commercial or non 35 commercial species ( 24 species), the catch per effort measured in number was very low, usually below one individual per trawl hour.

Table 8.1. The weight per trawl hour inside the trawl limit on the Swedish west-coast (Svedäng et al 2001b). N= not counted but appear; A=less than 0.5, AA= 0.6-10 kg, AAA= 11-100 kg, AAAA= 101-500 kg

Family Scientific name English name Occurrence

Rajidae Raja radiata Starry ray A Gadidae Gadus morhua Cod AAA Gadidae Melanogrammus aeglefinus Haddock AAA Gadidae Merlangius merlangus Whiting AAA Gadidae Micromesistius poutassou Blue A whiting Gadidae Pollachius virens Saithe AA Gadidae Trisopterus esmarkii Norway pout N Gadidae Trisopterus minutus Poor pod AA Lotidae Enchelyopus cimbrius Four-bearded rockling A Agonidae Agonus cataphractus Hooknose A Cottidae Myoxocephalus scorpius Bull-rout AA Cyclopteridae Cyclopterus lumpus Lump A sucker Triglidae Chelidonichthys gurnardus Grey gunard AAA Callionymidae Callionymus lyra Dragonet A Carangidae Trachurus trachurus Scad N Scombridae Scomber scombrus Mackerel N Stichaeidae Lumpenus lampretaeformis Snake A blenny

Stichaeidae Leptoclinus maculatus Spotted A snake blenny Bothidae Arnoglossus laterna Scaldfish AA Scophthalmidae Psetta maxima Turbot A Scophthalmidae Scophthalmus rhombus Brill AA Pleuronectidae Glyptocephalus cynoglossus Witch A Pleuronectidae Microstomus kitt Lemon sole A Pleuronectidae Platichthys flesus Flounder AAA Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes limanda Dab AAAA Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes platessa Plaice AAAA Soleidae Solea solea Sole AA

In all areas inside the trawl limit the number of large and adult cod is very little. The share of cod above 40 cm is less than 5% of the average number of cod. The same tendancy is obvious for whiting. The minimum size 27 cm and the share of the catch which is above 27 cm was less than 9% at all sites investigated, except one fjord (Marstrandsfjorden) where the share was 34%. The abundance of haddock was greater in the off-shore waters, and also graeter in the outer parts of some fjords than in the inner part. However, the size distribution showed that most haddock were 14 and 20 cm, belonging to the 1999 year class.

Comparisons with earlier investigations indicate that the average ctach of cod per trawl hour was much less in 2000 than 1968-1980. On average the catch was 2 kg compared to 96 kg cod in the Brofjorden in earlier investigations. Many more length groups were represented for cod, whiting, dab, haddock, and plaice in the earlier period and the average size was greater. For cod this is very obvoius. In very early investigations 1925-57 large cods above above 40 cm length were common both in Brofjorden, Gullmaren and Hakefjorden.

Scientific analyses of the changes in commercial cod catches outside the trawl limit

The development of cod populations was investigated as well as the trends in the commercial fishery by Svedäng et al (1991a). Already in the 1970s started a decline in the cod occurrence in the coastal waters of Skagerrak and the Kattegat. A conspcicuous decline in the abundance of adult cod started in the offshore conditions in the 1980s. However, the recruitment of young cod in the outer coastal waters and in off-shore conditions has been similar 1978-2000, or increased if 1980s is compared with 1990s. Svedäng et al (1991a) therefore concluded that the decline in cod catches cannot be due to failure in recruitment. Investigations in the coastal zone during autumn with eel fyke nets in the northern Skagerrak coast do not show any tendancy of increasing or decreasing 1-year old cod. The same trend is also evident when the northern Kattegat was investigated from 1981 until 1998.

The conclusion is that the conspicuous decline of large cod in the catches in the whole area of Skagerrak and the Kattegat. The decline started 25-30 years ago in the inner coastal areas 25-30 years ago. Landed amount per unit effort (LPUE) shows thew same thing for other commercial species as well, e.g. plaice.

The effort in the commercial fishery with bottom trawl has increased tremendously in the Skagerrak and the Kattegat areas since 1978 with 200%. The number of trawl hours were 60 000 per year in 1978 and in 1999 200 000 trawl hours per year. In addition better navigation instrument, trawls etc as well as better knowledge has increased the effort even more.

The conclusion is that better management measures must be implemented to decrease the overexplotation of the fishery resources. This means that better selective gears must be used, the minimum size must increase, the mesh sizes must increase, better surveillance of the industrial fishery as well as smaller quotas or limited time of fishing. Other things to be observed are bycatches of cod in the eel fyke net and in the purseine fishery.

Monitoring investigations in the Stockhom area

There are many investigations made in the coastal areas of the Baltic. However, they are of small relevance for for the fish stocks in the Stockholm archipelago. They can thus be of limited use for management measures to be taken.

9. Management tools for the environment in waters under Swedish jurisdiction

Fishery operations also influence the environment and in some cases have a heavy impact on bottom invertebrates and fish populations and on other sea living animals. It is therefore necessary to more specifically include fishery into the environmental legislation framework and to use it as a tool for management of the fish resources.

International conventions

The Swedish environmental laws are valid in the Swedish economical zone, but Sweden is also committed to follow the recommendations by different international bodies. International conventions, EU-directives and other international agreements aim to protect the environment.

The protection of the environment is the main theme for five international Conventions on marine pollution, protection of species and overexploitation of the resources, covering the waters of Europe. These are:

• The OSPAR convention, formed by the recent amalgation of the general fields of activity of Oslo and Paris Conventions, covering the north-east Atlantic including the North Sea and the Skagerrak. • The Helsinki Convention (HELCOM) covering the Baltic Sea including the Belt Sea and the Kattegat. • The Bern Convention, protection of animals and plants and their natural environment formed in 1979. • The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 thereto (MARPOL 73/78) • The Bonn Convention for protection of migrating birds 37

The Ospar Convention aims at eliminate the pollution from land based sources, pollution by dumping or incineration and pollution from off-shore sources, assessment of the quality of the marine environment, conservation of the ecosystem and biographical diversity of the maritime areas.

The HELCOM covers all sources of pollution to the Baltic, from land, ship and air. In 1988 HELCOM adopted the Declaration for the Protection of the Baltic Marine Environment in which Baltic coastal states pledged themselves to halve their antropogenic discharges of nitrogen and phosphorus between 1987 and 1995 (Elmgren and Larsson, 2001). At the Ronneby conference in 1990 all governments of the Baltic coastal states agreed on the goal of restoring the ecological balance of the Baltic Sea. The HELCOM 50% nutrient reduction goal was now seen as a first step only. The initiated “ Joint Comprehensive Programme” (JCP) aimed, among other goals, at mitigating 132 pollution “hot spots” in the Baltic region at a total coast of 18 x 109 ECU over twenty years.

The Bern convention aims to protect animals especially endangered species. This means that harbour porpoises should be protected from exploitation or incidental catches.

The Bonn Convention implies that migrating birds and endangered birds must be protected. However, on that list is also one species of cormorants.

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries

FAO Code of Conduct ( FAO 1995) deals with all aspects of fishing and aquaculture. In this context only Article 8 of the code, dealing specifically with fishing operations will be cited and in most cases only the first paragraph under the various subheadings will be mentioned. In 8.1. Duties of the States it is said that States should ensure that only fishing operations allowed by them are conducted within waters under their jurisdiction and that these operations are carried out in a responsible manner. In 8.2 Flag State duties it is said that Flag States should maintain records of fishing vessels entitled to fly their flag and authorized to be used for fishing and should indicate in such records details of the vessels, their ownership and authorization. In 8.4. Fishing operations States should ensure that fishing is conducted with due regard to the safety of human life and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, as well as IMO requirements relating to the organization of marine traffic, protection of the marine environment and the prevention of damage to or loss of fishing gear. In 8.5. Fishing gear selectivity it is said that States should require that fishing gear, methods and practices, to the extent practicable, are sufficiently selective so as to minimize waste, discards, catch of non-target species, both fish and non-fish species, and impacts on associated or dependent species and that the intent of related regulations is not circumvented by technical devices…… In 8.7. Protection of the aquatic environment it is said that States should introduce and enforce laws and regulations based on the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 thereto (MARPOL 73/78)

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 1 dealing with Fishing Operations (FAO 1996a) . The objectives are: To ensure the long term sustainability of living marine resources so that these can be harvested by generations to come thus making a substantial contribution to world food security by generations to come thus making a substantial contribution to world food security and employment opportunities is one of the long term objective of the Code. Article 8 of the Code further develops of the provisions regarding fishing operations. The immediate objective of the Technical Guidelines is to provide practical advice to implement provisions of Article 8 to ensure all fishing operations are conducted responsibly.

FAO Technical Gudielines for responsible Fisheries 2 dealing with Precautionary Approach to Capture Fisheries and Species Introductions (FAO 1996b)

Starting from Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration, the document proposes a definition of the precautionary approach to fisheries as well as an elaboration on the burden of proof. It also contains detailed guidelines on how to conduct fishery management and research and how to develop and transfer fishery technology in a context of uncertainty and responsible fisheries.

Guidelines are also provided on species introduction, voluntary accidental (including through ballast water and sediment discharge), recognizing the difficulty of ensuring a precautionary approach in relation to that issue. The guidelines are aimed at the governments, fisheries authorities, fishery industry, regional fishery management bodies, NGOs and other interested parties, in order to:

• raise their awareness about the need for the precauition in fisheries, by providing them with background information on the main issues and implications, and • provide practical guidance on how to apply such precaution.

EU-Directives

Since Sweden joined the European Union 1995, most of the coastal area covered by the Helsinki Convention is also subject to EU directives. This included Urban Wastewater Directive ( UWWTD), directive on the quality of waters for bathing, fishery, and mussel culture, the Nitrate Directive, and the EU Water Framework Directive.

The Water Framework Directive

The current EU legislation relating to management of water is fragmentary and in order to get a more holistic perspective the directives, regulations, decisions and communications are now included in the Water Framework Directice (WFD) which aims to:

• bring together the management of water under a single piece of legislation; • identify all objectievs for which water is protected (e.g. drinking, conservation, ecology, bathing) and find remedies to new water issues; • establish a sound basis for collection and analysis of data on the state of the aquatic environment on which competent authorities can develop sensible and sustainable policies; • increase public participation in the management of water to promote transparency and greater enforceability of the new legislation

The key objective of the WFD are stated in Article 1 and specifically they are: • establish a framework for the protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and ground water which: • prevent further deterioration and protect and enhance the status of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; • promote sustainable water use • ensure the progressive reduction of pollution and groundwater contributes to mitigating the effects of floods and droughts

Within WFD all relevant EU-directives are included which is relevant to fisheries. 1) Drainage urban waste related to the drainage areas of the European water (Council Directives 91/271 EEC, 76/464/EEC/, 91/676/EEC, 96/61/EEC). 2) Effects of certain projects ( Council Directives 97/11/EC amending Directive 85/337/EEC) 3) Natural Habitat protection ( Conservation of Natural Habitat and Wild Fauna and Flora (92/43EEC) amended by Council Directive 97/62/EC). 4) Quality of fish and shellfish ( These Directives are related to Shellfish Hygiene Directive 91/492/EEC) Pollution by dangerous substances ( Directive 76/464/EEC). 6) Conservation of birds (Directive 79/409/EEC, conservation of wild birds contain a list of 175 bird species).

The new Swedish Environmental Code

From the 1st of January 1999 this Code entered into force. Many of the Acts in the natural protection legislations are included in the Code together with a lot of other Acts. “ The provisions of the Environmental Code are aimed at promoting sustainable development whereby present and future generations will be guaranteed a healthy and good environment. Sustainable development is based on the insight that nature is worthy of protection and that the right of humans to alter an utilize nature is linked to the responsibility to manage nature well” ( Anon. 1998). “ The Environmental Code will be applied so that:

• the health of humans and the environment is protected against damage and nuisance, irrespective of wheter they are caused by pollution or other influences, • valuable natural and cultural environments are protected and conserved, 39

• biological diversity is preserved, • land, water and physical environment in general are used so that, from an ecological, social, cultural and socio-economic viewpoint, the long-term good management of resources is practices, • and that reuse and recycling, together with other management of material, raw materials and energy, are promoted so that an eco-cycle is attained.”

The Code is very comprehensive and many chapters and section could be applicable to fish and fisheries. In the Code it is stated that the provisions of other Acts shall be applicable to activities that may causes damage or detriment to human health, the environment or other interests that are protected by this Code ( Chapter one, section 3). Land and water areas that are important for reindeer husbandry, commercial fishing or aquaculture shall, to the extent possible, be protected against measures that may significantly interfere with operations of these industries ( Chapter 3, section 5). In the following area special consideration shall be given to the interests of tourism and outdoor recreation, in particular outdoor recreational exercise, in connection with assessments of the permissibility of development projects or other environmental intrusion ( Chapter 4, section 2): The coastal areas and archipelagos of Södermanland and Uppland from Oxelösund to Herräng and Singö (includes the Stockholm archipelago)

Swedish government bill and decisions by the Parliament

The government has presented the bill ”Hav i balans samt levande kust och skärgård”(Prop. 200/01:130), (the Sea in balance and a living coast and archipelago). The Parliament appointed some goals for a good quality of the environment. According to the bill of the Government the following actions should be taken which is relevant for the fishery:

1. By the latest 2005 a program of measures for threatened marine species and fish populations, which are in need of special actions, should be established. 2. By the latest 2010 the yealy bycatched of marine mammals and seabirds and of not targeted fish species have bee minimised to a level which do not influence the populations negatively. 3 The yield of fish, inclusive bycatches of juvenile fish shall by the latest 2008 correspond at the highets to yearly growth guaranteeing sustained fishstocks and recovery of those stocks.

Responsible authority for those actions are the Environmental Protection Board. The legal instrument for the actions are the Environmnetal Code and the Fishery Act.

10. The hierarchy of management and the management tools relevant for the coastal fishery

Management tools for the fishery Important management tools for the Swedish fishery is international, national, regional and also some local regulations. It is thus impossible to discuss the management problems of the Swedish fish populations and fishery without describing the international bodies and their influences, in some cases all the way from off-shore areas to the baseline at the coast, for e.g. quota regulations and to the coast and the fresh waters. In some other matters there are national regulations inside the 12 mile limit where Swedish legislation is valid. There is also special national regulations for the fresh waters, of special interest for the anadromous species (eg salmon and trout) and the catadromus specie (e.g. eel) up to the first migration hurdle.

Management of the fish resources on the international level

Common Fishery Policy (CFP) for countries within EU.

International body Competence area Council of the European Union Fishery questions through DG XIV- Directorate – General Fisheries with all mentioned bodies. Within EU there is a Common Fishery Policy (CFP), which is the guideline for fishery regulations.

A common fishery policy was agreed to in 1983. It should in principle be valid for a period of 20 years. It was decided to have a control station after 10 years to evaluate its function. Recently European Commission issued the Green Paper in two volumes (EC 2001). Article 6 of the Treaty stipulates that environmental requirements must be integrated into Community policies, in particular with a view to promoting sustainable development. Moreover, Article 174 requires interalia that Community policy on the environment shall be based on the precautionary principle.

The CFP is confronted with a number of objectives and legal requirements which sometimes may seem contra dictionary or incompatible, in particular, in short-term. As it stands to-day, the CFP aims at:

- ensuring the conservation of increasingly fragile fish stocks while promoting the continuation of fishing activities; - modernising the means of production while limiting fishing efforts; - ensuring the proper implementation of conservation measures while Member States retain responsibility in the field of monitoring sanctions; - ensuring a decent income for fishermen even though the Community’s own supply of fish products is declining and the EU market depends more heavily on imports each year; and - acquiring fishing rights in waters of third countries without threatening the sustainable exploitation of fisheries.

Recently a Green Paper has been issued by EC to discuss the revision of the CFP. EC asks itself “ where are we and what will happen without change?” In the Green Paper EC talks about the future CFP: options and preferences. This will now be discussed by member countries and others within European Union and ultimately form a new Fishery Policy.

In this context it is impossible to discuss all new ideas in the Green Paper. In principle the CFP has failed. EC state that the quantities of mature demersal fish in the se as assessed by ICES have, in many cases, declined significantly over the last 25 years. On average, these quantities were about 90% greater in the early 1970s than in the late 1990s. The general decline in landings is similar. For some stocks, such as cod, even more drastic reduction in mature fish have occurred. The biomass of pelagic and industrial species increased by, on average, 20% since the late 1970s and mid-1980s at least in part following the recovery of herring from the low level of the late 1970s.

But we will just stress a few of the issues under various subheadings in the report:

1. The causes of current management deficiencies ( There are too few fishery scientists and most of them too involved in the year-to-year routine to allow time for innovative thought and investigations of alternative possibilities for management measures). 2. The environmental dimensions ( The CFP must integrate the environmental dimensions into policy- making in a proactive manner). 3. Fleet policy ( The current fleet is much too large. Technological progress is increasing the efficiency of fishing vessels and it undermines the efforts of capacity reduction programmes). 4. Decision-making progress and stakeholders´ involvement (The current framework is not well suited for responding quickly to local and emergency circumstances). 5. Monitoring and control ( The current arrangements are insufficient and cannot ensure a level playing field across the Union). 6. The economic and social dimension ( The CFP has a significant economic dimension. EUR 1.1 billion of public money (Community and national) is injected into the fisheries sector each year. Improvement of the economic and financial performance of the fishing industry requires reduction of the overall level of the capacity employed).

Fishery commissions, management of the sea fishery

The international fishery in European waters is managed and regulated by several bodies with various competence areas:

International body Competence areas European Union (EU) + Norway+ the Faroes Decision on TAC for fish stocks/species including salmon + technical regulations in the North Sea fisheries including Skagerak and the Kattegat areas+ technical regulations North-east Atlantic Fishery Commission (NEAFC) Decision on TAC for fish stocks/species, together with EU and other in the North Sea area. Decision on fishery quotas and regulations outside 200 n.m limit North Atlantic Salmon Commission (NASCO) Quotas and regulations for salmon in the Atlantic

International Baltic Sea Fisheries Commission (IBSFC) Decision on quotas (TAC) for fish species; cod, herring, sprat and including salmon in the Baltic+ technical regulations

The fishery is thus managed by several bodies within Europe, all of them composed by the different national governments.These management bodies have the decision rights on fisheries for the various areas and commercial fish species. The management of highly migratory species like the bluefin thunny and the atlantic salmon are especially complicated.

Quotas and TACs

One important tool for fishery management in European waters is the TAC (Total Allowable Catch). In practice the TAC does not control catches. Total allowable landing is a more appropriate term since the real impact of the fishery on the fish population in most cases are much bigger due to discards, bycatches, illegal landings etc. (Daan 2000)

Scientific advice

In order to get knowledge about fish species and stocks the management bodies are dependant on scientific advice. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea gives such advice through its body Advisory Commission for Fisheries Management (ACFM). Also within EU there is an advisory body, namely Scientific Technical and Economical Committee for Fisheries (STECF). Both bodies cooperate but the main part of the basis for quota regulations and technical advices come from ACFM. Every year ACFM analyse the many commercial stocks which the member countries exploit. Through the many Working Groups for various fish stocks and their assessments of the sizes of spawning stocks and the potential fish stocks to be exploited without jeopardizing the future of the stocks. They report to ACFM and ACFM gives its recommendations on Total Allowable Catch (TAC) to the managing bodies.

Political decisions of the management level

The above mentioned management bodies, which can be called the political level, have the right to decide on TAC and allocate TACs for each country within their competence area as well as technical regulations on mesh size in trawl and nets and other measures. However, in many cases the member countries within each commission have had problems to get agreement for the TACs proposed by ACFM. In many cases a higher TAC is decided than that proposed by the scientific advise from the biologists within ACFM. This is one of the reasons why many fish stocks are overexploited.

Also the practical difficulties to control the fishery activities have contributed to higher harvests than allowed through TAC for several fish species and fishing areas. The complicated rules for the amount of bycatches etc. in certain fisheries have not been easy to follow for the fishing industry and there have certainly been illegal fishing.

Management of the Fishery in Swedish waters

The national legislation on fisheries is formed by the Swedish Parliament. The executive level with ordinances aimed for fisheries is the Swedish Government. The Government manage the fishery through its Ministry of Agriculture and the National Board of Fisheries is the executive body. The administrative and executive management body is National Board of Fisheries. The latter body co-operate in some areas with the Fishermen’s´ organisation.

The management of sea fisheries in Sweden is based on international and national advice. The international advice is, as mentioned earlier, given by ACFM (ICES) and STEFC(EU). On the national level the advice is given by the Institute for Marine Research. All the levels are illustrated below.

GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT OF FISHERY IN SWEDISH MARINE WATERS

International advice level----ACFM (ICES) and STECF (EU)

International administrative and executive level- Common Fishery Policy (CFP)

National level- National legislation (Swedish Parliament)

SWEDISH GOVERNMENT

Ministry of Agriculture National Board of Fishery

Management of Fish Resources within Swedish territorial waters (12.n.m)

The management of the Swedish fishery is based on both international and national decisions.The management regulations outside the 12 n.m. limit is based on the Common Fisheries Policy within EU and the various international bodies as ISBFC, EU, and NEAFC. TACs is also is applicable to the waters inside the 12 n m. limit. The general outline for the various hierarchical levels is given below:

International regulations; quotas etc.

National Board of Fisheries

Scientific advice from Advice from International and national Fishermens´organisations levels

Fishing licences

NATIONAL SELF REGULATION REGULATIONS (National Fishery Board) ( Fishermen organisation)

1. Trawl limits 1. Amount of harvest 2. Qouta regulation 2. Area to be fished 3. Technical regulation 3. Allowed gears 4. Time of fishing 4. Time of fishing 5. Other matter 5. Other matters

The above scheme describes how fishery is managed and regulated within Sweden. The scientific advice comes from both national and international levels. 44

The different Swedish regulations of the fishery in the west and east coasts of Sweden

Regulation of fishery on the west-coast of Sweden and in the Baltic, east of Sweden.

The ordinances promulgated by the National Fishery Board of Sweden regulate the fishery in various sea waters around Sweden.The one for the west-coast is denoted FIFS 1993:30 and the one for the Baltic FIFS 1993:31. Regulation of fishery differs somewhat on the east coast and west coast of Sweden. For this reason a comparison of some important different regulations for the two areas is given below.

West-coast of Sweden Regulation action East-coast of Sweden Fishing is allowed for the public on private Fishing in the sea Fishing is allowed for the public in public waters and public waters with certain gears. in public waters With certain gears which you find under the Every fisherman is allowed to use six gears on heading “ allowed gears”. the same fishing occasion. At lobsters fishery you are allowed to use another 14 pots. Fishing for oysters belong to the private owner of land within an areas of 200 m. No private waters on the west-coast except for Fishing in private In private waters it is allowed to use fishing rods fishing oysters. Coastal sea water according to common fishing right in private waters provided the fishing method does not require the use of a boat. Normally private water extends out to 300m from mainland and at least 100 m from an island. Fishing rod, “pilk”, equipped with line and at Allowed gears Fishing rod, “pilk”, equipped with line and at the most 10 hooks. 2. Bag net. 3. Not more the most 10 hooks. 2. Bag net. 3. Not more than 180 meter bottom or drift net.4. Not more than 180 meter bottom or drift net.4. Not more than 6 long lines with maximum 100 hooks. than 6 long lines with maximum 100 hooks on Not more than six fyke nets or cages. each line. Not more than six fyke nets or cages. Not more than 14 lobsterpots can be used. Fishing for salmon and trout are Fishing for Fishing time salmon and trout are allowed from March 1 until September 14. Fishing for lobster are allowed until April 30. Fishing for salmon and trout with moored driftnet Fishing methods At fishing for salmon with moored driftnet the is not allowed. Lobster carrying outer eggs may smallest mesh net size is 105 mm not be caught. Lobster and crab are not allowed (diagonal length) to be caught when diving. Oyster 6 cm Minimum size Salmon 60 cm Lobster 8 cm- carapace length (c.l.) Trout 50 cm, north of 60 00 N Norway lobster 4 cm c.l. 40 cm Norway lobster TL 13 cm Salmon 50 cm Eel 55 cm Trout 40 cm Pike 40 cm south of 60 00N Eel 37 cm Pike-Perch 40 cm Herring 18 cm Saithe 30 cm,Haddock 27 cm Hake 30 cm, Cod 30 cm Cod 35 cm Whiting 23 cm, Lemon sole 25 cm Megrim 25 cm, Turbot 30 cm Plaice 27 cm Turbot 30 cm Witch 28 cm Plaice 18 cm Common dab 23 cm, Flounder 20 cm Brill 30 cm Flounder 21 cm Sole 24 cm Brill 30 cm Lobster areas on the Swedish west-coast and Sanctuaries Mouth entrances for rivers mouth entrances for rivers In principle the trawlers are allowed to fish Trawl limits In principle the trawlers are allowed to fish outside outside 2 n.m. from the base line. For details line. For details see FIFS 1993:31 see FIFS 1993:30. There are certain regulation for mesh sizes to be used. In general 90 mm mesh size. When fishing for Norway lobster and whiting 70 mm mesh size. For herring 32 mm and for sprat 16 mm.

The regulation of fishery and environment in the economic zone

Regarding the Swedish Act (1992:1140) concerning the economic zone the following text may be cited:

2 §. The Government or the authority appointed by the Government may notify directions to protect and conserve the marine environment (Act 1998:847).

3 §. Measures against pollution from vessels (Act 1998:847)

4 §. Concerning fishery in the economic zone the Fishery Act (1993:787) is valid

5 §. Land and water of importance for the fishery or aquaculture should shall be protected from actions which can substantially make it difficult for the relevant industry. Areas of particular state interest shall be protected againts measures.

11. Conclusions

1. The Comon Fishery Policy within EU has failed to manage the fishery resources.

2. The Fishery Commissions have not been able to prevent overexploitations of the fish stocks.

3. The Fishery management should be in accordance with scientific advice.

4. The Fishery management should also be in accordance within the framework of environmental legislation. Fishery has become one of the major threats to the environment and biodiversity.

5. Coastal fishery resources are influenced negatively by off-shore fisheries. Fishing efforts must decrease.

6. Threatened species must be protected from all kind of fishery if possible.

7. The Swedish administrative structure for protection of fish resources and environment on local and regional levels is not in agreement with biological and geomorphological structures of the coastal zone. The coastal zone consists of many basins demarcated by thresholds and island. The populations should be managed separately if possible.

8. The coastal fishery can be managed locally. This is more easily accomplished on the east-coast with private fishing rights than on the west-coast with public waters.

9. The coastal fish resources and the environment must be protected from eutrophication and pesticide pollution from agriculture activities, industrical pollution with various chemical substances and discharges from the urban areas.

10. In order to protect the coastal fish resources the trawl limit must be moved further out into the sea areas, bycatches must be avoided.

11. The problems with seal populations and cormorants in the coastal fishery must be solved in an environmentally friendly way. Actions must be taken to protect harbour porpoises not to be entangled in fish gears.

12. The coastal fishery itself should be regulated according to the precautionary principle.

13. Rules and regulations must stronger embrace sanctuaries, larger minimum sizes for certain species, new gear regulations etc.

12. References

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