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developing Sustainable in

About the booklet This booklet has been developed within the Sida-funded ITP-programme: »Towards Sustainable Development and Local Democracy through the SymbioCity Approach« through the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and (s a l a r ), SKL International and the Swedish International Centre for Democracy (i c l d ).

The purpose of the booklet is to introduce the reader to Sweden and Swedish experiences in the field of sustainable urban development, with special emphasis on regional and levels.

Starting with a brief historical exposition of the development of the Swedish and introducing democracy and national government in Sweden of today, the main focus of the booklet is on sustainable planning from a local governance perspective. The booklet also presents practical examples and case studies from different in Sweden. These examples are often unique, and show the broad spectrum of approaches and innovative solutions being applied across the .

Editorial notes m a n u s c r i p t Gunnar Andersson, Bengt Carlson, Sixten Larsson, Ordbildarna AB g r a p h i c d e s i g n a n d illustrations Viera Larsson, Ordbidarna AB e n g l i s h editing John Roux, Ordbildarna AB editorial s u p p o r t Anki Dellnäs, ICLD, and Paul Dixelius, Klas Groth, Lena Nilsson, SKL International p h o t o s w h e n n o t s t a t e d Gunnar Andersson, Bengt Carlsson, Sixten Larsson, Viera Larsson c o v e r p h o t o s Anders Berg, image bank, Sixten Larsson, SKL

© Copyright for the final product is shared by ICLD and SKL International, 2011 c o n t a c t information ICLD, , Sweden w e b s i t e www.icld.se e-m a i l [email protected] p h o n e +46 498 29 91 80

SKL International, , Sweden w e b s i t e www.sklinternational.se e-m a i l [email protected] p h o n e +46 8 452 70 00

ISBN 978-91-633-9773-8 Contents

1. A country of democratic traditions 2 2. The Government system of Sweden 5 3. strong local self-governance 9 – the basis for sustainable urban development Växjö – the greenest in 15

c o n t i n u e d Strong local self-governance – 16 – the basis for sustainable urban development göteborg – the harbour city 20 4. Public services at local and regional level 22 – industrial city and regional centre 28 5. Financing of public services and development 30 6. Planning for a sustainable society 33

LINKÖPING–NORRKÖPING – integration for sustainable development 40

c o n t i n u e d Planning for a sustainable society 41 7. Addressing climate change 47

STOCKHOLM – the accessible city 52 8. dialogue, cooperation and participation – 54 joining forces for sustainable development Malmö – from crisis to a model for sustainable development 58 9. Movements and initiatives influencing policies and attitudes 61 References developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 1 1. A Country of Democratic Traditions

Basic facts on Sweden Area 450 000 sq km (third largest country in Western Europe) Population (2011) 9 416 000 Population density 21 inhabitants/sq km Capital Stockholm Language Swedish Type of Government Constitutional Monarchy, Parliamentary Democracy King Carl XVI Gustaf Sundsvall Religion Lutheran (75%), Muslim, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Baptist, Jewish, Buddhist GDP per capita (2010) 349 548 SEK (approx. US $54 000) Natural resources Zinc, iron ore, lead, copper, silver, timber, Stockholm uranium, hydropower Industries Iron and steel, precision Norrköping and electronic equip- ment, armaments, wood Göteborg pulp and paper prod- ucts, processed foods, Växjö motor vehicles, music Labour force by occupation Agriculture 2%, industry Malmö 26%, services 72% Life expectancy Women 83, men 79

2 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 a country of democratic traditions

Sweden is situated in the far north of Eu- The Swedish Welfare State rope and is characterised by large forests, numer- The Swedish economy expanded rapidly during ous lakes and very long coast lines. Traditionally, early 20th century, partly due to Sweden not lived in small, dispersed rural settlements, being involved in World War I or II. From being but today, close to 85% live in densely populated a poor agricultural country, Sweden became and cities in central and southern Sweden. industrialised and urbanised. The north is sparsely populated, but good com- In 1932, the Social Democratic Party gained munications, infrastructure and transport systems power and governed until 1976. From 1932 to connect all parts of the country. 1946 was Prime Minister and For such a large country, Sweden has a small under his leadership the ideal of the Swedish population of only 9,4 million. Though tradition- Welfare State developed. Citizens were considered ally ethnically homogenous, today 15% of the members of one family with common goals, population are of foreign origin. who should support each other and work for the Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with benefit of all. A service-oriented democracy de- a of government. Public veloped, combining economic growth with high administration is highly decentralized, with many taxation and comprehensive social insurance. important responsibilities devolved to regional This Swedish model improved the well-being and and local levels. supported the development of all citizens, and was considered exemplary in Europe. But since the 1970s the welfare state, chal- Democratisation and lenged by financial crises and rising unemploy- development of Sweden ment, has had to reduce public expenditure. Certain elements of democracy in Sweden Government has been forced to adapt to increas- originated before the Middle Ages, but modern ing competition, privatisation and deregulation democratic government only started to devel- in global markets. Sweden still has one of the oped in the 19th century. An important step that largest public sectors, as well as ‘competing’ with contributed to strengthening citizens’ participa- in having the highest in the world. tion in public debate was the introduction of free Depending on ideology, some people want to re- elementary education for all children in 1842. establish the old welfare state, whilst others want From the mid 19th century, Swedes increas- a smaller, ‘cheaper’ and less-interventionist state. ingly took part in popular movements such as the workers’ movement, the temperance movement and non-conformist churches. These organisa- A strong economy tions introduced comprehensive adult education, Historically, Sweden’s industrial economy was and fostered a democratic culture through meet- based on its ore deposits, large forests and hydro- ings and protests. electric power, but today the focus has shifted to At the end of the 19th century, there was a manufacturing of motor vehicles, electronic and heated debate about whether workers and women precision equipment, ball bearings and power were sufficiently educated to take part in public transmission products. However, raw materials affairs and vote. Socialists and argued that such as timber and metals still form an important they were, while conservatives disagreed. Eventu- part of the economy. ally the struggle for democratic rights succeeded, Only 10% of Sweden consists of farmland and and the vote was extended first to all adult men, under 2% of the labour force works in agriculture. and finally to women in 1919. The largest sector is services, but the well- developed industrial sector remains an important backbone of growth in the national economy. Before 1850, Sweden was a very poor country developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 3 a country of democratic traditions and over a period of about 70 years, almost a yy Massive investment in infrastructure, creating third of the population migrated to the United jobs and boosting the economy States and other . But then things yy Access to low-cost energy sources such as changed, and from 1850 to 1970 Sweden was, hydropower along with , the fastest growing economy in yy An effective system, making large-scale the world. Sweden still has one of the strongest public investment possible economies internationally. This economic success yy Effective and non-corrupt public administra- was due to tion ensured efficient use of public funds yy Peace – Sweden has not been engaged in war yy Free university education and significant since 1814 public investment in the research and devel- yy Free public schooling since 1842, leading to opment. high literacy rates yy Abundant natural resources such as iron ore and timber (over 50% of the country is covered by forest)

ph o to V a t te n fa ll SCA image bank p h o t o

Sweden has gradually moved from having an economy based solely on agriculture and export of natural resources from forests and mines, – to a multifaceted economy based on new technologies and know-how. Janne E riksson p h o t o

4 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 2. The Government System of Sweden

Swedish Government Structure

EU Parliament

Government Ministries

CENTRAL LEVEL State Agencies

County REGIONAL Regional Administrative LEVEL branches of Councils Boards State Agencies

Local LOCAL LEVEL branches of Municipalities State Agencies

ELECTION TO

People of Sweden

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 5 the government system of sweden

yy The Freedom of the Press Act of 1949 guar- All public power in Sweden proceeds antees citizens access to official documents, a from the people. Swedish democracy principle first initiated in 1766. is founded on the free formation of yy The Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expres- opinion and on universal and equal sion of 1991 guarantees freedom of expression suffrage. It shall be realised through in new media not covered by the Freedom a representative and parliamentary of the Press Act, such as radio, tv, films and policy and through local self-govern- cd-rom discs. It protects free dissemination of ment. Public power shall be exercised information and prohibits censorship. under the law. yy The Act of Succession of 1810 defines the The Instrument of Government, chapter 1:1 of the succession to the throne and the appropriate upbringing and education of royal heirs. Sweden is governed by four basic laws which are the equivalent of a Swedish Constitution yy The Instrument of Government of 1974 defines Parliament and national the organisation of, and relations between the government or Riksdag (parliament), Since 1969, Sweden has had a unicameral parlia- or administrative government, and the judici- ment called the Riksdag, to which citizens elect ary or courts. It also protects fundamental 349 members every fourth year, on the third human rights. Sunday of September. The role of the Riksdag is to develop legislation and govern state finances and p h o t o Riksdagen the work of the executive.

The Riksdag elects a Prime Minister who forms a Government and appoints ministers, as well as heads of ministries. This gives the a very strong position. After the election of 2010 there are 12 ministries and 24 ministers, out of which 11 are women. The Government is accountable to the Riksdag and to stay in power it has to be supported in deci- sions by a majority of the Riksdag. To assist in government work there are various Government Offices, comprising the Prime Minister’s Office, the Ministries and the Office for Administrative Affairs. The Government Offices have about 4 800 employees out of which only 200 are politically appointed posts. Sometimes a specific Ministry is solely responsible for a specific policy area. But when it comes to policy areas related to sustainable de- velopment those are often shared between several Ministries. For example, see opposite page:

The Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, is situated in the centre of Stockholm surrounded by water.

6 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 the government system of sweden

Policy area Responsible ministries Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Health and Social Housing and Affairs, Ministry of Environment Ministry of Employment, Ministry of Justice, Democracy, gender equality and human rights Ministry of Rural Affairs, Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, Ministry of Education Rural development, livestock, and food Ministry of Rural Affairs Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communications, infrastructure, and ICT Communications Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Environment, energy, and climate Communications, Ministry of Environment Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Justice, Business, trade, and regional growth Ministry of Enterprise, Energy, and Communica- tions, Ministry of Finance

Elections and political parties National election results 2010 In Sweden, elections are held every fourth year for three levels of government – the Party Percentage Seats Riksdag, the county or regional councils Social Democrats 30,66% 112 and municipal councils. In the 2010 national The 30,06% 107 elections there was an 84,6 % voter turnout. The 7,34% 25 Every fifth year, Swedes elects their repre- sentatives in the parliament, The Liberal Party 7,06% 24 where Sweden presently has 18 of the 736 6,56% 23 seats. 5,70% 20 Christian Democrats 5,60% 19 The electoral system at all levels is based on proportional representation in multi-seat 5,60% 19 constituencies. Voting is for parties, but since Other 1,43% – 1998, voters can also express preference for Total 100% 349 individual candidates. The Most of the eight political parties represented in the Riksdag today have been there since the 1920s, and the different parties often have ties with Women’s representation in political interest groups such as business, churches or assemblies trade unions. In Sweden, women gained the right to vote and be elected in 1919 after 35 years of Since the election of 2006, Sweden has been debate, and voted for the first time in1921. ruled by an of four Centre-Right par- Today, Sweden has a very high proportion ties - the Moderate Party, the Liberal Party, of women in political parties and elected the Christian Democrats, and the Centre assemblies compared to most countries. The Party. This coalition has ruled as a minority average proportion of women in parliaments government since 2010, which means they is around 17%, while in the Swedish need to win the support of other political Riksdag, 45% are women. Women make parties in the Riksdag for proposals. up 42% of local councils and 48% of county and regional councils.

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 7 the government system of sweden

Government implementing County Administrative Boards support municipal agencies planning by providing In Sweden there are about 350 central committees, yy advice and recommendations based on boards, authorities and state companies related to comprehensive regional plans, policies and different ministries. Government agencies in Swe- regulations regarding health and safety, den are comparatively independent and responsible national interests, environmental standards for their own work, but guided by government and matters involving several municipalities appropriation letters. Government may not decide yy municipal planning requirements such as how agencies apply laws or decide on matters inventories, and natural and cultural environ- delegated to agencies. In many countries, ministers mental evaluations when planning can intervene directly in the work of government and settlements agencies, but in Sweden this is not allowed. yy advice and guidance on applying the Planning State agencies are mandated to implement & Building and Environmental Acts, and decisions and policies at different levels. Central gov- hearing objections to plans and appeals, which ernment agencies are responsible for portfolios such can be taken further to the Land and Environ- as higher education, agriculture, industry, defence, ment Courts. justice, employment and development cooperation. County Administrative Boards represent central government at county or regional level. Local level Local and regional government agencies include police stations, post offices, railway At local level, Sweden has 290 municipalities and stations, and tax and unemployment offices. at the regional level, 20 county councils (three Example of agencies that are important for are called regions – Västra Götaland, Skåne urban development are the National Board of and Gotland). There is no hierarchy between Housing, Building & Planning, the Swedish Energy municipalities and county councils – they merely Agency, the Environment Protection Agency, the have different responsibilities. The only exception Swedish Transport Administration and Swedish is Gotland, an island in the Baltic Sea, where Transport Agency. the is also responsible for county council functions. Municipalities and county councils or regions County Administrative Boards are governed by directly elected councils, have the Sweden is divided into and County right to levy income taxes on individuals, and are Administrative Boards link to citizens and responsible for a broad range of services includ- municipalities on the one hand, and to central ing pre-school education, childcare, elderly care, government on the other. These boards ensure health services, social services, housing, water that central policy is implemented effectively supply and local roads. throughout the county, in areas such as Independent municipal planning is a key yy Animal welfare, hunting and fishing aspect of local self-governance in Sweden, with yy Environment and nature conservation each municipality deciding how land is used and yy Ecologically sustainable agriculture and farm developed. Before the 1987 Planning and Build- support ing Act, a central approved yy Traffic safety local plans. Now, municipal plans approved by yy Protection of national and cultural local assemblies have legal status, and central heritage government can only interfere to protect national yy elections interests, natural resources or state security, or yy Security and crisis management to ensure proper stakeholder participation. Read yy Housing more about municipalities and sustainable plan- yy Gender equality. ning in chapter 3.

8 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 3. strong local self-governance the basis for sustainable urban development

In Sweden all levels of government play an including public transport, though government important role in promoting sustainable devel- remains ultimately responsible. Coordination and opment, and their responsibilities are defined cooperation between actors is today a significant in legislation. Municipalities have the main aspect of sustainable urban development. responsibility for planning, development and Planning authorities also face new require- service provision. Municipal self-governance has ments related to climate change mitigation, a long history and was first formalised by a Local energy provision, regional cooperation and Government Act in 1862. Today it is directly con- international agreements. While municipalities nected to local economic and social conditions. still play the major role, wider development issues Swedish municipalities have the power to tax influence planning and development, and require citizens directly, and most only pay income taxes regional cooperation among municipalities and at municipal and county council levels. county councils. Sustainable urban development requires holistic and integrated approaches and long-term perspectives regarding environmental, social and economic issues. A sustainable society requires comprehensive planning and coordination by a range of authorities and stakeholders, and coop- eration in implementation and administration. Sustainable urban development has ad- ministrative, financial, technical, cultural and institutional aspects, which are reflected in the urban structures, transport models, infrastructure systems and service provision. Sustainable and development processes must also be transparent and include wide stakeholder participation. Urban planning and implementation proc- esses involve many actors at different levels of government. This complexity has increased with Malmö City the widespread privatisation of various services p h o t o developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 9 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

The history of municipal planning of roads and lanes, that authorities be given in Sweden the right of expropriation, that settlements be Towns and cities have developed over long peri- structured in blocks and that building permits ods, and some were already established during were necessary. medieval times. The physical structure of original urban settlements was based on the economic and social conditions that prevailed at the time, and Decentralisation and local the natural resources available in the surrounding regulations areas. Tradesmen and artisans in towns relied In the 18th century, many towns objected to royal on the produce of farming, fishing, mining and decrees and demanded regulations related to local in the immediate vicinity. conditions. This resulted in greater decentralisa- The control of urban settlement develop- tion and legislation that allowed local building ment was initially a central government concern, regulation. Stockholm’s building regulations of 1725 but was gradually decentralised to become a became a guideline for other towns, and in 1734, a municipal responsibility. Building and settlement new general law covering urban and rural build- appearance was long considered important, with ing regulations included distances to property legislation as early as the 13th century regulating boundaries, the width of streets and size of public the width of streets and size of squares. areas and sanitation facilities. The first urban planners were commissioned In 1750, central government first required by rulers to improve the fortification of existing towns to submit plans and maps of buildings, settlements or to build new towns at strategic streets and open spaces to the Royal Building locations. Planners thus often had a military Authority for review and approval, or recommen- background, and defence was a primary consid- dation of more convenient and safer layouts and eration in . building methods, with fire prevention remaining Towards the end of the 17th century, central a key objective. government established national regulations for towns and cities, with a strong emphasis on fire prevention. A commission proposed the width öteborg tadsbyggnadskontoret G tadsbyggnadskontoret S p h o t o s Early plans and maps for towns were prepared to show the In Göteborg, the walls, moat and channels of the fortifi- structure with streets and housing blocks, with little information cations are still visible elements that influence the urban about the actual buildings. The city walls were an important fea- structure and functions in the . ture. In the 18th century Government required towns to submit plans to facilitate fire fighting measures.

10 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

Early industrialisation Early municipal reforms Industrialisation in the 19th century led to signifi- Local authorities in towns and rural areas had cant urbanisation and drastic changes in urban promoted and established their position as structures. Urban populations grew as industries independent entities in the 1800s. However, they needed workers and migration was encouraged, still required central government approval of and increased housing construction, artisan development plans, and financing for develop- services and other businesses led to economic ment projects and maintenance in towns. growth and wealth concentration. Differences between urban and rural areas The character of urban environments and varying conditions in different regions were changed as badly planned working class areas addressed by two new Local Government Acts in with poor quality housing developed, with little 1863, dealing with cities/towns and rural areas concern for the environmental impact or health respectively. of inhabitants. Legislation adopted in1810 led 2 500 municipalities were formed, most based to rampant land speculation, which accelerated on the old rural parishes, while urban municipali- negative development trends. ties included ‘charted’ cities and market towns. Burgeoning urban areas were characterised by poor housing, unhygienic conditions, lack of sanitary facilities and high fire risks. Government The birth of the modern planning and local authorities noted the problems and took system initiatives to the problems and improve The chaos and confusion in building and plan- housing, living conditions and social services for ning during the first half of the 19th century the industrial workers. called for a new approach to urban development, Inspired by urban development projects and government introduced important consti- mainly in , some industries established tutional reforms and administrative changes. In community settlements that provided housing, 1874, a new Building Decree, was issued as a royal health care and schools for employees. The ordinance, which heralded the birth of modern benefit was a loyal labour force, though benefits building legislation by requiring towns to prepare for workers were tied to employment and could and implement development plans. thus easily be lost. The first Town Planning Act in 1907 strength- ened the power of municipalities in relation to property owners and included an interesting provision for sharing the costs of implementa- tion. This Act established municipal planning monopoly in Sweden, which is considered to be the cornerstone of Swedish urban planning and development. The Act of 1907 required municipal/town councils to prepare plans for approval by central Government, which could not, however, impose changes, as municipalities were responsible for implementation. This legislation was deficient in various respects, and the need for binding regula- tions led to a new Town Planning Act in 1931.

Jonsered is an example of an industrial establishment that offered housing and community services for its employees. What was once an area of workers basic accommodation and modest living standards is now considered highly valuable due to its cultural heritage status. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 11 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

Strengthening municipalities New planning instruments resulting from this The Town Planning Act of 1931 increased munici- legislation included General Plans for towns and pal powers, but control of new settlements and settlements, and Regional Plans for areas includ- location of development in unsuitable locations ing a number of municipalities. General Plans was limited. Development in areas outside urban provided the strategic long-term perspective, boundaries occurred frequently. while detailed town plans retained their legally In the 1940s, socially oriented urban develop- binding status. The time horizons varied and were ment and public housing were strongly advocated determined by municipalities. as a component of the welfare state, to address The Government Commission that assessed the housing shortage and the poor quality of the the social aspects of housing existed 1933–47. housing stock. This resulted in a new Building It was significantly influenced by the research Act and a Building Decree in 1947. The shortage of undertaken by Alva and Gunnar Myrdal. The rec- housing and the poor quality of existing housing ommendations of the commission promoted the was a major concern. The political ambition to establishment of municipal housing companies, build a welfare state covered improved housing subsidies housing, and subsidized housing loans. and the extension of social services. The new legislation gave municipalities the authority to determine where, when and how A new approach to planning urban development occurred. The Building Act Rapid economic and urban population growth in required that urban development be based on an the 1950s and 60s increased the housing shortage approved plan, and the Building Decree required and raised issues that affected both municipal that building permits be refused for any develop- administration and planning approaches. Private ment not consistent with the approved plan. The sector construction could not meet the demand Building Act strengthened the municipal plan- and rental-housing costs were exorbitant. Grow- ning monopoly and was a step towards further ing urban areas required large-scale investment in decentralisation. infrastructure and public transport, particularly

The social in cities. aspect of hous- ing provision gained increas- ing importance in 1940s and 1950s with im- proved stand- ards and greater attention to the living environ- ment as a result. Baronbackarna in Örebro is an area that is well-known for pioneering urban design and high qual- ity housing.

The emphasis on qualitative and functional housing was to a certain degree a result of the studies car- ried out by a research institution (Hemmens forskningsinstitut/Bygg- forskningsrådet). The recommenda- tions entailed suitable design for kitchens and bathrooms, furnish-

Örebro stadsarkiv Örebro ing of living space and minimum measurements for various activities

p h o t o s and functions.

12 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

The industrial sector went through a period of The main features of the National Physical Plan restructuring and large industrial complexes – guiding natural resources utilisation. The map was were planned in external locations near cities and included in the Environmental towns. The demand for labour resulted in people Protection Act and Natural Resources Act. migrating from remote areas to cities. Central government promoted economic growth and Mountainous and supported industrial development and considered wilderness areas it important to secure access to natural resources, protecting potential assets, reserving strategic loca- Areas suitable for the tions for major investments, and providing energy establishment of major industries for large industries and urban development. An emerging awareness of the impact of pol- lution increasingly made protection of all aspects of the environment a key planning considera- tion. The green areas, natural parks, clean air Highly utilised coastal and agricultural land were aspects that gained areas, where location of prominence in terms of planning. industries with harmful impact on the environ- However, municipal urban planning instru- ment should be prohib- ments proved inadequate to deal with the com- ited plexity of issues. General Plans dealt mainly with Sensitive coastal areas land use, detailed planning focused on immediate that should not be ex- ploited needs, plan preparation and revision took too long, and implementation was often hindered by plans lacking legality. Smaller municipalities also lacked capacity and expertise, and struggled to keep pace with development. planning and the protection of environmental Central government addressed these issues by resources. Environmental concerns resulted in the reviewing planning instruments and administra- 1969 Environmental Protection Act, which laid the tive and legal provisions. A new national planning foundation for present-day environmental laws authority was formed in 1967 (Planverket), respon- and policies. sible for planning and building policies, natural Housing remained a major issue for munici- resource use and reviewing municipal planning. palities, and demand led to the central govern- One of its major projects was the National ment Million Houses Programme, which financed Physical Plan, which identified attractive geo- increased municipal housing construction. From graphical areas, important natural resources and the 1940s, municipal housing companies were potential assets. It identified major rivers need- established to enhance implementation capacity ing protection, where new hydropower stations and provide rental housing to address shortages. should be permitted, which coastal areas should In the early 1970’s, government commissioned remain unexploited and where major industries, a lengthy review of planning legislation, which re- harbours and power stations should be located. sulted in the Planning and Building Acts of 1987 and Although the National Physical Plan did which is the basis for urban planning today. The not become a formal planning instrument, its act was recently replaced by a new Planning and recommendation influenced new legislation Building Act in 2011 (see chapter 6). The municipal regarding development planning and the use of planning function was strengthened, with Building natural resources. Restrictions on urban sprawl Departments headed by Town Architects becoming and on development of leisure houses in coastal Planning Departments headed by Town Planners. areas have had a significant impact on local Municipal planning assessments, specific theme developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 13 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development tadsmuseum tockholm S S p h o t o The Million Houses Programme provided for and financed housing The poor quality of the built environment in many centrally construction on a large scale to overcome the housing shortage. This located areas combined with the growth of the business resulted in development in peripheral locations and on land that was sector lead to drastic redevelopment of centres and inner owned by the municipality. While providing adequate apartments cities, with demolishing of historical and culturally valuable with good technical quality, there were serious setbacks in urban buildings and urban structures. The widespread protests design standards and the quality of the living environment. against municipal planning marked a new trend in urban planning.

analysis, new types of plans for parts of municipali- increasing share of the public sector. The popula- ties and other planning tools evolved within the tion in some of the municipalities had decreased formal planning framework. drastically over time. In 1943 a Municipal Increased municipal responsibility for Demarcation Committee was established with the development planning and service provision also objectives to reduce the number of municipali- required administrative reforms. Rapid urban de- ties and to create units with sufficient financial velopment and changes in the urban environment resources to provide adequate services (before led to further legislative reforms to incorporate 1943 there were ± 500 municipalities with fewer issues related to the environment, development than 500 inhabitants!). challenges, international cooperation and globali- The first reform, completed in 1952, resulted zation. The new approaches required increasing in 1080 municipalities. Rural municipalities were coordination, cooperation and integration of merged to form larger units, while the number institutions, frameworks and issues. of cities and market towns increased slightly. However, there are still substantial discrepancies between rural and urban municipal administra- Municipal administrative reform tive capacity. Swedish is decentralised, with Legislative reforms in the 1960s included a local municipalities largely responsible for planning, review of the Local Government Act and introduc- development and service provision. The functions tion of the central-place principle, or combined of the three levels of public administration (state, urban-rural municipalities with towns as their county councils/regions and municipalities) are centres. By 1971, there were 282 municipalities. defined by the Local Government Act of 1991, which, The objective was to create municipalities together with the Planning and Building Act of 1987 with a viable economy and tax base, and the gave municipalities a strong mandate in terms of capacity to provide adequate social and infra- urban planning and development. structural services. The reform was completed by Municipalities now differ greatly in size and 1974, and there are now 290 municipalities, which character from the 2 500 city, and vary in size and number of inhabitants, from 850 rural municipalities delineated in 1863. Munici- 000 in Stockholm to rural municipalities with pal functions have been extended covering an ± 2000 inhabitants.

14 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 VÄXJÖ – the greenest city in europe V ÄXJÖ

VÄXJÖ has existed as a settlement for more than 1000 years, and the first church in Sweden was built here. Växjö became a bishopric in 1170 and a charted city in 1342. Today, it is the ad- ministrative centre of and a focal point in an industrious known for its glassworks, furniture and new university. Now you can swim and fish in Växjö’s lakes that were once too polluted.

p h o t o s Mats Samuelsson contacts Maria Arvidsson, (), Kristina Thorvaldsson, (Acting Chief Planner), Växjö Municipality Council

Växjö has 83 000 inhabitants and 7000 able development. It encourages local, Plan. These are closely linked to the Envi- enterprises of different types and sizes. ecological food production and reduc- ronmental Programme and incorporate It is a small city, but with great potential tion, recycling and reuse. Waste material the environmental objectives. and ambitions in terms of sustainability will be a resource in terms of energy and and protecting the green environment. biogas production. Results Växjö’s ambitious environmental pro- Växjö’s environmental profile • Our Nature gramme and targets won it the Sustain- Växjö has been a pioneer in emphasising Nature in and around Växjö is a major able Energy Europe Award in 2007, the the environment in planning and devel- asset that needs care and protection. The National Energy Globe in 2009, and 3rd opment. Its long-standing commitment aim is to protect and improve the envi- place in the Swedish Society for Nature to Local Agenda 21 includes significant ronment in terms of clean water, fresh Conservation Climate Ranking in 2010. A sources. Its Environ- air and natural and cultural diversity. BBC report in 2007 identified Växjö as the mental Programme, adopted in 2006 and Access to green areas, parks and lakes Greenest City in Europe. renewed in 2010 includes objectives that is facilitated, and natural resources are go far beyond the National Environmen- protected by minimising pollution and tal Objectives. Key focus area are harmful emissions. • Living Life • Our Nature • Fossil Fuel Free Växjö • Fossil Fuel Free Växjö. The reduction of greenhouse gas emis- sions mitigates climate change and the In each area, there are indicators and ultimate targets include zero fossil fuel targets, and achievements are assessed use, energy-efficient housing, and public annually. The programme involves coop- transport using only renewable energy. eration with county/regional authorities This means changing consumption pat- and associations. Participatory approach- terns and encouraging alternative modes es encourage inhabitants to take part of transport such as cycling. in debates, stimulated by information campaigns on Fossil Fuels, Climate-Smart Planning for sustainability Living, City Cycling, and Energy. In addition to Växjö’s Environmental Programme and Policy, important • Living Life sustainable planning and development Living Life refers to consumption patterns documents include the Comprehensive and encourages inhabitants to live and Plan, Transport Strategy, Energy plan, act in ways that contribute to sustain- Green Structure Plan and Cycle Structure »Passive« energy houses at Välle Broar. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 15 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

Support for strong local Municipal councils appoint an Executive Board governance and other boards and committees. Parties repre- In general there is a large consensus in Sweden sented in council have a proportionate number about the value of greater scope for local initiative of seats in boards and committees, which prepare and local governance. This notion is particularly proposals to council, supported by technical and strong among municipalities and counties, and administrative staff. with stakeholders such as Swedish Association of Committees are responsible for areas such Local Authorities and Regions (salar). Strong as planning and building, property development, local self-governance is supported by both environment, traffic and transport, public open democratic and efficiency values. space and parks, education, health, social services and infrastructure service. The Local Government Democratic values – Local self-governance Act requires a minimum of three committees enables greater responsiveness to citizens’ needs. in addition to Executive Board, but municipali- There is also greater accountability, as people ties can decide the number of committees and know who is responsible for decisions, and closer combination of areas. proximity to decision-making processes enables Urban planning and housing is mostly under greater public participation. an urban planning committee, often combined with environmental affairs. The move towards Efficiency values – Local self-governance is more more integrated political and administrative cost-efficient than a centralised hierarchy of state structures and integration of service areas is based organisations. Municipalities address new chal- on the interrelation between urban development, lenges and solve problems in innovative, effective social services, economic development, environ- and efficient ways, and cooperate with each other mental issues and infrastructure, and the require- at county level. Municipalities also compete to ments of planning, building and environmental attract businesses and taxpayers, which has lead legislation. to better performance. There are three overall models of municipal organisation Political and administrative yy The sectorial model in which committees are principles responsible for particular services. Planning and development are political processes, yy The territorial model, which organises in that elected leaders are ultimately responsible. committees and administrative offices on a Municipalities are obliged to serve the public and geographic basis. Municipalities using this balance individual and public benefits in deciding model have committees or neighbour- on urban planning and projects, and in other hood councils. respects. yy The functional model, often referred to Local government elections coincide with as the purchaser/provider model, which has national and county elections and political parties become more prevalent with the privatisa- that obtain sufficient votes govern municipal and tion of service provision. The procurement county councils, and in Parliament. The number function is separated from the administrative of municipal councillors varies, depending on functions, and committees contract services the size of municipalities, from 31 to 101. Mu- from the municipal administration or outside nicipal councils meet 6 to ten times per year and contractors. have considerable freedom to make decisions, including on procedures and the structure of the Some cities have established sub-structures based municipal administration, provided it meets basic on or other areas, to facilitate public principles and criteria. participation and enhance service provision

16 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development efficiency. Municipalities decide what functions Democratic decision-making are placed at suburban level, e.g. social service, The Local Government Act defines municipal education and infrastructure maintenance. Most responsibilities and requires democratic decision- municipalities today combine sectorial, territorial making processes in which citizens are informed and functional structures. and participate directly, as well as voting for local councillors. The main principles of municipal ALITY ICIP The sectorial governance include UN M model yy The decision must be of general public interest for the municipality yy The decision must have a relate to the area or

Committee Committee Committee to the inhabitants of the municipality 1 2 3 yy All members of the municipality must be treated equally Committee 4 yy The decision must be made in due legal order, according to the regulations in the Local Government Act LITY The territorial IPA yy The decision cannot have retroactive effect of C MUNIC model I b- IPA N su L U IT disadvantage to the members Y M yy A decision cannot be in conflict with laws or MUNIC b- IPA su L IT other statutes Y yy A decision must be concerned with non- speculative activities and any fees that are levied cannot be profit-making yy The municipality is allowed to promote and support businesses through general efforts ICIPALITY The functional UN that businesses can utilise on equal terms. M model Direct support to individual companies is only allowed if there are special reasons Service yy The municipality is allowed to carry out public provider 2 non-profit activities in the public interest, Service such as electricity and , sewage provider 1 Service treatment, refuse disposal, bus traffic, rental provider 3 housing.

The models for municipal admin- istrative systems are theoretical abstractions. Most municipalities will combine the sectorial and functional model. Larger mu- nicipalities with administrative sub-areas sometimes combine all three models. The territorial model may be used for certain limited number of administrative aspects.

Decision-making in municipali- ties must have the support of the inhabitants and participatory approaches are necessary to achieve involvement and accept- ance. Particular attention is paid to encouraging young people to S K L

participate. p h o t o developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 17 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

How municipalities deal with their responsi- Many municipalities cooperate with their neigh- bilities impacts directly on the everyday life of bours via municipal associations on matters residents and long-term sustainable development, such as water supply, energy provision and waste which requires greater cooperation and coordina- management. The private sector has become tion between sectors and functions, and with increasingly involved in providing public services, other levels of government. though municipalities retain overall responsibility.

Tasks and responsibilities assigned to municipalities Municipalities are legally responsible for yy Social services, including child care, care of the elderly, and social security benefits yy Pre-, primary and secondary schooling, which are all free yy training for immigrants yy Libraries yy Matters related to public building projects yy Health and environmental care yy Sanitation and waste disposal yy Rescue services yy Water and sewerage yy Public order and safety yy Physical planning yy Crisis management

Municipalities may take responsibility for yy Youth and recreation services yy Cultural activities yy Housing yy Energy yy Trade and industry yy Employment initiatives.

Tasks and responsibilities of county councils/regions The main responsibility assigned to county councils/region is medical healthcare. Other tasks that are mainly handled at regional level include public transport and regional development.

S K L See more in chapter 4. p h o t o s

18 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development

Integrated approaches to The legal framework of local and municipal organisation regional government The way in which municipalities organise their Since 1974, local self-government is a institutions for planning and development is principle in the Swedish Constitution (the essential to achieve efficiency and promote Instrument of Government). Local authori- ties are independent bodies with the power sustainability. Planning is essentially a political to tax residents and make decisions within matter and Executive Boards need to oversee limits specified in the Local Government the integration and coordination of the overall Act of 1991. municipal vision, strategy and comprehensive plan, as the basis for sectorial plans. Apart from legislated functions, munici- Municipalities try to achieve broad political palities and county councils/regions may support for overall development plans, which attend to matters of general concern. The councils review and approve at least once during Local Government Act regulates yy demarcation of municipalities and an election cycle. This creates greater awareness county councils among politicians regarding environmental, yy the powers of municipalities and social and economic sustainability and inter- county councils relationship of different aspects. Municipal yy election of representatives officials prepare plans, programmes and budgets yy assemblies and committees to achieve goals and objectives with specific yy co-determination procedures performance indicators. yy financial administration and audits yy assessment by courts of the legality of The general trend concerning administrative local government decisions. structures is to merge functions to form fewer committees and supporting offices with broader Municipal and county council/region func- responsibilities and competencies. Planning, tions are otherwise regulated by legislation building, housing and environmental affairs are such as the Social Services Act of 2001, generally combined. Some larger cities have a the Health and Medical Services Act of more diversified administrative structure with 1982, the Environment Code of 1998) the coordinating groups or reference groups, but in Planning and Building Act of 2011 and the Education Act of 1985, and related most municipalities there is increasing functional ordinances or regulations. Municipalities integration at both administrative and political can make local regulations regarding traffic levels. and parking control, refuse collection, local public order and other service issues. Urban Vision Sundsvall

2007–2037

Sustainable development of our society requires greater awareness and knowledge among people. Presentation of issues in a concrete way, using visual material, such as information exhibitions ity and information brochures, will assist the debate, increase awareness and improve understanding of the requirements. A sustainable society is built Malmö C on participatory, knowledgeable and democratic

p h o t o decision making. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 19 Göteborg – the harbour city g Göteborg, with a population of almost 500 000, is the second largest city in Sweden. The city was established in 1621 on the west coast at the mouth of the river Göta Älv. Göteborg has a maritime character due to the historical importance of the harbour, ship building and sea freight business. The industrial sector is still of great importance, tebo r and includes companies such as Volvo and SKF. The economy is nowadays more diverse, with the increasing importance of academic education and research, environ-

Gö mental technology, IT and finance.

The »Klippan reserve« is a cultural heritage site that is closely linked to, and overlooks the har- bour and the sea. It has a unique and dynamic environment, enlivened by the rehabilitation of historical buildings and sensitive infilling. p h o t o s Stadsbyggnadskontoret Göteborg

INTERVIEWS Hans Ander (Urban Planner), Ulf Moback (Acting Chief Planner), City Planning Office

Policies and Strategies for in the city and region to promote eco- need regarding social sustainability in Sustainable Planning nomic development. Another challenge Göteborg is to address the social vulner- There is a coherent policy basis guiding for the Göteborg municipality is the ability of children and other disadvan- planning and development of the city, need to redevelop the waterfront areas taged groups. Being a coastal town, based on the overall Vision for the Västra and upgrade larger suburbs. A major protection against rising sea levels in Götaland Regional Council and comple- combination with other climate change mented by the Sustainable Growth Strat- effects are concrete environmental con- egy for Göteborg Region. The common cerns in sustainable planning. understanding and agreement between the different levels of government and The Comprehensive Plan 2009 involvement of neighbouring municipal- The 2009 Comprehensive Plan empha- ities regarding the vision, strategies and sises regional and municipal cooperation objectives is an important achievement far more than earlier plans. Based on the in terms of institutional integration. long planning experience the process has evolved and is now established as The Sustainable Growth Strategy for a tool to promote sustainable develop- the Göteborg Regional Association of ment. Regional and internal coordina- Municipalities is based on the following tion and consultation processes have elements: also improved. The comprehensive plan- • Continued population growth with a ning core-group and reference group balanced regional development have a wide representation to facilitate • Improve quality of the living environ- the acceptance of the final proposals. ment and business opportunities The plan includes thirteen strategic • Create a regional structure that is sus- Regional Structure issues for which objectives and strate- tainable in the long-term perspective The Göteborg Regional Association of gies are identified, requiring attention Municipalities was formed in 2002 to enable • Develop long-term sustainable infra- from specific administrative units.T he constructive dialogue around regional issues structure including convenient and between member municipalities and to arrive objectives include environmental, social, comfortable public transport systems at a common vision of sustainable develop- economic and cultural aspects. The fol- • Improve the cooperation between ment. The regional structure that forms the lowing development aspects make up stakeholders. basis for the Göteborg Comprehensive Plan the content of the comprehensive plan. is an outcome of the regional cooperation. The illustration above shows the connection • Economy Major challenges in the growth strategy between regional centres, as nodes for devel- • Natural and built environment include improvement of public transport opment along major public transport routes. • Social planning, safety and security

20 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 • Social impact assessments focused on Protection of cultural children’s well-being heritage areas and historical sections • Public transport The Comprehensive • Attractive and sustainable housing Plan proposes protec- • Climate change adaptation tion through conser- • Cultural heritage vation regulations. More active use of valuable housing areas Monitoring and review and cultural buildings The Planning Office undertakes an annu- is promoted through al review that assesses the way in which selective infilling and each strategic issue have been addressed rehabilitation. and what has been achieved. Annual budgets include provisions for funding sustainability strategies in the municipal vision and comprehensive plan. the municipal committees and boards The Teacher Training College combines rehabilitation and extension. are assessed in terms of their achieve- ments of the overall goals and objectives. specific objectives in annual budgets will be given special attention in the review. In 2011, the emphasis is on children’s welfare, and other plans and development projects will be assessed with this issue in mind.

New aspects of development Vast industrial and storage areas and wholesale facilities require changes. Some of these areas have attractive locations e.g. sections of the old har- bour. Less attractive areas will demand considerable planning and investment • project – Norra Älvstranden to transform them into Multi-functional redevelopment at the waterfront with an emphasis on passive more diverse and energy provision, improved insulation and energy saving appliances. This mixed attractive urban development includes housing, business, academic education and research. areas. Houses without Heating Systems 20 low energy terrace houses in Gˆ teborg • project– Lindås Townhouses, built for energy efficiency and reduced greenhouse gas emissions, have heating systems based on passive energy, and heat exchanger. p r o j e c t m a n a g e r Hans Eek, EFEM arkitektkontor, Göteborg, www.efemarkitektkontor.se

Climate change adaptation for a resilient society The consequences of climate change include increasing risks for flooding, torrential storms and higher sea levels. In Göteborg specific studies are undertaken to predict likely rises in sea levels. The recom- mendations deal with restrictions to develop- ment in certain areas, protective measures for key infrastructure services, construction of protective barriers and restrictions on devel- opment situated less than 3m above sea level. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 21 4. Public services at local and regional level

Sweden has a well-developed system of responsible for higher education. About 10% of publicly funded services. Central government students in primary and secondary schools and manages services such as police, social insurance 17% in upper-secondary schools attend private and employment offices, but local and regional schools, also funded by municipalities. government provide most other services. Since Municipalities must provide childcare and 1990, public services have increasingly been pre-schools for all children whose parents’ work or privatised and provided by contractors, though study. In 2008, 85% of all children between one and municipalities and county councils/regions five were in pre-schools or family day-care homes. remain accountable for service provision and quality. This chapter describes the main services that require integrated planning by municipalities and country councils/regions committed to sustain- able development.

Education and childcare services Swedish municipalities are responsible for primary and secondary education, including yy Childcare and preschools for the 1–6 age group yy Nine-year compulsory schools for the 7–16 age group yy Three-year optional upper secondary schools S K L yy Language training for new immigrants Responsibility of state,

p h o t o county council y y Vocational and adult education Responsibility of municipal- yy Education for persons with special needs. ity, county council Responsibility of University and other municipality higher education Voluntary upper All public school education is free, while pre- secondary school Responsibility of Compulsory 9-year municipality primary/secondary school schools are 90% subsidized. Upper secondary Preschool child care school is not compulsory, but most students continue at this level. Central government is AGE 6/7 15/16 18/19

22 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 public services at local and regional level

Social services for vulnerable groups Culture Vulnerable individuals are entitled to municipal so- Municipalities are responsible for more than 1 500 cial assistance and economic support for everyday public libraries and nearly 100 museums, in addi- costs, e.g. treatment programmes for alcoholics and tion to the many museums financed and managed other addicted people, family and youth counsel- at national level. Most municipalities support ling, and care for abused women. In special cases, local theatres and music groups, and county measures can be taken without the individual’s councils/regions also sponsor county theatres, consent, e.g. care of children and young people and libraries, orchestras, and museums. care of adult drug and alcohol abusers. County cultural programmes are increasingly The social service affecting most people is conducted in cooperation with municipalities. economic assistance. In 2007, almost 380 000 Sweden has a national policy to provide for adults and children received support at some time cultural needs throughout the country. Theatre during the year, at a total cost of SEK 8,9 billion. in Sweden has long enjoyed substantial public financial support. There are three national Elderly care theatres, 35 regional and municipal theatres and The elderly in Sweden constitute a growing over 100 independent theatre groups and produc- percentage of the population, of which 18% has tion companies, of which about 70 receive project reached the retirement age of 65 (expected to funding from central or local government. grow to 23% by 2030). Though the elderly in A special feature of Sweden, and a reason for Sweden are comparatively healthy, there is still a it being the third biggest exporter of music after great need for medical and elderly care. the usa and uk, is the Kommunala Musikskolan Sweden has a well-developed system for care of – the Municipal Music School. All but seven of the aged, and invests 2,8% of its gdp in this sector. Sweden’s 290 municipalities support musical or Municipalities provide extensive services like cultural schools where young people learn music ‘home-help’, enabling people to live on their own and arts such as dance or drama. Over 375 000 as long as possible. There are senior citizen houses students participate in these activities annually. Rober Ekengren/ekengren.se p h o t o Senior citizens form an increasing proportion of the popula- tion. In a couple of decades almost 25% of the population will be 65 years of age and older. Many will be really old and require a lot of support, a fact that must be part of the plan- ning for a sustainable society. Dansens Hus

and group homes, to which old people can move p h o t o Dance theatre is a popular and flourishing form of when they so wish. Municipalities also provide art. In Stockholm, dance has its own theatre, the most health-care for the elderly at service centres or House of Dance. at home, though some contract services to private companies, churches, or civil society organisations. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 23 public services at local and regional level

Water and sewage Sweden has an abundance of water, with almost Cooperating on water 100 000 lakes accounting for 9% of the total and sewage management area of the country, plus numerous rivers and A recent example of jointly managed water and sewage services is in the south-west streams that supply water for drinking and other of Sweden, where from January 2011 the purposes. Water is so abundant that only 0,5% municipalities of and Laholm of the available resource is extracted for use. For merged their operations under a common example, Stockholm uses only 3% of the average committee with elected representatives outflow from the third largest lake in the country. from both municipalities. This committee is responsible for the management, opera- tion and maintenance of water and sewage Water consumption in Sweden systems in both municipalities. The 2 aims to improve water supply security and The industrial sector uses over /3 of water consumed in Sweden. Usage differs greatly customer service by coordinating invest- among municipalities, with the highest ments. consumption in coastal municipalities in Northern Sweden, where heavy industries All operational staff are now employed are mostly located. by the technical affairs department of , and about 100 mil- Households consume about 20% of water, lion SEK will be invested annually over a and the average Swede uses about number of years to link the two systems 165 litres per day on and build new pipe networks. – personal hygiene (55 litres)

– flushing toilets (30 litres) – washing dishes (30 litres) – laundry (40 litres) and – cooking and drinking (10 litres). Waste or refuse management is a key municipal responsibility for maintaining a sustainable envi- Water heating ronment, and is based on five principles – waste accounts for about prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery (e.g. energy 20% of household recovery) and safe disposal. energy costs. Previously, much of the waste collected was dumped in large landfills, but since 1990,

Affordable energy is an important factor in economic development. Energi AB, a municipal- Water and sewage services are mostly provided owned company, turns waste into district heating and electricity – a by municipalities, which have over 2000 public business with nearly 50 000 water works and an equal number of sewage customers and a turnover of 1,1 billion SEK. plants. Sewage is often used to produce energy. Municipalities or municipal companies run plants that provide customers with water and sewage services, financed by locally determined service charges that cover capital and running costs. Swedish legislation prohibits profits from water services. Neighbouring municipalities often cooperate by forming jointly owned water, sewage and waste management companies.

24 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 public services at local and regional level municipalities have improved waste management Energy practices, to contribute to climate change mitiga- The Law on Energy Planning (1977) requires that tion. Waste is now seen as a resource that can each municipality have a plan for the supply, replace fossil fuels in providing heating and elec- distribution and use of energy. An amendment tricity. Organic waste can generate biogas through in 1999 requires that the plan include an analysis anaerobic digestion, which can be used for vehicle of how municipal energy operations affect the fuel, and digestate which is an excellent nutrient, environment, public health, land management, rich in nitrates and phosphates. Organic waste water and other resources. can also be turned into compost. Swedish municipalities mostly supply energy In 2009, 20 municipalities had anaerobic di- through municipal-owned or private contracted gestion plants. Today, biogas is used primarily as energy companies that operate district heating sys- vehicle fuel, a market that has more than tripled tems, often powered by waste incineration plants. since 2005. About half of all household waste is Privatization of the energy market in the mid incinerated to provide over 20% of all heating 1990s led to the sale of most municipal utility energy in the country. companies, but with increasing energy costs, new For a long time, household waste in Sweden green technology and small-scale production increased faster than the population, but this options, there are incentives for more diverse trend has been reversed in recent years. In 2008, ownership, and new municipal energy companies the quantity of treated household waste was 511 kg are emerging. per person, and in 2009 it was 480 kg, of which The National Energy Agency supports close to 100 kg was food waste. municipalities to achieve energy efficiency and In 2009, 98,6% of all household waste was climate change adaptation. Municipalities and re-used, recycled or recovered, with only 1,4% county councils/regions committed to energy going to landfills. Landfill disposal has decreased efficiency can apply for funding for the period by 50% compared to 2008. The goal is to reduce 2010–2014 from the annual programme allocation the amount of waste put in landfills to close to of 99 million sek. The Agency also supports and zero. A landfill waste tax was introduced in 2000 advises local and regional government on efficient to reduce land filling. energy use (see box below). Households are encouraged to separate waste and deposit it at collection points. Since Cooperation promotes sustainable municipalities 1994, legislation obliges producers to use as little The National Energy Agency’s Sustainable Municipality Pro- packaging as possible and take responsibility for gramme (Uthållig kommun) started in 2003 with five municipali- recycling it. Municipalities are only responsible ties. The ongoing third phase of the programme (2011–2014) for household waste. Industries and other produc- involves more than a fifth of all Swedish municipalities. ers are responsible for their own waste, with the the overall aim is to contribute to a more sustainable society. largest volumes produced by the mining, wood The programme facilitates sharing of experiences and learning among municipalities and other stakeholders. Each participating and construction industries. municipality selects one or several development projects in their lo- Municipalities organize waste management cal energy plan. The National Energy Agency and other authorities individually or jointly. In about 75% of municipal- contribute their expertise. Municipalities from previous programme ities, contractors manage household waste. Waste phases act as mentors. Universities and researchers provide meth- is treated by municipalities, municipal enterprises ods and tools developed in and outside the programme. and private companies. Households pay the full the programme has focused on different areas of energy ef- cost of waste management, which in 2009 aver- ficiency.T hemes for the current third phase include: yy Physical planning with a focus on energy and transportation aged 690 sek per person per year (including 25% yy How the local business community and municipalities can vat). Some municipalities have a scale of fees to cooperate around energy issues to contribute to sustainable encourage waste sorting and minimization. development. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 25 public services at local and regional level

In 2011, energy consumption in Sweden increased demand, based on projected population growth, by 6,3%, and due to increased demand and pro- demographic changes, immigration/emigra- duction constraints, prices rose significantly. The tion and economic growth. Attractive housing increased demand was mainly due to increased areas, diversity of housing types and easy access energy-intensive industrial production and a to housing promote economic growth, while couple of harsh winters, while the decrease in shortages and inadequate housing create negative production was due to reduced flows in larger perceptions of a municipality. rivers, and renovation of some of Sweden’s ten nu- In 2010, populations grew in 149 munici- clear reactors. At the same time, energy produced palities and decreased in 140. Various factors by wind, biogas and other alternative sources influence rates, including housing increased. Read more about energy efficiency in availability. 43% of municipalities reported a lack relation to climate change in chapter 7. of housing and 60 of the 290 municipalities had no available rental apartments. Housing Earlier planning legislation encouraged Municipalities are responsible for the supply of municipal land acquisition or ‘land-banking’ to housing, and Country Administrative Boards provide for cost-effective long-term urban develop- support municipalities in this regard (as described ment and reduce land speculation. In recent years, in chapter 2). The Law on Housing Supply most municipalities have reduced their land hold- requires that municipalities adopt housing supply ings and sold considerable amounts of undevel- guidelines and programmes in each four-year oped land on the outskirts of built-up areas. mandate period, as part of comprehensive Municipal involvement in housing provision municipal plans. as developers and managers was an important In Sweden, most municipalities and other large initiative to address the serious housing shortage property owners rent out large numbers of apart- in the 1940s. Rental housing at that time was ments at officially regulated rates, in order mostly private, but rapid urbanization and public to provide more equitable housing. funding for large-scale housing projects led to Public housing is almost always municipal housing companies becoming increas- apartments. Presently, there are ingly dominant. In 2009, 300 municipal housing around 4,5 million apartments companies owned close to 900 000 apartments. in private and public build- In recent decades, many municipal apartment ings in Sweden, of which blocks have been sold to associations of tenants, almost 70% are rented. and about 80% of all houses and apartments Municipalities base their Sweden are privately owned. The largest decrease housing provision pro- in rental apartments has been in Stockholm, grammes on estimated housing where tenant associations have bought many

Safe-guarding the interests of tenants The Swedish Union of Tenants (Hyresgästföreningen) is a any political party. It negotiates rent levels and terms for democratic members’ organisation for tenants. Its objective is rental housing with landlords and provides advice and sup- for everyone to be entitled to good housing at a reasonable port in dealings with landlords. It also undertakes efforts to cost, and they work to ensure that all tenants are guaranteed influence public opinion and lawmakers to improve the terms a secure housing situation that allows them to enjoy influence of tenants’ rental leases. The Swedish Union of Tenants negoti- and a sense of community. More than half a million house- ates rent levels for 90% of the rental housing in the country holds are members of the Swedish Union of Tenants. The and is an important dialogue partner for central and local organisation is run by its members and is not affiliated with authorities in the area of housing development.

26 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 public services at local and regional level public and private rental apartment buildings. Public transport Those who favour this argue that ownership is In Sweden about 20% of all travel is via an investment that leads to increased freedom in public transport or taxi, and the rest housing choices. Opponents argue that it leads to via private cars or motorcycles. 45% increased segregation of people who can and can- of public transport is via city or local not afford to buy apartments. In Stockholm, most buses, and the rest via local trains and rental apartments are in the suburbs, while most regional busses and trains, including owned apartments are in expensive central areas. the underground in Stockholm. Public The Swedish National Board of Housing, transport is used to a much greater Building and Planning regulates the municipal extent in cities and larger towns than housing supply, and development in terms in small towns and rural areas. of environmental protection, land and water The use of bicycles as a means of management, and the planning, construction and transport is increasing in urban areas, maintenance of buildings. and municipalities promote cycling by investing in bicycle paths, to

decrease traffic congestion and co2 emissions. Regional services Since 1983, County Transport Principals, Services such as regional development planning, consisting of selected members of county and public transport, health care, and to an extent, municipal councils, have been responsible cultural services, are provided at county or for public transport. Most counties have joint regional level, though often in cooperation with transport companies that plan services, which municipalities. are usually provided by private, or sometimes municipal companies. About 98% of local and Health care regional public transport is now outsourced Everyone in Sweden has equal access to health- through open tenders. Most costs are financed care services provided by county councils and re- by ticket sales, and the excess is funded by grants gions. About 1 000 local medical centres through- from local authorities and the state. out Sweden provide basic medical treatment, care From January 2012, a new law regulating and rehabilitation. Maternity and childcare are public transport will replace County Transport also usually provided at these centres. Some clin- Principals with Regional Transport Authorities. ics and hospitals are managed by private contrac- Under this law, any public transport company will tors, but funded by county councils. be free to establish public transport on a commer- Around 9% of gpd is spent on health and cial basis anywhere in the country. medical care, which is highly subsidized by the state. The daily hospital fee is 80 sek, while an initial visit a doctor at a primary care centre costs 100–200 sek, after which medical care is free. In order to make health care accessible to all, there is an individual annual cost ceiling of 900 sek, above which all treatment is free. Central, regional and local government emphasise the importance of staying mentally and physically healthy, to prevent illness and reduce the ‘burden’ on the health care system.

Around 9% of gpd is spent on health and medi- Rober Ekengren/ekengren.se

cal care, which is highly subsidized by the state. p h o t o developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 27 sundsvall – industrial city and regional centre

sundsvall city has a population of about 50 000 people, while about 95 000 live in the whole munici- pality. Sundsvall was established in the 17th century at a time when many new towns were founded in Sweden. The growth of the town was supported by suitable conditions for a major harbour and its strategic location for forest-related industries. sundsvall

The Northern Harbour Waterfront is a redevelopment of industrial land into • project – Northern Harbour Waterfront a residential area. p h o t o kommun

interviews Marie-Louise Henriksson (Urban and Regional Planner) and Mats Henriksson (County Architect), both retired since 2011

Pioneering environment planning ment. Important guiding documents for opportunities and economic potential in The Swedish Government initiated the Sundsvall include Sundsvall and five other municipalities Sundsvall Environmental Project in 1989 in the region. It outlines the future of to address environmental problems The Sundsvall Comprehensive Plan Sundsvall in terms of renewable energy, in the industrial town. This resulted in The review of the Comprehensive Plan natural resources, high-quality educa- many follow-up activities and urban will have a planning horizon set at 2021, tion and favourable transport linkages. and natural environmental projects, and the process emphasises public including improvement of pollution participation. The importance of regional and control, green public open space and international cooperation public transport systems. These early Local Agenda 21 Sundsvall considers cooperation to experiences have given Sundsvall a Local Agenda 21 has 2020 as its target be particularly important, in order to head start in gaining public support for date, and specifies ten objectives that compete with the strong economies of environmentally sensitive planning, and guide Sundsvall towards becoming a regions and cities in southern Sweden. the Sundsvall has a majority and municipality. The dispersed settlement pattern of the in favour of progressive environmental north calls for greater efforts to achieve policies. The Sundsvall Urban Vision cooperation and coordination. the main challenges for sustainable The Sundsvall Urban Vision has a long- the County Administrative Boards development are linked to the historic term perspective with a target date of in Northern Sweden have initiated a dominance of major forestry sector 2037. This vision has been prepared regional analysis model for the transport industrial complexes and limited eco- based on public participation and input sector, mainly related to railway links. nomic diversity. These industries remain from the business community and For the region surrounding Sundsvall, important, but academic education, general public. The basis for the vision is greater cooperation is planned with mu- research and transport have developed three statements nicipalities along the Botnia Sea, and the significantly in recent years. • Planning aims at a good living envi- east-west connection to the Atlantic will ronment for the people of Sundsvall focus on economic and infrastructure Long-term planning and • The town centre (the Stone Town) has development. development strategies a unique cultural heritage value that Sundsvall has prepared a series of long- needs to be cherished Examples of projects that Sundsvall is term development, strategies which • Sundsvall is an important communi- involved in include address the developmental needs of cations node in the Northern Sweden the municipality and region. The County employment region. • The Mid Nordic Green Transport Corridor, Administrative Board has played an n e c l active role in regional planning aligned The Sundsvall Sustainable Growth Strategy This project is closely linked to the with EU programmes, which promote The sustainable growth strategy pro- Botnian Green Logistic Corridor, which inter-regional sustainable develop- motes the coordination of employment supports the establishment of cargo

28 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 facilities, linkages and coordination across boundaries. Sustainability Assessment The Sustainability Assessment Barometer has been developed to standardise • The Botnian Green Logistic Corridor monitoring and evaluation of plans, activities and projects that are proposed, or This project focuses on improving have been implemented. The Barometer has14 sustainability indicators, each with transportation of goods and people, a number of means of measurement, and results are presented in a colour-coded and includes all Swedish counties in the northern region from Gävle to Norrbot- graph. ten, counties in from to Narvik, as well as counties in , and . The programme Development prospects focuses on energy, transport and envi- Traffic & communication Proximity and accessibility ronmental protection. Child friendliness Health

• The Green Highway kommun S undsvalls The Green Highway project, which Diversity Economics of building and society emerged as a result of regional and international cooperation, entails the Attractiveness Security development of technology for trans- yes portation using locally produced, fossil- Influence and participation Risk and safety to some extend free fuels. The Green Highway is part of neither the Sundsvall–Östersund–Trondheim Infill Greenery no (s ö t ) cooperation, which includes an Local ecocycle solutions counteract urban network promoting cooperation between the cities in the fields of infra- structure and communication, education 14 indicators and competence development, culture, The assessment is based on 14 indi- entertainment and tourism. cators and for each indicator there are a number of means to measure Development projects the degree of sustainability. The Sundsvall has undergone a number of results will vary for different projects. positive changes in recent years, and de- velopment projects have been facilitated by public support and well-established development strategies. Upgrading and redevelopment projects have focused on traffic regulation and areas of histori- cal and cultural value in the town centre, and on redesign of more peripheral industrial and housing areas.

p h o t o Kristofer Lönnå

Norra berget HAGA Norra berget HAGA P5 Baldersvägen Universitetsallén NORRMALM NORRMALM ÅKROKEN NORRA KAJEN ÅKROKEN NORRA KAJEN Norrmalmsgatan P12 Badhusparken G4

n Storgatan e

Norrmalmsparken P11 k n Ågatan

n

ä

Storgatan e L d

Sjögatan

VÄSTERMALM r

a a

r STENSTAN P10 VÄSTERMALM t v Sundsvallsfjärden

Västra allén

s e

l ä

u

Västra allén V

undsvalls kommun S undsvalls Sundsvallsfjärden o P13 b n P10 G7 Rådhusgatan am Skolhusallén STENSTAN Järnvägseplanaden Skolhus- allén

H Järnvägsesplanaden

SÖDRA KAJEN Örnsköldsallén SÖDRA SALLYHILL SALLYHILL KAJEN Bergsgatan Bergsgatan horsell

Nya trädplanteringar T Befintlig grönstruktur Cykelstråk SÖDERMALM S Stråk SÖDERMALM Huvudgator G Grönområde S4 P Passage nders 0 300 m ÖSTERMALM 0 300 m S2 ÖSTERMALM A

0 cycle300 mpath p h o t o • project Improvement of green • project Sundsvall Town Centre – • project Travel Centre – new devel- paths and corridors – redevelopment, cultural heritage protection, redevelop- opment, connecting local and regional connecting links. ment, infilling. travel.

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 2929 5. Financing of public services and development

The public sector in Sweden is financed operating costs and 72% of county council costs, by citizens and employers through taxes, and by with the balances funded by service fees and other fees paid by households and businesses. Sweden is sources. renowned for its high taxes. Some argue that taxes are too high, while most Swedes accept that high taxes are necessary to sustain the welfare system and provide all citizens with equal services. The Housing in Sweden is expensive Swedish Tax Agency has an advanced, efficient On average, Swedes spend 27,7% of dispos- and service-orientated collection system. able income on housing, 15,8% on trans- port, 17,7% on leisure In 2009, 61% of tax revenue in Sweden came and culture, 14,8% on from direct income taxes paid by employees and so- groceries and alco- cial security contributions paid by employers. Most holic beverages, is collected locally by municipalities and and only 2,5% on county councils, but those who earn over a certain health and medi- amount annually also pay a state income tax. cal care. 12% of tax revenue comes from capital taxes such as company profits tax, real estate tax and other wealth taxes, and 27% comes from vat on consumption and Excise duties. The vat rate is 25%, with some exceptions, e.g. 12% on food and Services are increasingly financed by fees 6% on newspapers and books. Most municipal and county/regional services are financed by local taxes, but the Local Government Act allows municipalities to charge fees. For local Local and regional government services that are legally obligatory, fees are set at revenue national level. The principal revenue source for Swedish local The Local Government Act does not allow government is income tax, and tax rates are decided municipalities to make a profit on a service by by municipal and county/regional councils. The charging fees in excess of costs, but they may set average is about 30% of income, with 20% collected lower fees and subsidise a service from tax rev- by municipalities and 10% by county/regions. Tax enue. However, this does not apply to municipal- revenues finance approximately 68% of municipal owned energy companies.

30 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 financing OF PUBLIC services and development

As municipal and county/regional council costs are increasing and tax revenue are decreasing due to an ageing population, it is likely that services will increasingly be funded by fees.

Local and regional revenue sources In 2009, the total revenue of Swedish municipalities was 493 billion SEK, derived from the following sources:

■ Tax revenues 68% ■ General state grants 12% ■ Special purpose state grants 4% ■ Charges and fees 6% ■ Sales of operations and contracts 1% to developers, to provide municipalities with ■ Rents and leases 3% capital for various purposes, or a developer is ■ Other 5% given leasehold rights for which they pay an annual rent. The advantages of leasing are that the County/regional councils had a total municipality has greater influence on the develop- revenue of 244 billion SEK in 2009, derived ment, and secures a sustained rental income. from the following sources: Implementation and cost-sharing

■ Tax revenues 72% agreements ■ General state grants 8% Legislation provides for implementation agree- ments based on Detailed Development Plans, ■ Funding for national medicament reform 9% whereby a property owner’s benefit is calculated ■ Special purpose state as the basis for their contribution to public costs grants 3% such as road construction, water and sanitation, ■ Charges and fees 3% public open space and parks, and any other serv- ■ Other 5% ices or facilities. Municipalities generally finance bulk infrastructure outside the development area. Municipalities can negotiate cost sharing with developers based on the overall impact of a Financing urban development development on infrastructure, services and the and infrastructure environment. Municipalities use various means to finance capital investment in urban development and Development cooperation agreements infrastructure. The principle is that capital costs Development cooperation agreements facilitate should be recovered from revenue over a reasona- implementation of detailed development plans by ble period. Developers fund private development, property owners, according to municipal stand- but are required to contribute to funding related ards and requirements, and usually also cover public infrastructure and facilities. operation and maintenance. Property owners Land acquisition is a key factor in municipal associations are usually established as the legal urban development. Public land is either sold bodies that contract with the municipality. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 31 financing OF PUBLIC services and development

Financing operation and maintenance Local and regional expenditure All public property is maintained by local or Local and regional government expenditure central government, including public buildings, accounts for more than one fifth of Sweden’s gdp. streets, roads, open spaces and green areas. Main- The largest sector for all municipalities is educa- tenance includes waste collection, street cleaning tion, followed by elderly care and pre-school and removal of snow. activities. The largest cost is personnel, which Private property is maintained by property accounts for 55% of expenditure. For county/ owners, but can be prescribed by municipalities regions, the main expense is health care, account- in cases of neglect. Development cooperation ing for over 90% of budgets, with the remainder agreements between municipalities and other spent on public transport, regional development, stakeholders regarding maintenance are common. culture, and certain kinds of education, e.g. liberal adult education. Since 1993, the Riksdag decided the principle Redistribution of financial resources that any new obligations placed on municipalities between levels of government or county/regions by the State should be financed The Swedish Government has a policy that serv- by the State, not by increasing local taxes or shift- ices should be of the same quality throughout the ing funding from existing services. country. To ensure this, various systems redistrib- The budgetary period for local, regional, ute resources within the country. According to the and central government is one year, which since 1996 equalisation system, richer municipalities 1997 corresponds to the calendar year. Since the (mostly in the Stockholm area) pay, and poorer adoption of the Local Government Act in 1991 the ones receive compensation. overall budget planning cycle is three years, which There is also a state grant system that distrib- enables more flexibility in expenditure. The three- utes funds to municipalities, based on population year period is progressed, so the current budget and age categories. In 2009, all municipalities year is always the first in the period. Municipali- receiving significant state grants were in the ties also require annual operational plans, based sparsely populated far North of Sweden. Mu- on their budget plans. nicipalities and counties can also receive special The three-year planning cycle requires purpose grants, in recent years e.g. for competence foresight and consideration of different future development of teachers, decreasing queues in scenarios. Councils are required to communicate health care, strengthened rehabilitation of the men- these plans to citizens via the media, to enable tally disabled. The state budget for all types of local public scrutiny and feedback, before plans are government grants in 2009 was 81,5 billion sek. approved.

A national balancing act To ensure same quality services throughout the country, the Swedish Government redistributes some of the tax funds generated in richer municipalities, and other resources, to poorer municipalities.

32 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 6. Planning for a sustainable society

Sustainable development and international objectives, regional coopera- concerns everyone and all aspects of society, tion, and involvement of other stakeholders such and requires holistic and integrated planning as the private sector and civil society. The role approaches that include public consultation and of municipalities in Sweden is regulated and participation. Swedish municipalities, as planning guided by sound national legislation, policies and authorities, have considerable responsibilities for development strategies, but there are still many integrated planning, as well as for plan imple- challenges that require innovative approaches and mentation, and operation and maintenance of solutions at local level. infrastructure and services. A broad sustainability perspective in munici- pal planning requires incorporation of national

Cities and other built areas must provide a good, healthy living en- vironment and contribute to good regional and global environments. Natural and cultural assets must be protected and developed. Buildings and amenities must be located and designed in accordance with sound environmental principles and in such a way as to promote sustain- able management of land, water and other resources. Swedish Environmental Quality Objectives, no.15

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 33 Planning for a sustainable society

The concept of sustainable nities and other interest groups. There will often be planning and development debate and sometimes disagreements on aspects, The concept of sustainable planning and develop- and developing a shared vision may involve com- ment in Sweden has evolved over time. Municipal promises. However, a democratic planning process reforms in the 1960s and 70s aimed to create is necessary for sustainable development. municipalities with sufficient capacity to be self- Many municipalities and county/regional financing and independent service providers. How- councils have over time developed more inclusive ever, the current complexity of regional and global and integrated planning processes, and wider interdependence requires increasing cooperation coordination and cooperation in the planning and coordination among municipalities, and with and implementation phases, involving different other levels of government and other sectors. departments, regional authorities, the private The first generation of comprehensive sector and other stakeholders. As a result, many planning focused often on the use of land and visions, comprehensive plans, strategies and poli- expansion of urban areas, but lacked a strategic cies have the long-term and holistic perspective and developmental perspective. Cooperation required for sustainable development. among municipal departments and with other levels of government was limited, and consulta- tion was often a formality. Smaller municipalities The impact of existing urban had limited resources to undertake the tasks structures and reviews. More recent comprehensive plans Visions and long-term strategies focus on ideal pay greater attention to long-term perspectives, and future development scenarios. However, visions and strategies. most development occurs in connection with or Sustainable planning and development require within existing urban structures, or as additions integration of social, economic, environmental and or redevelopments. Cities and urban areas have institutional and functional considerations, based grown over time and taken on forms that reflect on a clear vision and objectives for sustainable the attitudes and culture of the time. human, built and natural environments. An inte- Many Swedish towns have a historical core, grated approach also treats planning, implementa- even from medieval time or with an origin as tion, operation and maintenance, and replacement military fortifications. Other town structures of infrastructure as an integrated and cyclical asset reflect the growth and industrialisation in the 19th management process. century. Large suburban areas came into being Municipality and regional development visions during the great expansion and redevelopment also need the support of all stakeholders, including programmes since the 1960s. politicians, developers, property owners, commu- Contemporary planning must take the exist-

Most self-help hous- ing areas were built between 1920 and 1940. Standardised building drawings were provided by government for low-income group families, workers or officials.

Haga (Göteborg) is one of the oldest working class areas. It has recently been upgraded and rede- veloped, retaining its original character and most of the buildings.

34 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Planning for a sustainable society ing urban structure as the starting point. Planners residential and industrial areas and commercial and decision-makers face the challenge that centres. The expansion occurred in suburbs in many existing areas that are not compatible with peripheral areas and with functional separation of their vision of sustainable and integrated urban land-uses. development. On the other hand, older urban The aim was to provide healthy, high standard forms and buildings are valuable cultural heritage housing with green areas and playgrounds in a assets, of great importance for the character and spacious urban environment. Some areas built in identity of a town or city. this period were based on the ground-breaking Historical parts of Swedish towns have a concept of suburbs with housing, employment and densely developed structure, with great variation all necessary services within walking distance. and diversity. Originally, they included mixed Rapid economic and population growth and development with residential areas, businesses urbanisation resulted in large-scale projects, with and artisans’ workshops. In general, the share of the so-called Million Houses Programme (1965 to business and commercial use in town centres has 1975) representing the historical peak of construc- increased, at the expense of residential use. The tion in Sweden. Suburbs became larger and indus- structure of city blocks, streets, squares and parks trial areas and shopping centres were located where is more organic in the historical city-cores, while land was readily available, cheap and separated urban development in subsequent centuries tended from other built-up areas. The new suburbs were to be based on uniform grid networks. established far from existing historical centres. Pre-20th century urban design and building Urban structuring was increasingly based on construction was characterised by functional the requirements of motorised transport, with road integration, mixed use and variety. The growth networks occupying evermore space and reinforc- of urban areas was sequential and organic, and ing the fragmentation of urban landscapes into reflected social changes and evolving architectural separate areas with different land-use functions. styles. Swedish society was far from harmoni- Modernisation also resulted in drastic rede- ous, with major inequalities and poor service velopment of inner city areas, causing considerable standards. However, the compact and diverse built damage to historical and culturally important areas environments in historical parts of towns are full in many Swedish towns. This loss of heritage assets of character, and are today recognised as important during the 1960s and 70s remains a matter for assets in the urban environment. regret today. New functionalist planning concepts intro- In spite of large-scale development and inap- duced since the 1920s promoted the separation of propriate redevelopment, the period of expansion functions, an emphasis on traffic planning, larger produced many areas and buildings of good green areas between suburbs, and large, separate quality, with great potential for improvement and

The centre of Vällingby has been given a new image while protect- ing the original urban design. It includes new housing, employment opportunities and a busi- ness centre. Vällingby, built in 1950s, was one of the first self-contained suburbs in Stockholm.

Improved »Million houses« area includes new playground, greenery, new facade colour, balconies and entrances. The purpose is to create more diver- sity and variation. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 35 Planning for a sustainable society

alteration to meet new sustainability demands. is common, if green areas are threatened. There are already many good examples of urban Climate change mitigation requires reducing upgrading that have created more diversified and emissions of greenhouse gases, and designing integrated urban environments. infrastructure and buildings to withstand the expected effects. Municipal comprehensive plan- ning is guided by national sustainability recom- Sustainability in the municipal mendations such as increasing renewable energy context sources, efficient energy use and expansion of The concept of sustainability has public transport systems. gained increasing support Much energy can be saved by constructing ECONOMIC Sustainability among authorities, interest housing that is energy passive or that actually Social groups and the public, due produces energy, in combination with better Sustainability to increased awareness of insulation and district heating using e.g. solid environmental threats and waste as fuel. Environmental the potential consequences The impact of private motor vehicles must Sustainability for economic development. also be reduced by more efficient technology, Planners and decision-makers limiting their use by improving public transport, in particular need to understand more compact and mixed-use urban development the threats, in order to plan appropriate action and restricting and taxing access by car to city programmes and restrictions on development. and town centres. Sustainable development is a process of Land is a scarce resource and urban expan- continued efforts to achieve a good and sustain- sion threatens natural environments. Compact, able living environment, which needs to inform higher density cities make more efficient use of planning at all levels of government. Municipal infrastructure, preserve natural areas and reduce self-governance in Sweden provides a good basis environmental impacts. Conservation of forests for integrated planning, but the sector-based and green areas is essential, and appropriate approach of central government and legislation management of wetlands is also important for needs greater integration, together with better flood prevention. communication between central government Built environments with cultural heritage agencies and county and municipal councils. and historic value are also assets that require The Swedish Association of Local Authorities conservation, as an aspect of environmental and Regions (salar) recommends that sustain- sustainability. able urban development be based on environ- mental, social and economic sustainability, as Social sustainability three integrated perspectives. Social sustainability is a complex matter, inti- mately linked to the structure of urban areas and Environmental sustainability economic development. Integrated, varied urban Environmental sustainability concerns protection areas enhance access and interaction. Social sus- of long-term biological and ecological processes tainability requires that basic physical and social that guarantee biological diversity. To achieve this, needs are met, including the need for participa- the impact of human activities must not exceed the tion in democratic and civic processes. Urban carrying capacity of the environment. structures that entail mixed uses and a variety of Sustainable planning needs to protect green ar- activities supports social diversity and integration. eas and corridors, parks, public open spaces, forests A combination of residential use, business, offices, and other natural resources. Most Swedes support public services and commerce improve the image conservation of biodiversity and natural areas as of urban areas and encourage communication. valuable assets, and opposition to new development Housing need to offer a wide range of tenure

36 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Planning for a sustainable society options within the same area to attract different Economic sustainability socio-economic groups and age-groups. Urban areas are often called the engines of Planning processes should actively promote economic growth. While planning must encourage equality and active public participation, with a economic initiatives and provide for economic ac- special focus on women and children, disabled tivities, economic sustainability requires develop- and elderly and vulnerable groups like the ment that is in balance with available resources and homeless and ethnic minorities. Social diversity not harmful for the environment. A new challenge is a positive asset that should be promoted by is that the economy is changing rapidly, and new urban planning, and Swedish municipalities often urban design concepts and approaches are needed address equality and vulnerability issues through to keep pace. The urban planning must accom- special strategies to support vulnerable groups. modate changes through flexible regulations and Access for all to health services and educa- structures that can be adjusted over time. tion, and the possibility to work and earn an The regionalisation of development with dis- income are essential for social and economic persed, large-scale industrial and commercial cen- development and well-being. Safety and security tres depending on vehicle access and long-distance are promoted by designing public areas and transport is in this view, not feasible. Municipalities streets to increase interaction and surveillance. should rather provide mixed development areas Large-scale housing development often decreases with diverse environments that encourage creativ- social interaction and a sense of community, and ity and innovative types of business. Revision of segregation contributes to increased inequality detailed plans, less restrictive regulations, infilling and crime. In addressing this issue, Swedish and compact development are all means to support municipalities often work with the police and the establishment of small businesses. social services to involve communities. Urban structures should provide meeting Sustainable development must be explicit to places such as public open spaces, schools, sport be understood. The urban development must be based on green areas in the urban struc- clubs, day care centres and recreation facilities ture. Social development assumes where different groups can interact. Physically interaction between people of different socio-economic groups integrated urban areas facilitate social integration. and ethnicity. Economic development must include A pleasant and accessible urban environment promotion of environmen- invites inhabitants to take ownership of public tal friendly innovations. Environmental sustain- areas and promotes community building. ability depends on the protection of ecological and biological processes.

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 37 Planning for a sustainable society

Sustainable development planning must also processes based on cooperation between different support private sector investment and business municipal functions and levels of government. development, skills training, and cooperation with other stakeholders to create employment. Accessibility Municipalities can cooperate with companies via Urban areas and facilities must be public-private partnerships and other contractual accessible to all. This is facilitated arrangements, and develop other strategies to by physical linkages such as public increase local employment opportunities. transport, walkways and cycle paths. New, sustainable technologies for infra- Emphasis is put on ease of access structure, services, transport and housing, which and safety and security, especially for promote climate change mitigation and efficient women, children, the disabled and energy use, are essential areas for investment elderly. p h o t o Mats Samuelsson and economic development. Investments in green technology such as energy production and Compact urban structuring efficiency, energy and resources savings, electric Efficient use of land and infrastructure is essential vehicles, emission reduction etc. are not only good to promote sustainability, and requires higher- for the environment but also a potentially profit- density development, infilling and redevelopment able economic sector. to support efficient and accessible public transport The image of a town is important for attracting systems and service provision. Complementary investment, and is based on physical environment, functions, land uses and facilities are important in social and economic environment. Municipalities upgrading sub-urban areas. need a long-term approach to economic develop- ment which includes clear policies regarding Mixed development realistic cost-recovery on investments, particularly Mixed development with in major service infrastructure. different land uses and activities in the same area promotes functional Planning principles in Swedish and social integration. municipalities It increases accessibility Sustainable urban planning and development is and efficient use of resources and infrastructure, based on planning principles which enhance the reduces transport needs and promotes public quality of the social, economic, natural and built transport and interaction between different groups. environment. In Sweden, most municipal visions, long-term strategies and comprehensive plans are Diversity based on the following principles. This principle promotes the development of attractive urban environment with varied housing Integration types, land uses and tenure options. Variations in Integration has physical, functional, social, urban design and architectural style contribute to economic, cultural and institutional aspects. It a positive environment and unique identity in an promotes urban development that provides for area. Diversity includes socio-economic aspects, different activities and functions, diverse housing with housing options that meet the different and types and architectural forms, a mix of land tenure changing needs of young people, growing families options, and accessible services. Integrated urban and the elderly. planning supports the inclusion and interaction of different socio-economic groups, and economic Public transport and cultural opportunities. Institutional integra- Urban planning must promote public transport tion involves inclusive planning and development and reduce private vehicular traffic in order to

38 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Planning for a sustainable society

mitigate climate change threatened by the pressure for redevelopment and effects. Road network alterations in inner city areas. Municipalities must design needs to give pref- ensure that planning facilitates the conservation erence to buses, if public or sensitive redesign of such areas to maintain transport is to compete their character and identity. with private vehicle use. Restricted parking in Protection of agricultural resources and food inner cities and congestion fees also contribute to production traffic reduction. Urban areas exist in a regional context, and are Public transport planning must be an integral surrounded by land originally used for agricultural aspect of urban planning to promote sustainable production. Local food production and small-scale development. Development along public transport farming should again be encouraged, as an increas- routes facilitates transport efficiency and increases ingly important aspect of sustainable development. convenience for passengers. Urban agriculture in allotment gardens is an attractive element in the urban structure, and can Protection of green areas and the natural be included in new developments, and upgrading environment and redevelopment schemes. Protection of the environment is a priority for all planning at national, county and municipal levels. Local economic development It entails limiting encroachment into natural areas, Urban areas are centres for economic activity, and providing green open space in new developments, municipal economic sustainability depends on and conserving green areas in developed areas. dynamic local economies with vibrant enterprises Infilling and redevelopment need to be regulated to and high employment rates. Support for busi- protect open and green spaces in inner cities. nesses, skills development, efficient communica- Green belts within and connecting built-up tion and good infrastructure and service standards areas should be emphasised in urban design, provide an attractive environment for investment particularly to balance and enhance the built and promote economic sustainability. environment in high-density areas. This is of importance for Safety and security protecting and enhancing the Urban design can promote safety and security via biological diversity within ur- social integration and improved surveillance, to ban areas, mitigating climate reduce crime and vulnerability. Municipalities change effects and providing should address these issues in cooperation with and providing recreational communities, local interest groups and the police, areas for the inhabitants. and via enhanced participation in development processes. Protection of cultural heritage and the built environment Participation and openness p h o t o Megafonen A city consists of different The principles of participation and openness influ- layers of importance from a ence the way in which municipalities operate and cultural heritage perspective. manage planning processes. Stakeholder involve- Not only the historical parts ment in planning and implementation facilitates are of importance, but also other the achievement of appropriate and sustainable areas/objects/environments that can be regarded results. Municipal participation processes include as a significant features of a specific period, style planning forums, workshops, opinion surveys, call- or design. The historical parts of towns need in radio programmes, information dissemination protection, as important cultural heritage assets and public hearings. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 39 Linköping – Norrköping unique integration for sustainable development

Linköping and Norrköping are two of Sweden’s medium- sized cities that have commenced a far-reaching cooperation aimed at integration of the municipalities into a big-city region. The distance between the two is only 40 km, but the history and characteristics of the two are rather different.W hile Linköping has a tradition of being a bishopric centre for the Church of Sweden as well as the county residence centre, Norrköping was for over four hundred years dominated by its textile industries. Its city centre is dominated by old textile mill buildings. In the 1970s they were left empty and in decay. Today everything is upgraded and with new activities. Main businesses in Norrköping are paper, logistics, transport, electronics, and trade and commerce, while in Linköping they include high tech industry and food industries. In the larger area of the two cities there are 420 000 inhabit- ants, 36 000 companies and 50% of Sweden´s population within a radius of 200 km. Linköping’s well-renowned university, which Linköping and Norrköping are strategically located has a branch in Norrköping, attracts around 26 500 students and within a ‘triangle’ with the capitals of Norway and researchers. Denmark and the three biggest cities in Sweden easily accessible by road, rail, and air transport.

contacts Karin Elfström (Head of comprehensive planning) Linköping, and Linda Apelgren (Urban and Regional Planner) Norrköping

ping no rrkö – ping L in kö Planning the future together Vision 2030 Why work together? Around four years ago decision-makers The joint strategies envision that by Linköping and Norrköping decided to in the two municipalities realized that 2030 the fourth big-city region will: work together as they saw that they they risked to be left behind in develop- • Have 500 000 inhabitants could complement each other, instead ment compared to the regions around • Have the same proportion of people of competing with one another. The the three biggest cities in Sweden – working as the national average business sector in the two cities is highly Stockholm, Göteborg, and Malmö. The • Have the same proportion of people complementary which speaks for a great two municipalities thus worked together with higher education as the national potential to strengthen diversity and to create a basis for a functional and inte- average stimulate economic growth. grated area – the fourth big-city region! • Have the same total sum in salaries as over the last two decades the Together with neighbouring municipali- the national average commuting across municipal borders, ties, they strive to create an integrated • Be one of the most attractive places in by both workers and students, have region of housing, employment, educa- Sweden to live and increased significantly and will continue tion, and culture. work to grow. This will demand extended and linköping and Norrköping have de- • Be forerunner in improved communications. veloped a joint comprehensive plan. The climate change ad- the degree of integration between aim is to reach sustainable economic, aptation and mitiga- Linköping and Norrköping is social and ecological development and tion. still relatively low, and there are to place Linköping and Norrköping in a functional and cultural inertia larger regional context, as well as to cre- that needs to be overcome. ate a structure that encourages public But processes have been transport. The joint comprehensive plan started e.g. in the area of is also complemented with two other infrastructure and transport, strategies: Linköping–Nörrköping Com- Linköping University locating mon Climate Vision, and Vision 2030. in both cities, cooperation in child care services, and a common administration for rescue services and salaries.

40 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Planning for a sustainable society

Legislation related to sustainable ning. They provide the basis for current planning planning and development processes, while various other The legislative framework is the foundation for laws cover specific administrative, management planning at municipal and regional development and technical matters. planning. The Environmental Code (1999), the National policies and strategies establish Planning and Building Act (1987) and the new more explicitly the national goals and objectives Planning and Building Act (2011) are the most that will guide municipal and regional authori- important legal documents for sustainable plan- ties in their development efforts.

The Planning and Building Act • Land, water and the physical environ- standards can be introduced nationwide The Planning and Building Act of 1987 ment are used so that a long-term or for particular geographical areas, such established the basis for decentralised, good management are ensured from as counties or municipalities. autonomous municipal planning and an ecological and socio-economic environmental Impact Assessments limited possibilities for state interven- viewpoint (EIA) are required for all plans under the tion. The Act aims to promote “societal • Eco-cycles are achieved by reuse and Planning and Building Act include EIAs. progress towards equal and good living recycling material, raw materials and Most Comprehensive Plans now have conditions and a good and lasting sus- energy EIAs that include environmental, social tainable environment for the benefit of and economic aspects. Detailed devel- the people of today’s society as well as of The sections that are of most importance opment plans require EIAs, unless the future generations.” for planning deal with national interest in impact is considered insignificant. the new Planning and Building Act terms of management of land and water, of 2011 simplifies planning and building environmental quality standards and Implications of the Environmental Code processes, while strengthening control of environmental impact assessments. The Environmental Code consolidated building construction. The new Act puts regulations in earlier environmental greater emphasis on the Comprehensive Management of land and water areas legislation, streamlined application and Plans as strategic and developmental The municipal planning monopoly strengthening the means of control. The documents. It requires that municipal means that central government can only Code has enhanced sustainable develop- councils approve Comprehensive Plans intervene in matters of national interest, ment planning and implementation via for each term of office, and further as specified by the Environmental Code. EIAs, environmental courts and environ- acknowledges the political nature of Government must investigate whether mental quality standards (e.g. for vehicle planning. large industrial and energy facilities are exhaust emissions). This limits municipal locally acceptable, before preparing self-governance in some respects, as The Environmental Code (1999) detailed development plans or applying sensitive and controversial decisions The Environmental Code is the primary for a building permit. However, munici- regarding environmental protection and environmental legislation, and replaced palities can, in most cases, refuse permis- localisation of activities that have an fifteen Acts such as the Natural Resources sion for new developments, in spite of environmental impact have been moved Act, the Environmental Protection Act, national interests. from the political to the judicial sphere the Water Act and Agricultural Land through appeals to the Environmental Management Act. The purpose of the Environmental quality standards and Courts. Code was to simplify the administration environmental impact assessments of environmental matters and to make it The Environmental Quality Standards County Administrative Boards control easier to comprehend the legal require- may apply nationally, or to a county, Control is exercised by County Adminis- ments. municipality or specific area.T hese stand- trative Boards, as government agencies at ards are policy instruments for achieving regional level. Municipalities submit their The Environmental Code promotes sus- environmental quality objectives defined comprehensive plans and detailed devel- tainable development so that by government and the EU, and are an opment plans to County Administrative • Human health and the environment example of coordinated EU policies. Boards, which add a statement regarding are protected an environmental quality standard national interests and procedural mat- • Valuable natural and cultural environ- may, for example, lay down the maximum ters, before the plan is submitted to the ments are protected and conserved allowable concentration of a substance for approval. . • Biological diversity is preserved in air, soil or water. Environmental quality developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 41 Planning for a sustainable society

Planning instruments available strategic, developmental and visionary. Detailed Development Plan to Swedish municipalities Most municipalities are now preparing (Detaljplan) Types of municipal plans include regional the third or fourth generation of Com- A Detailed Development Plan guides plans, comprehensive plans, detailed com- prehensive Plans since the initial plans project implementation. It is legally prehensive plans and detailed develop- for the 1989-1992 period. Processes for binding, and it regulates land use and ment plans. plan preparation and the content of plans building rights. Detailed plans form the have also improved in terms of long-term basis for projects implemented by private Comprehensive Plans (Översiktsplan) and strategic planning perspectives. or public companies or individuals, All Swedish municipalities must prepare a and specify implementation periods of comprehensive plan for the entire munici- Detailed Comprehensive Plan between 5 and 15 years. They outline the pality, which guides decisions regarding (Fördjupad Översiktsplan) respective responsibilities of the munici- land use, new development and preserva- Municipalities may choose to prepare a pality and property owners. tion of the built and natural environment. Detailed Comprehensive Plan for a part of The plan is not binding but can be used for the municipality. This could cover an area Regional Plan (Regionplan) guiding decisions, where detailed plans of specific concern, a sensitive environ- The Act provides for the preparation are not available. At first, comprehensive ment or cultural heritage aspects, etc. It of Regional Plans by county/regional plans were limited in scope and content, could also deal with an area that needs councils, but so far, only the Stockholm dealing mainly with existing land uses and more investigation, in preparation of County Council has established a regional expansion zones, but have become more future detailed planning. planning office to undertake this task..

National policies and strategies Swedish Environmental Objectives of greenhouse gas emissions. Long-term In the Swedish government system, 1. Reduced Climate Impact priority areas for action include heating, national policies and directives in areas 2. Clean Air transport systems and electricity supply, of central responsibility are issued to 3. natural Acidification Only and municipalities increasingly cooperate implementing authorities by national 4. a Non-Toxic Environment in these areas. agencies, including the National Board of 5. a Protective Ozone Layer binding regulations and incentives pro- Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket) 6. a Safe Radiation Environment mote more energy efficient housing and and the Environmental Protection Agency 7. Zero Eutrophication construction using renewable resources (Naturvårdsverket). 8. Flourishing Lakes and Streams and recycled material. the most significant policies related to 9. good Quality Groundwater sustainable development are as follows: 10. A Balanced Marine Environment, Flour- Local Agenda 21 ishing Coastal Areas and Archipelagos Agenda 21 is the international programme Swedish Environmental Objectives 11. Thriving Wetlands initiated at the UN Conference on the Envi- The Swedish Environmental Objectives 12. Sustainable Forests ronment in Rio in 1992, with Local Agenda system was established in 1999 to accom- 13. A Varied Agricultural Landscape 21 as the related global municipal-level modate EU Directives, and progress in 14. A Magnificent Mountain Landscape programme focusing on environmental achieving the objectives is reviewed annu- 15. A Good Built Environment protection and sustainable development. ally. The system sets goals and objectives 16. a Rich Diversity of Plant and Animal Life Local Agenda 21 emphasises local on three levels responsibility and municipal facilitation of • A generation goal, defining the direc- The impact of urban areas and urban sustainable development, with participa- tion of changes in society that need development is multi-dimensional and tion of all sectors and stakeholders. Most to occur within one generation, if affects most of the environmental qual- municipalities in Sweden have run Local environmental quality objectives are to ity objectives, but especially in terms of Agenda 21 programmes for over 10 years. be met clean air, non-toxic environment, reduced • Environmental quality objectives, climate impact, a good built environment, Swedish Strategy for sustainable defining the state of the Swedish envi- a rich diversity of plant and animal life. development ronment which environmental action The Swedish Strategy for Sustainable should achieve Climate and Energy Policies Development was adopted by the Govern- • Milestone targets, which are steps on The National Sustainable Energy and ment in 2003 and then amended in 2005. the way to achieving the environmen- Climate Policy for the environment, com- It outlines the vision for a sustainable tal objectives and generation goal. petitiveness and long-term stability was society and how it will be achieved. Sus- approved in 2009 to promote ecological tainability assumes democratic values and sustainability and security of supply. It pri- transparency, equality, safety and justice. . oritises increased use of renewable energy, more efficient energy use and reduction

42 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Planning for a sustainable society

The Planning and Implementation As Comprehensive Plans take considerable time Process to prepare, and require substantial inputs and Municipalities have long been responsible for resources, many municipalities apply continuous preparing all development plans, and have review and update the existing plan and carry out well-established procedures and competencies. annual assessments. The political acceptance of Comprehensive plans and detailed development the comprehensive plan is obtained at the start of plans are generally prepared by the physical plan- each new four-year council term. Updated plans ning office, while an integrated approach requires and implementation programmes are then linked cooperation with other departments, as well as to the budget process. other levels of government and interest groups Detailed Development Plans focus on imme- such as the private sector and civic society. Most diate implementation but also involve a complex municipalities have already establish new ap- planning process with specific requirements in proaches and means for institutional cooperation. terms of legal requirements, environmental qual- The process should involve active and ity standards, detailed technical and infrastruc- continuous participation of stakeholders, inter- tural solutions, and costing and financing. Close est groups, communities and the general public, cooperation and negotiation with developers and and the stages of programming, planning and stakeholders is part of the planning process. implementation and review should be linked in an integrated manner. Phasing of the sustainable planning process The planning process consists of three phases that The municipal planning process are sequential and interconnected. The Planning and Building Act provides guidance yy The Programming Phase on preparing different types of municipal plans. yy The Planning Phase Municipal councils initiate plan preparation, and yy The Implementation Phase. Planning and Building Committees, or in the case of Comprehensive Plans, Municipal Execu- The Programming Phase includes initiating plan tive Boards, oversee actual plan preparation by preparation, formulating the purpose, preparing Planning and Building Offices or equivalent units. a planning brief and approval of a planning pro- A core-team or reference group is established gramme. The Planning Phase includes investiga- to represent different departments and ensure tions, surveys, plan preparation, plan proposals, cooperation (see chapter 3). exhibition of plans for comment and input,

Review

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The planning and implementation process is a continuous process with need for feedback through- 2 out the process and with evaluation of the outcome. The Planning comprehensive planning process has an inbuilt requirement for review and assessments, which also should be applied to regional planning, strategies and visions. The feedback from implemented plans will be the basis for new approaches. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 43 Planning for a sustainable society and plan approval. The Implementation Phase All comments and objections together with the includes an implementation programme, detailed municipal responses must be documented, and a technical plans, negotiations and development consultation report must be submitted with the agreements, cost estimates and budgets, financing plan to the County Administrative Board. arrangements, construction and monitoring. The planning process is not linear and requires continuous feedback and evaluation. In Planning challenges particular the comprehensive plans with assess- Municipalities and county/regional councils face ments and political validation must be seen as a many obstacles and challenges in promoting cyclic process. sustainable planning and development, including Different municipal units oversee different the following. activities in the process at different times, which requires an integrated approach, open communi- Regional Planning cation and good cooperation. The complexity of sustainable development requires regional perspectives and cooperation, The participatory planning process but many county councils lack the capacity to The legislation requires public participation but engage in planning issues, and regional planning allows municipalities to decide on the methods. is limited. Councils can only adopt comprehensive plans and Regional associations have played an impor- detailed development plans if there has been an tant role in coordinating planning in specific areas adequate consultation process, including a public such as energy systems, economic development exhibition of the proposal and plans. In promoting sustainable development, plan- ning authorities must take into account different interests and concerns in an open process. Most municipalities have established methods for pub- lic communication and participation that extend far beyond the basic legal requirements. Different methods of communication can be used, depending on the purpose and stage in the planning process, including yy Dissemination of information – in the initial stages, to establish contact and increase awareness yy Consultation – when proposals are presented and stakeholders submit comments yy Participation – when alternatives are consid- ered and active inputs are expected yy Mobilisation – when stakeholders are encour- aged to participate in operation or mainte- nance. Involvement in planning and development assumes exchange of views and opinions. The differ- ent approaches should be chosen to provide avenues for participation and to encourage stakeholders to get engaged. This may include means to react to information, write statements, visit exhibi- tions, attend discussion groups or take responsibility for maintaining infrastructure.

44 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Planning for a sustainable society and major infrastructure investments. Regional associations of municipalities established to pre- pare comprehensive regional plans and long-term strategies have the potential to become effective, but need to develop and apply regional planning instruments.

Comprehensive planning Comprehensive planning is cumbersome and time consuming, and smaller municipalities lack the capacity and resources to review their plans regularly. In major towns and cities, rapid change quickly makes plans obsolete, and some municipalities review and update specific aspects of plans more frequently.

Municipal cooperation All available Internal and external municipal coordination possibilities to needs to be improved. Legislation requires national objective, and municipalities need to promote a green urban environ- consultation between neighbouring municipali- restrict traffic and promote sound agricultural ment should be used. Even small ties and most have good working relationships, practices and energy efficiency. The impacts of green areas con- but there is a need for more formal and effective climate change will have to be addressed mainly tribute to a bet- ter micro-climate cooperation. by municipalities. and improve the Within municipalities, the involvement of all Municipalities need to cooperate at regional urban environ- ment. An other- departments in the planning process is important, level on effective energy provision, public trans- wise unattractive waste collection and while there is good progress toward inte- port and improved housing, as well as on water installation is grated approaches, administrative frameworks are management, secure infrastructure networks, given a green facade. rigid and tend to hinder cooperation. buffer zones and flood prevention.

Private sector involvement Coordinated planning, operation and mainte- The evolving planning system emphasises the nance role of the private sector in implementation, and The municipalities are largely responsible for op- in operation and maintenance. Private sector eration and maintenance of service infrastructure, involvement in public-private partnership or con- though in some areas, with support from other tracted cooperation changes the role of munici- levels of government. Coordination in these cases palities. Communication needs to be enhanced is crucial, especially regarding traffic and trans- and partnership and contract negotiation and port control, safety and security, and emergency management become key competencies, to ensure and rescue services. that objectives are achieved and sustainability is promoted. Private sector providers of public Sectoral approaches service need to meet service quality standards, Central government operates via sectoral depart- operate in a transparent way, and encourage ments, which in many instances causes confusion public involvement and participation. at local level. Different ministries and agencies issue recommendations and provide finance for Climate change mitigation and adaptation services, and directives from the eu and govern- Climate change is a national and global issue. ment are not always coordinated. Improved Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases is a communication and coordination between developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 45 Planning for a sustainable society

different departments and spheres of government instruments. Comprehensive plans and strategies is needed to achieve an integrated and holistic cover entire municipalities, though urban and approach to development planning. rural areas in municipalities have different char- A coherent national urban development acteristics, conditions and development needs. policy is needed, to provide a common under- Detailed plans are primarily project oriented, standing of the requirements for sustainable focus on immediate implementation in limited urban development. areas, and therefore often lack contextual per- spective. The complex urban structure would The legislative framework benefit from more flexible planning approaches The complexity of urban development and new with planning instruments that link the overall planning requirements are not appropriately strategic planning to the detailed plans. reflected in the legal framework and planning

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Illustration based on Arch. M. Sc Raul Marino Zamudio

46 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 7. Addressing climate change

The well-known adage »think globally, act locally« is very relevant to climate change The Delegation for adaptation and mitigation efforts in Sweden. Sustainable Cities Global commitments and international policies One example of national government support is the Delegation for Sustainable are needed, and Sweden follows the work of the Cities, initiated in 2008 to stimulate sus- un Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change tainable urban development. The Delega- (ipcc) closely, and works actively within the eu. tion consists of experts such as planners, At national level, the Swedish Government con- architects, engineers, export promoters, tinuously develops its climate change framework, politicians, etc., who work with local sets targets, finances research, makes investments, authorities, businesses and other organisa- allocates resources to programmes and projects, tions. The Delegation also provides funding and coordinates development and planning of for innovative projects (340 million SEK in 2009–2010), disseminates good practices, climate change activities. However, municipalities promotes green technology, facilitates col- and citizens need to take concrete local initiatives laboration in research and development, to realise co2 emission reduction targets, and adapt and arranges and participates in seminars, to changes. Yet local initiatives often depend on conferences and other events around national government or eu support. Sweden.

The present situation Though the Swedish economy grew by 48% from 1990 to 2007, production-related emissions of greenhouse gases decreased by 9%. Among the most important causes of this reduction was the extension of district heating and reduced use of fossil fuels. In 2007, emissions amounted mage bank

to 7 000 kg of co2 equivalents per resident in : SCA I Sweden, compared to just over 10 000 kg for the p h o t o s eu, and about 15 000 kg for oecd countries. About one third of is used for industrial production. A few energy intensive branches stand for a However, studies indicate that emissions bulk of industrial energy consumption. These include paper from Swedish consumption may be 25% higher and pulp, iron and steel, and chemical industries. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 47 Addressing climate change

than from production (see box below). Though Biofuel accounts for approximately 20% of energy Sweden has been able to combine economic supplied in Sweden, of which about ⅓ is used for growth with a reduction in emissions, the fact is district heating, which meets half the country’s that through increased consumption, Sweden’s heating requirements for commercial and resi- overall contribution to climate change has dential buildings. Only 20% of heating uses fossil increased. fuels and electricity. It is estimated that the public With renewable energy amounting to 44% of sector could save 15–20% of energy costs through the total in 2007, Sweden had the largest percentage improved energy efficiency in heating, ventilation of renewable energy inputs in the eu. Electricity and lighting of buildings. production and usage is among the highest in the 80% of Swedish production-related green- world per capita, both in industry and households, house gas emissions are from transport, buildings due to many years of comparatively low electric- and industry, with most of the rest coming from ity prices. Most of electricity in Sweden comes agriculture. Public transport accounts for only from hydroelectric and nuclear power, in equal about 15% of all travel in Sweden, while car travel proportions. Sweden is far behind countries like constituting the bulk. The proportion of public Denmark, Germany and in terms of wind transport is considerably higher in urban areas, power, though production is increasing. e.g. in Göteborg, ⅓ of commuters use public transport to get to work, while long distances in northern Sweden encourage car travel. Swedish consumers produce Local and regional efforts can make a major greenhouse gases difference. For example, in the less-populated

Although Swedish production-related co2 emissions are low Bergslagen area of central Sweden, regional train compared to the rest of the EU, a different picture emerges travel has nearly tripled since 2001, when the four when looking at consumption. Measured in relation to the county councils and all municipalities assumed population, emissions from consumption in Sweden are broader, coordinated responsibility. Emissions equivalent to just over 10 000 kg co2 per capita. Approxi- mately 80% of emissions are caused by private consump- from new cars have dropped rapidly in recent tion and 20% by public consumption. Private consumption years, as cars have become more energy efficient, activities include eating – 25% of emissions, housing – 30%, and more cars use non-fossil fuels. However, travel – 30% and shopping – 15%, with purchasing of Sweden still has the car fleet with the largest and clothes and shoes being the largest sub-item. As over half of most energy consuming vehicles in Europe. all emissions are due to private consumption, the following Public procurement accounts for about questions are significant, if Sweden is to reduce emissions 25% of gdp in Sweden – two thirds by national yy How much do we drive and in what sort of car? government and one third by local and regional yy How do we heat our homes? yy How much electricity is used at home? authorities. According to a 2007 study, 78% of yy How much meat do we eat and what type? public sector procurement included environ-

y 5% mental requirements. The Swedish Envi- y How far do we fly and how often? e 1 at g – in in g ronmental Management Council (mrs) p –

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48 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Addressing climate change eiman ity/Jenny L ity/Jenny ity Malmö C Malmö C p h o t o p h o t o Many city buses in Sweden are fueled by biogas, while long Five years ago, Malmö City launched a successful campaign called »No ridicu- distance buses to a larger extent use diesel. An increasing lous car trips« to decrease private car traffic and get people on bikes instead. number of bus drivers have been trained in ‘eco driving’, The number of people using bikes has increased from 20% to 30% and the city i.e. ways to apply a more environmentally friendly driving has invested in infrastructure like protected bike lanes, safe crossings, bike park- approach. ing, and railings to hold on to at traffic lights. Malmö has 2 100 km of pedestrian lanes, 450 km of protected cycle lanes, and 1 125 km of streets. getting groups of people to change behaviour is not easy. Malmö planners used a number of small positive encouragements, like putting orange rain caps How is Sweden affected by climate on saddles of bicycles, to nudge people to get on the bike. change? Sweden, like most countries, is and will continue deteriorate, and efforts to maintain the good to be affected by climate changes in different quality of drinking water will be needed. ways, and needs to prepare to adapt to these yy Mountains in the north of Sweden will increas- changes. In 2007, the government commissioned ingly be covered by bushes which will affect an administrative investigation into »Climate and reindeer herding and tourism. Vulnerability«. Among the possible scenarios that yy Warmer climate will affect peoples’ health and the commission described were lead to more deaths from extreme heat during yy The risks of flooding, landslides and erosion summers, and increases in contagious diseases. will increase considerably due to higher levels of precipitation, and there is a need to take precautionary measures. Swedish national policy on climate yy The rise in sea levels is ongoing and will change continue for several hundred years. Around The official aim of Sweden’s climate efforts is that 150 000 buildings (many of them in urban the country should be a role model of a modern settlements) are located in erosion risk areas society that is environmentally sustainable, built on if there is a rise of 88 cm in sea levels – a likely renewable resources, and where economic growth scenario according to the ipcc. This will is achieved in harmony with the earth’s conditions.

5% put increasing demands on the planning of Sweden’s national climate strategy includes e 1 at g – in in g new developments as well as precautionary instruments introduced since the early 1990s in p –

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y y Growth in forests will be substantial, and the tax policy. More targeted measures and instru-

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developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 49 Addressing climate change

(The eu has committed to reduce emission by to planning, which should have beneficial climate 20% by 2020). Other aims are that affects. People increasingly reside in cities and y y renewable energy sources will provide half of towns, and the bulk of co2 emissions occur in Sweden’s energy by 2020 urban areas. In general, the character, structure, yy vehicles will be independent of fossil fuel organisation and operation of urban centres deter- energy by 2030 mine how easy or difficult it is to reduce emissions. yy net greenhouse gas emissions will be zero by Local and regional government has a key role 2050 to play in climate change adaptation and mitiga- yy overall energy efficiency will increase by 20% tion through development planning, as a property by 2020 owner, and in procuring goods and services. yy renewable sources will provide 10% of energy As described in the previous chapter, sustain- in the goods transport sector in 2020. able urban development requires more compact towns to decrease transport needs, more effective and environmentally friendly energy provision, Local initiatives on climate change and increased public transport use, walking and bicycling. In short, it requires the proximity and Municipalities must be the drivers integration of functions in everyday life, and and inspirers and not leave urban ‘ecological infrastructure’ such as parks and green development solely to private areas to mitigate climate change effects. actors. Municipalities are funda- The extension of district heating and reduced mental actors when the threat from use of fossil fuels have contributed most to reducing climate change is to be averted. co2 emissions in Sweden in recent decades. Munici- Professor Ulf Ranhagen, palities provide 60% of district heating, and systems KTH Royal Institute of Technology can be further extended and improved. There is also increasing interest in district cooling, using water The municipal planning monopoly creates favour- from the ocean, lakes or snow, to replace electric able conditions to adopt a more holistic approach cooling for industrial purposes and air conditioning p h o t o Elisabeth Molin of public buildings, shopping malls, etc. Most local governments now actively ad- dress climate change issues. A salar survey of municipalities and county councils/regions in 2007 showed extensive climate efforts in many areas. 52% of municipalities have, and 28% plan cross- sector action plans for reducing emissions. 70% of county councils/regions have action plans and targets and 20% percent were working on them. Responses emphasised that financial constraints necessitate a gradual approach, and that national government has a major role to play in developing infrastructure and policy instruments. In general, local and regional authorities can play an important role in yy promoting safe and competitive energy supplies yy investing in efficient and sustainable public On the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea around 30% of electricity comes transport systems from . Even though this in the long-term is a cost-efficient and en- vironmentally friendly way to produce energy, there are also challenges such yy expanding renewable and efficient energy as conflicting interests with nature and cultural heritage conservation, and potential disturbances for inhabitants in e.g. noise and esthetical interference. production

50 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Addressing climate change yy promoting energy efficiency and conservation urgent challenges in upgrading large apartment yy orienting spatial planning and urban devel- blocks constructed during the 1960s and 70s in opment to climate change mitigation and the suburbs of major cities. adaptation According to the mandate given by the yy stipulating clear energy, environmental and Planning and Building Act, physical planning has climate requirements significant potential to help reduce greenhouse gas yy focusing on dialogue with citizens and greater emissions. Strategic planning of construction and public participation. housing, transport, infrastructure, energy supply, greening of areas etc. in municipal comprehensive However, though many authorities are taking plans can reduce the impact human activities on climate change seriously in long-term planning, climate. there is criticism that climate change has fallen off The need for transport can be reduced by plan- the political agenda since its peak during the Co- ning attractive local housing, shops, businesses, penhagen Climate Conference in 2009, and that infrastructure, meeting places and recreational op- environmental targets are being compromised portunities in or near urban areas. Green house gas by shorter-term economic considerations at both emission levels are included in the environmental national and local level. consequences analysis required when Swedish municipalities develop comprehensive plans. A 2010 salar survey on physical planning Planning for local climate change and climate change indicated that most mu- adaptation and mitigation nicipalities are locating housing, infrastructure Municipal planning and development often affect and workplaces to encourage the use of public a larger geographic area, especially in terms of transport or bicycles, and reduce car use and co2 environmental impacts. Climate change has thus emissions. 77% of municipalities are planning for led to a stronger conviction that issues need to the location of wind generators, and 40% have be addressed regionally, or through cooperation strict energy efficiency requirements for construc- between municipalities and coordination between tion on municipal land. levels of government, in order to reach national targets. Short-term benefits from climate change efforts are seldom evident, and as municipalities Efficient food transport in have limited resources, regional cooperation and County The four municipalities in in the middle of Sweden national funding are essential. – Borlänge, , Säter, and – are cooperating to Areas of strong local climate action in Swe- procure joint transport for food distribution to schools, pre-schools den include district heating, combined heat and and elderly care in the region. Decision-makers were looking for power generation, green public transport, waste holistic solutions, and over the past seven years the model has had recycling and green public procurement, and how many positive effects on the environment, work efficiency, traffic solutions are planned and implemented through safety and local markets. dialogue with citizens and cooperation with local the county has 175 schools, pre-schools and elderly care businesses. centres, and instead of each supplier delivering their products with their own truck, everything is sent to a distribution centre and The consumption of energy and the emission one contractor transports all food to public institutions. With less of greenhouse gases in buildings and households distance travelled and lower transport costs, municipalities can depends on the nature of buildings, their location procure more ecological products from smaller, local producers. and energy sources. The possibility of supplying it is also safer for children, as there are fewer trucks arriving buildings with more climate friendly energy in schools and pre-schools during the day, and fewer stops and is also affected by their structure and location. shorter distances have significantly diminished co2 emissions. For example, district heating is only possible in In addition, the staff are more efficient, as they now receive one, instead of six or seven deliveries per day. compact settlements. Sweden faces major and developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 51 Stockholm – the accessible city

Stockholm is one of the oldest urban settlements in Sweden, dating back to the 13th. It soon became the largest town of the country, but it did not gain the status of of Sweden until 1634. The economy of Stockholm was based mainly on trade and the political and administrative role became increasingly important. Today, Stockholm is the main centre in the country, with a growing economy incorporating finance, services, research, education and tourism. stockholm is recognised for its progressive engage- ment in environmental protection and innovation, and has k hol m stoc achieved great progress in protecting air and water quality and the green environment.

The is the medieval core of Stockholm with an enchant- ing environment that is attractive and of great historical value. Most of the area is designated a cultural heritage and thus build- Jürgen H owaldt Jürgen ings and the urban environment are protected. The area includes

p h o t o mixed uses with a considerable share of residential properties.

INTERVIEWS Niklas Svensson (City Planning Strategist), Jonas Claeson (Urban Planner), Lisa Enarsson (Project Manager) Stockholm City Council

Vision Stockholm 2030 Regional Plan are traffic and public ment that reduces the ‘barrier effect’ Vision Stockholm 2030, presented in transport, development nodes and and creates new links 2007, emphasises the city’s strengths service centres, energy provision, and • preserve and develop Stockholm’s and the opportunities provided by the protection of natural resources and character and beauty rapid growth in the area. Challenges the environment. • develop a cohesive network, linking are related to the city’s role in the wider strategic nodes Stockholm-Mälar Region. Environmen- The Walkable City – the Stockholm • create attractive public spaces in tal sustainability will be promoted by City Plan parks and recreation areas a strong drive towards fossil-free fuel, The 2010 Stockholm City Plan is based improved public transport and compact on the Stockholm Vi- urban development. The segregated sion and Environmental character of the urban structure and par- Programme, and is related ticularly the suburbs will be addressed to the Stockholm Regional both through a renewal of housing and Plan. The plan identifies as- urban environment and through social sets and qualities to be pre- and educational investments. served, and priorities such Vision Stockholm 2030 is the basis for as the natural environment, a new Environmental Programme, which public transport and eco- emphasises climate change mitigation nomic diversity. Challenges through reduction of harmful emissions include accommodating and promotion of renewable energy the increasing population, provision. employment creation, a diverse society needing ouncil Regional cooperation harmonisation, disparities ity C The Council is the between different areas,

only regional planning authority in and addressing the causes tockholm C Sweden that actively prepares regional of climate change. S m a p

plans. The 2010 Regional Plan provides a a n d

framework and guidelines for municipal Main objectives are to planning, based on consensus regarding • preserve green areas and p h o t o s The Stockholm City Plan emphasizes the importance of overall goals and objectives, and close improve their relation to accessibility. The compact development, mixed land uses, coordination between municipalities. the built environment walkways and bicycle paths and public transport are the The key matters addressed by the • undertake new develop- main features in the proposed concept.

52 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

• create a cohesive and vibrant city in • the Stockholm’s inner suburbs project Sustainable Järva / Husby transport alternatives like cycling, to reduce Stockholm has initiated an upgrading and traffic. • promote sustainable urbanisation and improvement programme for the Järva area environmentally effective solutions on the north-western periphery of the city. The strategy also includes • support higher education and scien- This long-term programme aims at social in- • improving linkages to major green tific research. tegration, connectivity between neighbour- zones and neighbouring areas hoods and a diversified urban environment. • improving accessibility within the area Järva includes six main , • developing the central activity corridor The plan includes strategies to strength- including the Husby-area. • improving walkways and cycle paths, en the city centre through infilling and The objectives for the Husby-component and restructuring the road network redevelopment, and improved acces- are good housing and a more varied • adding complementary buildings and sibility and connectivity. Strategic nodes environment, safety and security, employ- functions ment creation and skills development. The will support a balanced development • creating an attractive urban image programme aims to provide complemen- • preserving and developing existing pattern, linking presently separated sub- tary functions and activities that facilitate qualities and assets. urbs to achieve social integration and a functional, social and cultural integration. vibrant urban environment. There will be a variety of housing options, Specific emphasis is put on the participa- this comprehensive plan involves a workplaces and employment opportuni- tory approach and the involvement of the ties, recreation facilities and provisions for inhabitants in the process. A number of new planning approach that includes easy access to green areas. Other priorities communication strategies have been used. continuous assessment and evalua- are renewable energy, energy efficiency, The means of communication includes tion. A ‘rolling’ planning process aims at waste management involving recycling newsletters, information brochures, public greater efficiency and more flexibility in and reuse, improvement of green areas and meeting, exhibitions and discussion groups. guiding detailed development planning. TODAY TOMORROW

Development focus areas The Stockholm City plan identifies priority objectives such as compact development in the inner city and com- plementary development in suburbs. The prominent couple of projects are Norra Djurgårdsstaden/Royal Seaport and Järvalyftet/Sustainable Järva, initiated in 2001 and 2007 respectively. Complementary land uses and activities and improvements of the urban environment will give Husby a new image and character. Walkways that will link different parts of the need to be attractive and provide a variation of experiences. Meeting places, facilities and green urban space along activity corridors will encourage social interaction.

• project Royal physical and socio-economic structure, a mix exhibitions, information brochures, opinion Seaport of living and work places, safety and security, surveys, discussion groups and walking tours Norra Djurgårdstaden is lo- and access to green areas. in development areas. Local information cated close to the city centre and The planning process is based on active offices have been established to facilitate at present it includes harbour facilities, indus- participation with frequent consultations, participation. trial land and smaller residential areas. The envisaged development is one of the largest urban development projects in Europe, and will provide 10 000 housing units and 30 000 workplaces. The new area will be environmentally sustainable and climate-smart, with energy- efficient solutions for transport and housing, passive-energy housing, climate adaptation, renewable energy sources, fossil-free fuel for private and public transport, and recycling and composting of waste. The urban structure will be compact and multi-functional, with mixed uses, a variety of The development will make use of the potential of the locational assets housing options and easy access to services, with proximity to the water, nature parks and the city centre. The high recreation and green areas. The emphasis is density structure will incorporate urban greenery, access to services, work on a varied urban environment with a diverse places, high quality public transport and a variation of housing options. developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 5353 8. dialogue, cooperation and participation joining forces for sustainable development

Sustainable development requires and support of communities, if they are to succeed. holistic thinking that integrates different dimen- Requirements include sions and sectors, and cooperation and coordina- yy Coordination and cooperation between mu- tion among international, national, regional nicipalities in developing and operating joint and local stakeholders. Democratic governance services and addressing regional challenges involves not only different levels of government, yy Cooperation between municipalities and other but citizens, businesses and civil society, and good stakeholders such as business and civil society results depend on effective government institu- to create cities that are attractive for inhabit- tions, and addressing and balancing the interests of ants, students, visitors and investors all stakeholders. yy Dialogue between municipalities and County The Swedish Constitution states that »All pub- Administrative Boards to develop a common lic power in Sweden proceeds from the people«, vision for sustainable cities so it is essential that citizens play an active part in yy Dialogue between municipalities and na- defining and developing a sustainable society. tional government on how to balance different national sector interests and interpret national polices Horizontal and vertical cooperation yy Cooperation in municipalities between differ- To achieve a quality and sustainable living en- ent functions vironment, both sector-specific knowledge and yy Cooperation between municipalities and cross-sector cooperation are needed. Sector-based research institutions, so that approaches to departments at national level need to support an sustainable urban development are informed integrated approach by local authorities. This is a by research. challenge, as municipalities sometimes find eu and national government directives confusing and even Coordination contradictory, quite apart from having to balance them with different local interests. Cooperation Development of sustainable cities requires coordination, cooperation, participation and ho- listic perspectives. Long-term development plans Dialogue sometimes propose radical changes that require broad political agreements and the involvement

54 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 dialogue, cooperation and participation

Regional approach to Stakeholder consultation in developing managing waste the comprehensive plan for Skurup In the southern region of Skurup is a small municipality in southern Sweden with Skåne, 14 municipalities around 14 000 inhabitants. In 2009, the adopted with a total of 700 000 in- an updated comprehensive plan. As required, a consultation habitants, have come to- process was organised, after the first draft plan was devel- gether to jointly own the oped. The draft was disseminated in circulars and on the Solid Waste Company of Southwest municipality website, and concerned authorities, organisa- (SYSAV), creating a regional waste service tions, neighbouring municipalities, interest groups and the company. The company is responsible for public had the opportunity to give feedback. treatment and disposal of all different forms of waste. SYSAV have 280 staff members and The various points of view and inputs were summarised besides private citizens, 6 000 companies in and commented upon by the municipality. Comments and Skåne get waste management services from feedback were given by the County Administrative Board the company. The annual turnover of the in Skåne, the self-governing authority Region Skåne, two company is 795 million s e k . SYSAV is owned political parties, nine branches of state agencies, two private by the 14 municipalities lead by a board with companies, eight municipalities and municipality-owned elected politicians from the municipal coun- companies, four interest groups (e.g. associations), cils. The headquarters is placed in Malmö. but only five individuals.

Skurup Municipality followed this up by organising four pub- Consulting and involving citizens lic consultation meetings to discuss the draft comprehensive and other stakeholders plan and feedback with inhabitants. After the consultation process, the draft plan was revised, in line with stakeholder As described in Chapter 6, municipalities are expectations. legally obliged to organise consultation processes so that County Administrative Boards, other au- thorities, businesses, and inhabitants can give input on comprehensive and detailed development plans. Proposed plans must be exhibited publicly for at Involving the public in local development least two months. In some cases, this is a formality, and democracy but in others, there is comprehensive and inclusive In recent years, many municipalities have im- public participation. proved public participation in local development, Besides the formal municipal planning proc- in order to esses, local and regional governments involve the yy strengthen local democracy by actively involv- public to varying extents in discussions on econom- ing more people in local processes ic, social and environmental sustainability issues. yy increase transparency and effectiveness yy better understand citizens’ priorities and use citizens’ knowledge as a planning resource yy inform citizens about the purpose and services of the municipality yy increase participation in local elections yy increase citizens’ contributions to local development.

Knowledge and information are basic prerequisites for participation and influence in decision-making. How Megafonen information is disseminated and knowledge is created

p h o t o varies, depending on the purpose and situation.

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 55 dialogue, cooperation and participation

Swedish citizens participate in decision-making in Strengthening youth participation and various ways. Some prefer to be active in advocacy influence in Järva organisations, others want to be consulted directly on local development issues; some like to dem- »Things have gone too far when decision-makers are syn- onstrate, others prefer to write letters to the local onymous with politicians. Let’s distribute power and include newspaper. The important principle is that there everyone in common decisions.« Megafonen should be a range of options for participation in public decision-making processes. Järva consists of a number of very different suburbs in In Sweden, 194 of the 290 municipalities have northern Stockholm, including Kista and Husby. Kista has introduced citizen’s proposals. Anyone registered over 1500 companies, plenty of new construction and devel- in a municipality has the right to propose an issue opments, and very low unemployment rates. In Husby, youth for discussion at a council meeting. Councils can unemployment is 43%, and average incomes are consider- delegate citizens’ proposals to relevant committees, ably lower than in Kista. Both suburbs have a majority of which report annually to council on decisions inhabitants of foreign origin. some years ago, a group of youth in Husby formed an resulting from citizens’ proposals. On average, organisation, Megafonen (the megaphone), to address their municipalities receive 26 proposals annually. Most concerns. They decided to be part of the solution and to proposals concern streets, parks and technical strengthen the political participation and influence of youth matters, and on average, 30% of proposals gain in Järva. Megafonen works to create more jobs for young municipal support. people, and to improve educational, leisure and cultural activities. It encourages belief in the future, and provides Levels of participation support in everyday life. their vision is a society in which everyone has an equal salar uses a ‘participation ladder’ to describe the opportunity to have a good life – regardless of their name, different levels of citizens’ engagement. The five what they call god, or where they live. Young women are steps are under-represented in organisational life in Järva, and special yy Information to enable citizen’s participa- efforts are made to engage young women in projects such tion as the following. yy Consultation of citizens regarding pre- Harakat is an informal forum for dialogue on social and ferred alternatives proposed by the authorities political issues. Young people gather weekly for discus- yy Dialogue between citizens and decision- sion nights and ‘lecture cafés’ to exchange experiences and discuss how to improve the situation for youth in Järva. Local makers, to discuss issues and make suggestions decision-makers are invited to participate in these events. – Everyone should have their say, and be heard InPower is a project that aims to influence politics at the (including via municipal websites) sub-municipal level and challenge structures that inhibit yy Influence by citizens via participation in youth engagement. The project newspaper Our Line is dis- processes over time, as partners tributed in five local suburbs, and several young people from yy Decision-making based on citizens’ the area have been employed and trained as journalists. preferences, expressed in referendums or husby Youth Arena is a cultural festival of poetry, music, consultation process. lectures, debates, workshops, art, etc., arranged every Au- gust, in cooperation with local youth. decision-making influence dialogue consultation information Megafonen p h o t o

56 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 dialogue, cooperation and participation

Vara Municipality prioritizes youth Quick feedback for decision-makers in Kinda participation through the citizens’ panel Vara is a medium-size municipality in Kinda is a small municipality with 9 800 inhabitants in south-east south-. It has 16 000 inhabit- Sweden. Decision-makers in Kinda saw that citizens had many ants, with half living in rural areas. Vara has opinions and much experience to share, but it was difficult to get a lower proportion of inhabitants of foreign them to attend meetings. origin than the national average, yet deci- Kinda thus started a citizens’ panel in 2008, as part of a SAL- sion-makers became concerned that two AR project involving 30 municipalities. At the start, 35 people were xenophobic political parties were gaining on the panel, but a year later, there were 116. The citizens’ panel ground rapidly among young people. The is consulted by the municipality via SMS and e-mail on various municipality thus introduced forums where matters, from opening hours at the recycling station to willingness people could discuss matters of concern, to to pay more tax to improve elderly care. About ten matters are put strengthen local democracy. to the panel each year. Answers are summarized and sent to the young people were a particular target relevant committee and department, then back to the panel. group of the initiative. From 2006, a youth »I want to give my opinion, but I am not interested in spend- council was established with 221 of the 680 ing hours in meetings or getting involved in a political party« high school students in Vara, and partici- says Lina Jensen, a member of the panel. The municipal manager pants are regularly consulted by the munici- Anders reflects: »It is becoming increasingly important for the pality via a web-based discussion forum. municipality to use social media, and the citizens’ panel. Every- thing from Facebook, blogs and Twitter to e-petitions and referendums can Information technology and public inform political discussion.« participation Development in the Swedish public sector has and Twitter are increasingly important been facilitated by rapid developments in technol- for reaching people and for political ogy. Today, authorities and citizens can share discussion. information and interact more easily and quickly IT solutions are often used to using modern information and communications engage citizens in local government affairs and in technologies. This has facilitated increased com- local development, through interactive websites, munication and transparency, which has improved citizen panels, online surveys and Internet discus- accessibility and responsiveness to citizens’ needs. sions, petitions and referendums. Sweden is well-placed to use IT for demo- E-petitions are citizens proposals posted on cratic purposes. The Global Information Technol- municipal or county council websites, where other ogy Report 2009–2010 placed Sweden first among citizens can sign them. Municipal Internet-based 133 countries in Internet use, and mobile phones referendums invite citizens to vote on alternative are the most common communication tool. For solutions, and promise that the results will guide politicians, parties and opinion-makers, blogs the final decision.

Sigtuna Municipality invites citizens to have the final say Municipality is 40 kilometers north of Stockholm, referendums were on elderly care in the municipality, rural and has around 40 000 inhabitants. Politicians, worried development and general municipal development issues. about declining voter turnouts in local elections, decided on voting in referendums is web-based, but the municipal- a number of measures to enhance citizens’ input and influ- ity also arranged meetings to inform citizens about the is- ence between elections. sues and voting procedures. This led to a significant increase one method introduced was deliberate referendums. in voter turnout in the last local election, and the council Between 2005 and 2008, Sigtuna organized 14 referendums, has decided to continue to use referendums for important mostly on physical planning issues, e.g. the design of new issues. developments and the location of roads and parks. Other developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 57

Malmö – from crisis to a successful model for sustainable development

INTERVIEWS Inger Nilsson (City Director), Johan Emanuelson, Anna Lethagen and Fritjof Brandt, City Planning Office al mö Malmö City has changed dramati- m cally over the last two to three decades. Older industries such as shipbuilding and textile manufacturing have been

Diversified economy replaced by construction, logistics, new in city and region technologies and commerce. With 300 Social diversity and good 000 residents from 170 nationalities, ttractive anddents, safe business city for resi-and S visitorsOCIAL living conditions for all A

Malmö is an international city.

A new university with 15 000 students

is part of an innovative and entrepre-

neurial environment. Huge infrastruc-

ture investments, including a bridge to

Denmark and a re-engineered railway SUSTAINABLE E

C N

I

CITY V

network with an 8 km tunnel, have laid M

I

R

O

O

a foundation for local and regional eco- N

N and mixed-use city O

M

C

E nomic development. E

D N

T ense, green A

A turn-around strategy out of a crisis L In the 1990s, Malmö faced a crisis due to Resource efficiency a long period of economic decline and and sustainable mobility stagnation. The city administration had a huge deficit, and all departments had to cut costs year after year, resulting in

ocal renewable energy deteriorating infrastructure and public L Urban/rural/coastal environment spaces. Political life was fraught by con- in harmony Image: Malmö City frontation and infighting. the 1994 elections brought in new The great challenge for Malmö City is rious socio-economic inequality creates political leaders, willing to stop con- now to address residential and socio- social instability, which affects economic frontation and unite behind a vision for economic segregation and develop development negatively. A divided city a complete turn-around for the city. A greater equality, social justice, diversity is not attractive or sustainable. Invest- strategy was agreed and the first steps and democracy, as the social dimension ments in ecological sustainability can were to facilitate economic growth and of sustainability. spur economic development and social development by building attractive new sustainability. residential areas close to the sea (the Value based and inclusive planning an important aspect of social sustain- old shipyard), and to establish a modern processes ability is to support and strengthen local university, with support from national Sustainable cities like Malmö are shaped initiatives and partnerships in neigh- government. by a common vision and values, rather bourhoods and . This goes hand- these developments brought new than technical considerations. Instead in-hand with the municipal responsibil- life to the economy. They coincided with of detailed control and regulations, city ity to ensure that planning processes are major national infrastructure develop- planners should ensure that a shared democratic and built on dialogue and ments in the region, with Malmö City as vision is maintained among politicians, active participation. an active partner - building the bridge residents and the business community. the population of Malmö has between Sweden and Denmark, and developing a sustainable city requires changed, and is today one of the young- constructing a connecting railway tun- an integrated approach. Without a est in Sweden, with 53% of residents nel under the city, with new stations in healthy eco-system, economic and social living as singles. What impact will this the urban landscape. sustainability cannot be achieved. Main- have on the future? What housing will the strategy succeeded, and Malmö taining and developing ecological sus- be needed by different family con- has seen a decade of economic develop- tainability requires economic resources. figurations and changing lifestyles?T he ment and become an international Economic development creates jobs that City has employed a number of young model for ecological sustainability. are necessary for social sustainability. Se- academics as part of the Young People

58 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Participation by all in Focus Project, and placed them in all central heating system. A pipe system has Residents carried out traffic surveys, and main sections of the municipal admin- been installed under a gravel sports field. certain streets were restructured to mini- istration to inspire management with During winter, the system is connected mise through-traffic and increase safety young people’s perspectives and values, to a refrigerating machine and the field is for cyclists and pedestrians. Residents and to develop ways for young people turned into an ice rink. The rest of the year started a car pool, with the support from to influence the development of the the sports field functions as a huge solar the city administration. municipality. collector. A wind power plant has been the district’s green areas have been installed at a local school. developed, leading to greater biodiversi- Creative environments are good for all residents sort their waste at 15 ty, cooling in hot summer months, traffic city development recycling units situated in the yards of noise reduction and better surface water Malmö City Planning Office has defined the housing area. There are containers management. Green roofs, flowering per- the public realm as a variety of places for paper, cardboard, coloured glass, ennials, fruit trees and wetlands are key and spaces where different people see uncoloured glass, metal, plastic and bat- features. Malmö City built a new ecologi- and meet one another, and are brought teries. Composting of food waste started cal drainage system in the housing area, closer together in their daily lives. By early in the ecological reorientation and 90% of stormwater from roofs and considering individual lifestyles and programme, and since 2008, Augusten- hard surfaces is collected in gutters and movement patterns, architects and plan- borg has been a pilot area for separating channelled into 6 km of ditches, ners can create conditions for natural, food waste to make biogas. Today, 70 % and small ponds, which have improved everyday, positive encounters between of household food waste goes to biogas the aesthetics of the district and stopped people of different origins, to develop a production. flooding in the area. greater sense of community.

Eco-city Augustenborg Eco-city Augustenborg is a programme, started in 1998, to make the district more sustainable. Augustenborg has now become an attractive, multicultural neigh- bourhood, and an example of ecologically sensitive . augustenborg is also a good example of how to mobilise residents for ecological reorientation. Residents, pupils and peo- ple working in the area have been actively ity of Malmö

involved in various practical surveys and s C other research activities, in development p h o t o planning and in designing the physical environment. Eco-city Augustenborg is one of Sweden’s largest urban sustainability projects. It Main parts of the district established in was supported by the government’s Local the 1950s had declined significantly and Investment Programme and co-financed the challenge was to involve residents by Malmö City and its housing company. in a process to revitalise the area and One key aim is to enable residents to take a leading role in the design and implementa- turn it into a model for sustainable urban tion of the project in partnership with the City development. Achievements include the administration, local schools and businesses. following. A number of demonstration photovoltaic a new school was built using modular systems have been installed (u p p e r l e f t ). This natural materials, which can be disman- was the starting point for Solar City Malmö, another component of Malmö’s urban tled and relocated to another area in sustainability development initiatives. There the future, should the number of pupils are some 11 000 m2 green roofs in the area decrease in Augustenborg. The school (u p p e r r i g h t ). Rooftop vegetation reduces and has a ground-source heat pump and solar detains stormwater and has an insulation effect on the buildings. It also adds to greater panels. biodiversity. The City’s Water & Wastewater energy efficiency measures have been department built a new ecological storm- implemented throughout the neigh- water drainage system conveying the water bourhood. Some apartment buildings through canals, ditches, ponds and wetlands. have achieved a 35% increase in energy The system added another aesthetic quality to Augustenborg. efficiency through better insulation.S olar collectors have been connected to the developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 59 dialogue, cooperation and participation

Gender and influence When analyzing environmental issues and climate Gender is an important aspect of participation change from a gender perspective on a global and influence in society, concerning how men and level, there are vast differences in how men and women respectively are involved in and benefit women are affected, in who protects and who af- from decision-making. Sustainable development fects the environment, and in who takes decisions entails equal respect for all human beings. In about development. Gender inequalities often Sweden, it is often argued that it is important to mean that women have less influence, but are acknowledge the role of gender in our lives, and most affected in times of crisis. discuss its validity and impact, as it affects yy the way we organize work - who does what and why yy who has access to formal and informal decision The 3Rs method of gender analysis The 3Rs method is used by many Swedish making power municipalities to review and plan activities y y who decides what is important at home, at work from a gender perspective. The method and in society seeks to answer the question: Who gets yy who takes care of children and why what, and on what terms? The three R’s are yy who has control over resources and why yy Representation – How many men and yy who should be leaders and managers and why. how many women are involved? yy Resources – How are organisational Gender concerns power distribution, human rights, resources (money, space and time) dis- tributed between men and women? democracy, and social and economic development. yy Reasons – Why are representation and Gender inequalities are unfair, and costly in terms resources distributed between the sexes of reduced outputs, well-being and efficiency. Wom- in this way? en and men contribute to development in different ways and on different levels. Women and men Lundby, a neighborhood council in sometimes have different priorities, perspectives Municipality, used the 3Rs and contributions. The best guarantee of sustain- method to change procedures. During a able development in organisations and society is to training seminar on the 3Rs method, politi- cians asked themselves how much of their include the priorities, needs and potential of both local civil society funding support went to sexes in all activities. p h o t o GU Image bank men and women respectively. All organisa- tions that received support in the last year were asked about the proportion of men and women among members, leaders, staff, board, and participants in activities. the results showed that organisations dominated by men were given more gener- ous funding support than those dominated by women. After realizing this, new applica- tion procedures were developed, and all organisations now need to provide com- prehensive gender statistics in their funding applications.

Even though the political representation of men and is fairly equal, real political influ- ence and power sometimes is unevenly distributed. One analysis of municipal council meetings showed that even though the proportion of men and women is close to 50/50, only a third of contributions to de- bates came from women. Men also used more time than women for speaking.

60 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 9. Movements and initiatives influencing policies and attitudes

Sweden has a tradition of concern for nature A right to roam freely in the countryside and the environment, and of popular movements »Don’t disturb – Don’t destroy.« to influence other people and decision-makers. The Right of Public Access summarised Sweden was and is a comparatively egalitarian so- by the Environment Protection Agency ciety, with limited hierarchic structures restricting social mobility and relationships. The country is In Sweden, the Right of Public Access is a unique right to roam freely in the countryside, guaranteed in the also consensus-oriented, with a political culture of Swedish Constitution, though not exactly defined in any compromise rather than conflict. Decision-makers, statute. Swedes regard this right as part of their cultural experts, and the public thus often join forces to heritage, and a matter of national pride. Its origins go address challenges such as environmental issues back to laws and customs in the Middle Ages. The Right and sustainable development. Ordinary citizens of Public Access permits anybody to walk, camp or pick and civil society are able to mobilize, and influence berries and mushrooms freely, even on private land. But politicians at national and local levels. with the right comes responsibilities – to take care of na- ture and wildlife and to show consideration for landown- ers and others enjoying the countryside. Popular movements in Sweden the reasons why Swedes spend time in the coun- tryside have changed – today nature also provides an Until the end of the 19th century, Sweden was arena for popular activities largely a country of independent family farmers, but such as mountain-biking, increasing trade and industrialization forced less paragliding, white-water prosperous farmers into industrial towns as workers. and climbing. With From this time, popular movements devel- most people living in cities and towns, the result has oped, such as the workers’ movement, the temper- been greater pressure ance movement and nonconformist churches, on countryside nearby. A demanding rights and challenging the status quo. new issue is the increasing These organisations introduced comprehensive commercialization of such adult education for the working class. activities by tour opera- As political ideologies became more influential tors, who make use of the than old religious and aristocratic dogmas, the Right of Public Access tradition of Nordic liberal adult education was to make money on land belonging to others. born, in opposition to classical education, which focused mainly on educating the elite. By meeting developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 61 Policies and attitudes

to discuss political issues and learn together, they and other toxic substances. This led to demands for improved their own situation in life and influenced complete restructuring of production processes, social conditions. Free elementary education for all and alternative production and alternative living children from 1842 on led to high literacy rates. became common terms. Early environmental The popular movements fostered a democratic mobilization included protests against the building culture through their meetings and protests, and of dams, and expanding car traffic and traffic plan- democratic member-governed organisations. They ning. The world’s first national environment agency no longer accepted that the upper classes should was established in 1967. p h o t o Scania image bank make all decisions concerning cultural life, The expansion of nuclear power in 1973–74 or what was taught in schools. sparked mass resistance by environmental or- Many movements founded in the 19th ganisations, and led to demands to reduce energy century are still a vital part of Swedish consumption, based on public regulation and society, but today there is a multitude of democratic participation, instead of escalating new civil society organisations in Sweden. consumption. An estimated 200 000 such organisations In 1980, pressure from this movement led to a have over 32 million members, from a national referendum on . population of 9 million people – an average The environmental movement lost, but the result of of over 4 memberships per inhabitant. the referendum is still open to interpretation and Liberal adult education also endures, debate. The alternative that got the most votes was and today there are ten different study a slow reduction in nuclear power, as energy from associations in Sweden, with about 350 000 other sources was increased. study circles and three million participants, After this, the environmental movement which study a broad range of issues, includ- lost momentum, as the professionalization and ing many related to the environment and bureaucratization of environmental issues began, sustainable development. and many government environmental offices were As Sweden became industrialized, many established. It was not until the 1990s that the independent farmers left environment and sustainable development issues rural areas to become 100 years of environmental industrial workers. When again mobilized people to a significant extent. popular movements movements The Green Party, established in 1981, was developed, and workers organized and educated In 1909, Sweden’s first environment organisation, elected to the Riksdag for the first time in 1988, themselves, the demand increased for good work- the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation and in the 2010 election won 7,34% of the vote, ing environments and (ssnc) was established, and today it is the biggest making it the third biggest party in Sweden. Now, protection of the public and natural environment member-based environmental organisation in all political parties have environmental policies and from the harmful effects of industry. the country, with over 190 000 paying members. programmes, due to the urgency of climate change ssnc’s main focus areas are climate, the oceans, and other sustainable development issues. forests, environmental toxins, and agriculture. Other popular movements took an interest in environmental and quality of life issues from the late 19th century. Workers movements and trade Environmental attitudes unions were particularly concerned about good of women and men working environments and the effects of industry »Men’s struggle for dominance over nature on the public and local environment. has been fought side by side with their However, it was not until the 1960s that struggle for domination over women. The environmental movements gained significant influ- victory over domination must be a double ence. People from the peace and healthy lifestyle victory if it is to be complete.« movements joined forces to address environmental Elin Wägner in her book Alarm Clock, 1941 threats such as ddt, mercury build-up in biomass,

62 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 Policies and attitudes

ganisations usually engage in formal dialogue with public authorities, and are often used as consulta- tion partners in decision-making processes.

While the women’s movement in early 20th In recent decades, traditional organisations co- century focused on equal civil rights and exist with flexible network organisations to address opportunities for women, the movement single issues by protesting against e.g. fur-trading, of the 1960s and 1970s demanded gender landmines, car traffic, demolition of a specific equality in all areas of life – economical, building, or more globally, advocating the freeing social, and political. Women in the Swedish of particular political prisoners. However, environmental movement were inspired by these single issues are often positioned in a Elin Wägner (1882–1949), a feminist who broader political framework that connected environmental and feminist is- sues. They were often most active on issues alternative ways of life, more solidarity that threatened human health and repro- between human beings, less consumerism in duction, such as nuclear power, pesticides, society, etc. harmful work environments and deteriorat- These organisations do not always ing food quality. have a formal structure or membership, but mobilize people around different issues, Nowadays, both men and women are often globally, using the Internet. In this actively engaged in environmental sustain- way, organisations and people with different ability and climate change debates. How- ever, surveys show that women are more agendas find common cause and a stronger concerned than men, and are more willing voice. to actively contribute. For example: In the urban sector, in Sweden and yy 60% of Swedes are worried about internationally, there are various move- climate change, but least concerned ments which address urban development group is men aged 15– 29 issues such as segregation, gentrification, yy 36% of women and 24% of men see or commercialization. Street art is a form of environment as an important factor artist-initiated, often illegal, activity in urban when investing in shares environments. The basic yy 46% of women and 37% of men buy idea of street art is that Gentrification locally produced or organic food citizens themselves take changes that result when wealthier people responsibility for the dec- yy 74% of Swedes recycle their household oration of public space. (gentry) acquire property in low-income and waste, 77% of women and 70% of men Sometimes it is purely working class communities, resulting in the about artistic expression yy 69% of women and 49% of men save poorer original residents being unable to while at other times the energy switching off equipment and by aim is to reshape the pay increased rents and house prices. Often, urban environment by using less hot water. old industrial buildings are converted to adding more personal, meaningful, and critical residences, shops and new businesses cater- messages as an alterna- ing for more affluent people, who progres- tive to commercial advertisements. Contemporary urban movements sively displace the poor. Urban gentrification sometimes changes a culturally heterogene- Traditional social movements and civil soci- ous community into a more economically ety organisations continue to be important in homogeneous community. Swedish society, also in relation to sustainable development and urban planning. There are large membership organisations advocating for cyclists’ Urban movements are very heterogeneous and rights, public health, park conservation, etc. many are best described as sub-cultures. Some Temporary interest groups also form around manifest in outright protest, e.g. against a planned specific planned urban developments that will new development, through occupation of empty affect inhabitants and local businesses – positively buildings that are to be demolished, or blocking or negatively. Both permanent and temporary or- traffic to protest against pollution and/or the developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011 63 Policies and attitudes marginalization of pedestrians or cyclists in cities. Others focus on re-conquering public space Fare-dodging as advocacy and fighting gentrification or situations where Planka.nu is a civil society network active in they believe authorities have ‘sold out’ their different cities in Sweden, founded in 2001 to oppose increasing costs and privatiza- city to private interests. Such initiatives include tion of public transport. The goal of Planka. Reclaim the street and Reclaim the city parties nu is tax-financed free public transport, and and protests organized in streets. These events it uses ordinary advocacy methods such as have often become riots. Street art movements seminars, participating in debates, and writ- and graffiti artists ‘decorate’ public spaces. Many ing newspaper articles. see such behaviour as vandalism, while others see it as legitimate expression and participation in But it also uses direct action called ‘self- reduction’ of public transport costs by public debate. fare-dodging on buses and subways. This There are also movements that work to semi-criminal activity is financed by a fund improve the quality of urban life and environments ‘p-kassan’ – a kind of free- insurance. by organizing urban greening and agriculture, Members pay an annual fee, and if they get promoting organic and locally produced food, and caught and are fined, they pay a small part establishing allotment garden associations. and the p-kassan fund pays the balance. The surplus from p-kassan is used e.g. to buy subway passes for paperless migrants, or to fund underground publishing.

Planka.nu argue that tax-financed public transport would help fight segregation and so create a better urban environment, as poorer people mostly live in suburbs far away from city centres. There are some who support the goals of Planka.nu, but not its methods. Not surprisingly, public transport companies and municipalities are very frus- trated by the activities of Planka.nu, which they see as stealing from other citizens.

With inspiration from Germany and Denmark, allotment gardens emerged in Sweden more than a hundred years ago, as the society transformed from mostly rural to ur- ban and industrialized. This change often had chocking effects on family farmers who left rather free work and nature for monotonous work inside industries and living in cramped barracks. Allotment gardens became a welcome and affordable refuge for the new urbanites. Since then the allotment gardening movement has gone through many phases, from being a contributor to public health, to providing important cultivation opportunities in times of crisis, to being a place for leisure for stressed city people, often with often considerable monetary value. Allotment gardens are strictly regulated (size, construction permits etc.) and every member belongs to an association which is managed by a democratically elected board. Associations and their umbrella organisations work closely with local authori- ties on issues of urban development. The International Allotment Garden Association has over 3 million members and has a participative status at the Council of Europe.

64 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Selected references Among the main references used to develop this booklet are:

Books and other printed materials A Northern Democracy, ICLD/ SIPU International, 2010 11 tankar om medborgardialog i styrning, SALAR, 2010 The Economy Report, SALAR, 2009 Effektivt och hållbart transportsystem, positionspapper, SALAR 2010 Energi och klimat, positionspapper, SALAR 2008 En svensk strategi för hållbar utveckling – ekonomisk, social och miljömässig, Regeringskansliet, 2003 The Environmental Code – a summary, Regeringskansliet, 1998 Forskning om energi – ett urval projekt, Formas, 2011 Fysisk Riksplanering, Bostadsdepartementet/Statens Planverk 1985 Gender Equality in Public Service, Government Offices of Sweden, 2007 , , 2008 Hållbar stadsutveckling, positionspapper, SALAR 2010 Levels of Local Democracy in Sweden, SALAR, 2010 Miljömålen på ny grund, Naturvårdsverket, 2011 Municipalities and regions on the competitive edge, SALAR, 2009 Planer som styrmedel för att minska samhällets klimatpåverkan, Boverket 2009 Planning for climate change, UN-Habitat,draft version 2011 Planning System of Sweden, Gösta Blücher,2006 Public Finances in Sweden, SCB, 2007 Samhällsbyggande för klimatet, kommuner som visar vägen, SALAR 2011 Sustainable energy and climate policy for the environment, competitiveness and long-term stability, Regeringskansliet, 2009 Swedish Government Offices Yearbook 2009, Government Offices, 2009 Taxes in Sweden, Swedish Tax Authority, 2009 Uthållig kommun, etapp 3, Energimyndigheten, 2011

Laws The Instrument of Government of 1974 Act on Local Government of 1991 Environmental Code 1999 Planning and Building Act of 2011

Websites www.regeringen.se Göteborg City www.goteborg.se Malmö City www.malmo.se Swedish Parliament www.riksdagen.se SALAR www.skl.se www.scb.se Stockholm City www.stockholm.se www.sundsvall.se Växjö municipality www.vaxjo.se Swedish Environmental Protection Agency www.naturvardsverket.se Swedish National Board of Housing, Building www.boverket.se and Planning

Other In addition to the above sources of information, much valuable input to this booklet has been given through discussions and interviews with several central and local government officials and their organi- sations. Furthermore, valuable information has been gathered from official documents such as visions & strategies, policies, guidelines, and manuals, stemming from Swedish public sector organisations and municipalities and regions. swedish international development cooperation agency This publication was financed by Sida