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The Loanword (Gairaigo) Influx Into the Japanese Language: Contemporary Perceptions and Responses

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The Loanword (Gairaigo) Influx Into the Japanese Language: Contemporary Perceptions and Responses THE LOANWORD (GAIRAIGO) INFLUX INTO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE: CONTEMPORARY PERCEPTIONS AND RESPONSES BY TAKAKO TOMODA A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Sociology, University of New South Wales. 2005 ABSTRACT Loanwords have been entering Japanese for centuries but the rate has accelerated postwar and the predominant source is English. Gairaigo have received a mixed response from scholars, government, the media and the public. Opponents claim they cause confusion and have called for limits to protect the language and culture. From the 1980s, language planning bodies turned their attention to gairaigo and, in the early 2000s, took steps to limit their use. This research examines and evaluates the perceptions and responses of Japanese people and language planners to gairaigo over this period. Scholarly and popular works, the media, and policy discussions by language planners were analysed under the rubric of corpus planning proposed by Ferguson (1979) and Cooper (1989). The level of purism was evaluated within the framework of Thomas (1991). To obtain quantitative data on public perceptions of gairaigo, a survey was conducted and the results compared with published opinion poll data. Scholars who supported gairaigo concentrated on its enrichment of the corpus, imagery, nuance, and its internationalising effects. Opponents focused on the confusing nature of new gairaigo particularly for older people, damage to the language and culture, creation of social divisions, and excessive Westernisation. Both globalisation and universal English education were considered causes of the influx. Policy discussions focused on comprehension levels of new gairaigo, generational differences, and overuse of gairaigo by government, especially in aged care. Lists of replacement words were produced but public response has been mixed. A majority of people surveyed expressed negative views of gairaigo, but only a small minority held strong views. Most were tolerant of gairaigo use and were willing to use new gairaigo. Tolerance decreased with age but there was no clear relationship with English language ability. Opinion poll data did not demonstrate any longitudinal increase in negative views of gairaigo over the 1980s and 90s. It was concluded that public support for government intervention was generally weak and was not assisted by the archaising approach taken to replacing gairaigo with kango. Recommendations for alternative responses were made. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor Ms Frances Lovejoy and co-supervisor Professor Ann Daniel for their ongoing support and advice. In particular, I wish to thank Ms Lovejoy for believing in me and providing encouragement throughout this long journey. I feel extremely fortunate to have great friends in Japan willing to help with the collection of data and wish to thank all of them for their kindness, effort and support. Without them the collection of this data set would not have been possible. It is impossible to name them all but I wish to express my particular gratitude to Professor Igarashi, Professor Sasamori, Professor Yoshida, Professor Megumi, Ms Konagaya, Mr Yanase, Ms Takahashi, Ms Aoki, Ms Kishimura, Ms Ito, Ms Fukano, Mr Inoue, Mr Kawasaki, Mr Nakatani, and Mr Kagoyama for their help with the distribution and collection of questionnaires and wish to express my appreciation to all those people who took the time to complete a questionnaire and make comments. I would also like to thank Mr Nishitani and Ms Asai of NHKBCRI, Mr Yanagisawa of NLRI, Mr Watanabe of Kanamojikai, Mr Tsuda of Ehimeken Sōmubu as well as Ms Sakaguchi and Ms Hatta of Monash Asian Studies Research Library for their help with accessing documents. My appreciation goes to Helen Saville for her proofreading and comments, and I wish to express my deep gratitude to Brian May and my mother, Tomoda Mutsuko, for all their patience and emotional support. Finally, I wish to dedicate this thesis to the memory of my father, Tomoda Hideaki. ii CONTENTS ABSTRACT i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES vi INTRODUCTION Background 1 The need for this research 2 Aims of the thesis 3 The research approach 3 Transliteration and treatment of Japanese terms and writing style 4 DEFINITION OF JAPANESE TERMS 5 GLOSSARY OF JAPANESE PROPER NOUNS 7 ACRONYMS USED IN THE TEXT, REFERENCE LIST AND IN-TEXT CITATIONS 8 CHAPTER 1. LOANWORDS AND THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE PART 1: CATEGORIES OF JAPANESE WORDS Main categories 10 Other word categories 12 A definition of gairaigo 15 Proportions of the principal word categories 15 PART 2: WORD BORROWING IN JAPAN A brief history 16 Written representations of gairaigo 21 Overview of research into gairaigo 22 Measures of the proportion of gairaigo in modern Japanese 23 Measures of the increase in gairaigo 24 Measures of the proportion of gairaigo derived from English 26 Measures of the dominance of English in Japan 26 Functions and roles of gairaigo in modern Japanese 27 Summary of the functions of gairaigo 32 Concluding comments 33 CHAPTER 2. THEORY AND METHOD: LANGUAGE PLANNING, LOANWORDS AND SOCIETY PART 1: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE PLANNING Discussion of key terms 35 Language change, LP and the social context 37 Language purism 42 Descriptive framework for LP 44 PART 2: METHOD Approaches taken in this investigation 46 Content and design of the questionnaire on gairaigo 52 Questionnaire items 54 iii Data analysis and reporting 61 Hypotheses 62 Concluding comments 64 CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE PLANNING IN MODERN JAPAN PART 1: LANGUAGE PLANNING BODIES IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN Bodies with direct support from the central government 65 Semi-official bodies 69 Unofficial bodies 71 PART 2 Overview of research into language planning in Japan 73 PART 3 Language planning and reform in modern Japan: 1880s to early 2000s 75 Foreign languages in Japanese education 89 Concluding comments 92 CHAPTER 4. GAIRAIGO AS A LANGUAGE ISSUE PART 1 Profiles of influential individuals 94 PART 2: VIEWPOINTS ON THE POSTWAR GAIRAIGO INFLUX Amount of gairaigo 99 Comprehension of gairaigo 100 Gairaigo and the mass media 102 Gairaigo and age-group 105 Gairaigo in government and politics 106 Causes of the gairaigo influx 108 Reasons why individuals adopt and use gairaigo 114 Effects of gairaigo on Japanese language and society 121 How to respond to gairaigo 129 CHAPTER 5. SURVEY RESULTS 1 PART 1: DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE SAMPLE Age of respondents 136 Students 136 Occupations 136 Foreign language ability 137 Gender 138 Discussion 139 PART 2: DATA ON GAIRAIGO USE Perceptions of change in the amount of gairaigo in use 140 People’s general evaluation of the current level of gairaigo 142 Perceptions of change in various language domains 145 Predictions of the future level of gairaigo 148 Encounters with gairaigo that are not understood 150 Encounters with gairaigo that are not understood in various domains 151 Discussion of findings 153 iv CHAPTER 6. SURVEY RESULTS 2 ATTITUDES TO GAIRAIGO USE Opinions on the way gairaigo are currently used 156 Opinions on a possible future increase in gairaigo 159 Responses to the use of a lot of gairaigo 166 Feelings experienced when hearing gairaigo that are not understood 168 Responses to new gairaigo that have been learned 171 Feelings about gairaigo users and usage 173 Summary and discussion of main findings 182 CHAPTER 7. SURVEY RESULTS 3 OPINIONS ON GAIRAIGO AND THEIR EFFECTS Confusion in Japanese 184 Gairaigo as a cause of confusion in Japanese 187 Effects of gairaigo on Japanese 191 Reasons for the incorporation of gairaigo 196 Opinions on how gairaigo should be treated 203 Summary of findings 211 CHAPTER 8. GAIRAIGO AND LANGUAGE PLANNING IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN PART 1: RESPONSES OF LP BODIES TO GAIRAIGO Unofficial bodies 214 Semi-official bodies 217 Official LP bodies 220 PART 2: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LP BODIES Membership structure of NLC 222 Links between LP organisations 225 PART 3: NLC REPORTS 1993 TO 2000 AND THE ACTIVITIES OF FLC The 1993 NLC report 226 The 1995 NLC report 229 The 2000 NLC Report 235 Discussion of NLC Reports 1993-2000 240 Foreign Loan Words Committee 241 Discussion of FLC’s proposals 244 CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS PART 1 Hypotheses relating to language issues 247 Hypotheses tested by the questionnaire 250 PART 2 Descriptive framework 257 Hypotheses relating to LP bodies 267 Hypotheses relating to planners 267 PART 3 Recommendations and suggestions 269 Further research 272 REFERENCES 271 APPENDIX 295 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Number and percentage of gairaigo (grg) in Japanese dictionaries 25 Table 2.1: Bunkachō Surveys 49 Table 2.2: NHK Surveys 50 Table 2.3: Yomiuri Surveys 51 Table 2.4: Sōrifu Surveys 51 Table 2.5: Ehime Survey 51 Table 3.1: Major policies and reports of the National Language Council 66 Table 3.2: National Language Councils since 1949: Council number and duration 79 Table 4.1: What is your opinion on people’s current language use? 126 Table 5.1: Age distribution of respondents 136 Table 5.2: Occupations of employed respondents 137 Table 5.3: Respondents with some foreign language ability 138 Table 5.4: English ability of respondents 138 Table 5.5: Q.1. Do you think the amount of gairaigo used in Japanese has increased over the last ten years? 141 Table 5.6: Comparison with a previous study with regard to perceived increase in gairaigo 142 Table 5.7: Q.2. What do you think of the current level of gairaigo that you see and hear in everyday life? 143 Table 5.8: Comparison with previous studies of attitudes to current gairaigo usage 144 Table 5.9: Q.8. Change in gairaigo in various domains of language use (%) 146 Table 5.10: Spearman Correlations (ρ) between reports of a large gairaigo increase in various domains of language use and proportions in two age-groups 147 Table 5.11: Survey questions relating to level of gairaigo in the broadcast media 147 Table 5.12: Q.4.
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