Adult Education and the Struggle Against Illiteracy in the Italian
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Educació i Història: Revista d’Història de l’Educació DOI: 10.2436/20.3009.01.250: Núm. 36 (juliol-desembre, 2020), pàg. 129-142 Societat d’Història de l’Educació dels Països de Llengua Catalana ISSN: 1134-0258 e-ISSN: 2013-9632 Tema monogràfic Adult education and the struggle against illiteracy in the Italian Mezzogiorno in the first half of the 20th century L’educació de l’adult i la lluita contra l’analfabetisme al Mezzogiorno Italià a la primera meitat del segle XX Brunella Serpe [email protected] University of Calabria (Italy) Data de recepció de l’original: setembre de 2019 Data d’acceptació: gener de 2020 Resum Després de la unificació italiana (1861), l’analfabetisme va representar un proble- ma greu que la pobresa econòmica i social, la insuficiència dels edificis escolars i l’es- cassetat de mestres adequadament qualificats van fer difícil de resoldre. Aquest article analitza les mesures adoptades contra l’analfabetisme al sud d’Itàlia a principis de segle xx. Aquestes mesures van ser aplicades activament per l’estat juntament amb una sèrie d’associacions filantròpiques, inclosa l’Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia (ANIMI). Amb l’anàlisi de les dades sobre l›analfabetisme i els documents continguts en els arxius de l’ANIMI, ha estat possible reconstruir la histò- ria de l›educació d›adults, el que va permetre a moltes persones alfabetitzar-se i allibe- rar-se de la ignorància, especialment quan l’ANIMI i altres associacions van reprendre les seves activitats després de 1945. Paraules clau: analfabetisme, associacions, Itàlia meridional, història de l’educa- ció, història de l’educació d’adults. Educació i Història: Revista d’Història de l’Educació, núm. 36 (juliol-desembre, 2020), pàg. 129-142 129 Brunella Serpe Abstract Following Italian unification (1861), illiteracy represented a serious problem which economic and social poverty, the inadequacy of school buildings and a shortage of suitably qualified teachers made difficult to resolve. This paper analyses the measures adopted against illiteracy in Southern Italy in the early twentieth century. These measures were actively pursued by the state together with a number of philanthropic associations including the Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia (National Association for the Interests of the Italian Mezzogiorno, ANIMI). By analysing data on illiteracy and documents held in the ANIMI archives, it has been possible to reconstruct the history of adult education, which enabled many individuals to become literate and free themselves from ignorance, especially when ANIMI and other associations resumed their activities after 1945. Key words: illiteracy, associations, Southern Italy, history of education, history of adult education. Resumen Después de la unificación italiana (1861), el analfabetismo representó un proble- ma grave que tanto la pobreza económica y social como la insuficiencia de los edifi- cios escolares y la escasez de maestros adecuadamente cualificados hicieron difícil de resolver. Este artículo analiza las medidas adoptadas contra el analfabetismo en el sur de Italia a principios del siglo xx. Estas medidas fueron aplicadas activamente por el Estado junto con una serie de asociaciones filantrópicas, incluida la Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia (ANIMI). Al analizar los datos sobre el analfabetismo y los documentos contenidos en los archivos de la ANIMI, ha sido posible reconstruir la historia de la educación de adultos, lo que permitió a muchas personas alfabetizarse y liberarse de la ignorancia, especialmente cuando la ANIMI y otras asociaciones reanudaron sus actividades después de 1945. Palabras clave: analfabetismo, asociaciones, Italia meridional, historia de la edu- cación, historia de la educación de adultos. 130 Educació i Història: Revista d’Història de l’Educació, núm. 36 (juliol-desembre, 2020), pàg. 129-142 Adult education and the struggle against illiteracy in the Italian Mezzogiorno in the first half of the 20th century 1. Introduction Following Italian Unification (1861), Royal Decree no. 3725 of 13 November 1859 on the Organisation of Public Education in the Kingdom of Sardinia, better known as the Casati Law, was gradually extended to the entire Italian peninsula, albeit without taking into account the profoundly uneven levels of schooling and education that characterised the territory of the new nation. The sharp differences between the various regions were the result of the public education policies pursued by the governments of the now defunct states that had been incorporated into the new kingdom. In some cases, governments had been neglectful of schooling and the drive for literacy, partly reflecting the economic and social backwardness that prevailed, particularly in central and southern Italy, where illiteracy was almost universal and many districts had no schools at all. In some areas, in the absence of publicly funded schools, the local parish priest organised classes for those who could not afford to attend private schools, which existed for the purpose of educating the offspring of the bourgeoisie and the ruling classes and preparing them for university. The lack of even a rudimentary school network severely hampered the attempt to extend the Casati Law to all areas of the Kingdom of Italy. Census data show with great clarity the situation in the various parts of the Kingdom. In 1861 there was substantial illiteracy in the Central and Northern regions (affecting 74% of the school population), but the situation was even worse in the South and Islands, where 90% of the population was illiterate. Closing this gap was extremely difficult, as the successive statistics attest. Figures from 1871, 1881 and 1901 show a gradual reduction in illiteracy in the Central and Northern regions (59%, 56%, 40%), which contrasts with the evident persistence of the problem in the South and the Islands (85%, 81%, 71%). Marking the start of a new attempt to address the issue, investigations were conducted to establish the causes of illiteracy and laws were passed which reaffirmed the principle of compulsory attendance and transferred the management of elementary schools from municipalities to the state. However, all these measures proved to be insufficient, and thus the 1920s saw the creation of the Opera contro l’analfabetismo (Anti-illiteracy Board), aimed primarily at adults. The Board conducted literacy campaigns designed to address the widespread ignorance among those who had never been to school and lacked even the most basic level of education. Educació i Història: Revista d’Història de l’Educació, núm. 36 (juliol-desembre, 2020), pàg. 129-142 131 Brunella Serpe 2. Illiteracy in Italy Opening a school in every district of the Kingdom had been a key objective for the ruling classes since unification in 1861. And yet, all attempts, which included economic penalties for families who did not comply with compulsory school attendance, had not produced significant results. Illiteracy remained stubbornly high, especially among the southern population. The analysis of Pasquale Villari, contained in his paper La scuola e la questione sociale (School and the social question) published in 1872, left no room for doubt as to the causes of the problem. He argued that illiteracy and ignorance could never be eliminated without measures designed to resolve economic backwardness, itself a symptom of acute social problems which needed to be tackled without hesitation if illiteracy was to be effectively eliminated.1 The first document on the state of public education in the new Kingdom of Italy dates back to 1865 and shows strong awareness of the link between underdevelopment, poverty and illiteracy. It also contains the data that had emerged from the Inquiry conducted by the Higher Council of Public Education just one year earlier, which had revealed a nation with a high number of illiterate citizens. The document affirmed the intention of the Italian government to reduce illiteracy through new laws that enabled intervention in support of the public school system. This was supposed to have a presence in every corner of the Kingdom, including through free nursery and elementary schools for young children, but also in the form of winter, evening and Sunday schools to attract and involve adult citizens.2 The document, however, failed to recognise the urgency of the situation. Indeed, it stated that compulsory schooling could not be imposed by law, but should rather be seen by families as a moral obligation and an opportunity to improve their children’s condition. In addition, it was clearly felt that for many children of the lower classes school would represent a very short period in their lives, insufficient to give them anything more than the most rudimentary education, which would need to be consolidated in subsequent years. 1 See the works of Villari, Pasquale on illiteracy. La scuola e la questione sociale in Italia. Firenze: Le Monnier, 1872 (ii ed.); id., «Di chi è la colpa? O sia, la pace e la guerra», Politecnico, Milano, settembre 1866; id., Le Lettere meridionali ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia. Firenze: Le Monnier, 1878. 2 Ministero Pubblica Istruzione. Sulle condizioni della pubblica istruzione del Regno d’Italia. Relazione generale presentata al Ministro dal Consiglio superiore di Torino. Milano: Stamperia Reale, 1865, p. 503. 132 Educació i Història: Revista d’Història de l’Educació, núm. 36 (juliol-desembre, 2020), pàg. 129-142 Adult education and the struggle against illiteracy in the Italian Mezzogiorno in the first half of the 20th century With Michele Coppino as Minister of Education, the State was committed to tackling the depressing picture that was emerging from the censuses. The law of July 1877 reinforced the principle of compulsory elementary education and established a new Inquiry entrusted to Gerolamo Buonazia, which within a year published data on the real state of the school system across the Kingdom. The Inquiry produced a damning verdict on a system that had been unable to improve in all parts of the country despite the adaptations and reformulations of the Casati Law.