Voices from the borderlands 2020 Illicit drugs, development and peacebuilding About Voices from the borderlands 2020 Voices from the borderlands 2020 is the flagship publication of Drugs & (dis)order, a four-year research project generating new evidence on how to transform illicit drug economies into peace economies. It aims to bring to light some of the experiences and perspectives we have been hearing in our fieldwork across seven drug- and conflict-affected borderlands of Afghanistan, Colombia and Myanmar. It is intended for a broad audience of researchers, practitioners and policymakers working on issues related to drugs, development and peacebuilding. The testimonies in this report offer valuable insights into how illicit drugs – and drug policies – impact the dynamics of violence and peace, poverty and development, and insecurity and resilience. Acknowledgements Voices from the borderlands 2020 has been prepared by members of the Drugs & (dis)order team, led by Jonathan Goodhand, Patrick Meehan, Frances Thomson, Maziyar Ghiabi and Louise Ball (SOAS University of London). The Colombia chapter was prepared by Francisco Gutierrez, Camilo Acero, Diana Machuca, Sebastian Cristancho, Luis Castillo (Universidad Nacional de Colombia) and Frances Thomson; the Afghanistan chapter was prepared by Jonathan Goodhand and Jasmine Bhatia (SOAS University of London); and the Myanmar country chapter was prepared by Patrick Meehan, Mandy Sadan (Oxford School of Global and Area Studies, University of Oxford), Dan Seng Lawn (Kachinland Research Centre), and Sai Aung Hla (Shan Herald Agency for News). The report benefited greatly from contributions by reviewers, including members of the Drugs & (dis)order team and its International Advisory Group: Eric Gutierrez (Christian Aid), Jenny Pearce (London School of Econnomics), Mark Shaw (Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime) and Adam Pain (Swedish University of Agricultural Science). The report was edited by Becky Owens, designed by Lucy Peers and proofread by Sophie Gillespie. Drugs & (dis)order: building sustainable peacetime economies in the aftermath of war is a four-year research project generating new evidence on how to transform illicit drug economies into peace economies in Afghanistan, Colombia and Myanmar. It is the work of an international consortium of internationally recognised organisations with unrivalled expertise in drugs, conflict, health and development. Led by SOAS University of London, project partners are: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU), Alcis, Christian Aid, Kachinland Research Centre (KRC), London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), Organization for Sustainable Development and Research (OSDR), Oxford School of Global and Area Studies (OSGA), PositiveNegatives, Shan Herald Agency for News (SHAN), Universidad de los Andes and Universidad Nacional de Colombia. This research was funded via UK Research and Innovation, as part of the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF). The views presented in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of GCRF, the UK government or partner organisations. Cover images from the top: 1. Transportation of transit goods to Pakistan by mules, Afghanistan, 2. Poppy farm in Chipwi Township, northern Kachin State, Myanmar. Photo by KRC, 3. Coca harvest, Puerto Asis, Colombia. Photo by Frances Thomson Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Back cover image: Poppy fields along the China border, northern Kachin State, Myanmar. Photo by KRC. Contents About Drugs & (dis)order 4 Introduction 5 A closer look at the borderlands 8 A policy impasse 10 A way forward 12 About Voices from the borderlands 2020 14 Colombia 15 About the borderlands 16 Key messages 21 Afghanistan 30 About the borderlands 31 Key messages 36 Myanmar 42 About the borderlands 43 Key messages 48 Reflections 56 War-to-peace transitions 57 Borderland development 59 Drugs and everyday lives 60 Policy implications 62 Endnotes 64 About Drugs & (dis)order Drugs & (dis)order is a four-year research project, seeking to address the question, ‘How can war economies be transformed into peace economies?’, working in nine drug- and conflict-affected borderland regions of Afghanistan, Colombia and Myanmar. A borderland perspective The project focuses on illicit drugs, because they are one of the main commodities fuelling war economies. We focus on borderland regions because they have become major hubs in transnational drug economies and often remain conflict hotspots, even after national peace agreements. We thus believe that borderlands are central to the challenge of transforming drug-fuelled war economies into sustainable peacetime economies. Generating a new evidence base There is growing recognition that drugs policies should be more pro-poor and aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). But the evidence base to support any such reform is patchy, politicised and contested. Drugs & (dis)order thus seeks to generate robust empirical data to help build a new evidence base. Engaging with the political economy of policymaking We do not assume that better evidence alone will transform policies. Our research also places policymaking under the spotlight to understand the agendas, interests and power struggles that shape the dynamics and outcomes of drugs, development and peacebuilding policymaking. An interdisciplinary approach Our research brings together insights from anthropology, sociology, geography, political economy, political science, history and public health to build a comprehensive picture of the ways that drug economies shape and are shaped by the contexts in which they are embedded. And we incorporate innovative research methods and analytical tools such as Geographic Information System (GIS) imagery to map physical changes in borderlands, complementing surveys, and ethnographic and life history interviews. Building a global network of researchers Drugs & (dis)order is led by SOAS University of London, with a team comprising 11 partner institutions from Afghanistan, Colombia, Myanmar and the UK. Our aim is to build a global network of researchers and institutions to continue this work beyond the lifetime of the project. www.drugs-and-disorder.org Introduction Coca harvest, Puerto Asís, Colombia. Photo by Frances Thomson/ Universidad Nacional de Colombia. There is a growing call for drugs, development and peacebuilding policies to be better integrated – to prioritise pro-poor development and align drug policy with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). But much work remains to be done.1 Drugs issues continue to be viewed primarily through of the project, to identify ‘what works’. Rather, we aim a criminality and security lens, and development and to show how the voices and findings presented here peacebuilding agencies have proved reluctant to engage reveal important insights and policy implications for with the ‘taboo’ of drugs.2 And while those involved those seeking to better understand and support peace in illicit economies are among those most impacted processes, poverty alleviation and development in by these policies, they remain poorly – if at all – fragile and drugs-affected contexts. represented in policy debates. The testimonies in this report offer Voices from the borderlands 2020 seeks to bring to light some of these voices coming out of our fieldwork valuable insights into how illicit drugs – in seven borderland regions of Afghanistan, Colombia and drug policies – shape the dynamics and Myanmar. Together, these three countries account of violence and peace, poverty and for more than 80% of global illicit opium production and about 70% of global cocaine production.3 All have development, and insecurity and resilience. experienced years of violent conflict and are in the midst of some form of peace process. In the introductory chapter, we discuss what we perceive to be the current ‘policy impasse’ between counter- The testimonies in this report offer valuable insights narcotics policies, peacebuilding efforts and development into how illicit drugs – and drug policies – shape approaches. We then outline some departure points the dynamics of violence and peace, poverty and as a way of moving beyond this impasse. development, and insecurity and resilience. By listening to marginalised voices, we believe that drug policy and The following chapters present three key messages development specialists can become more attuned that have emerged from our research with borderland to the ways that illicit drug economies have an impact communities in each of the three countries of study. on poverty alleviation, access to services, economic Together, the voices captured in these key messages development and strategies to fight inequality and have enabled us to explore intersections between human insecurity, and reduce violence and harm. drugs, livelihoods and experiences of violence along the drugs value chain, ranging from drug production in Voices from the borderlands 2020 does not seek to Colombia, trade and transport in Afghanistan, to drug provide policy recommendations, nor, at this stage consumption in Myanmar. 6 Voices from the borderlands 2020 In Colombia, testimonies from coca growers and 3. Increased trade flows have fuelled the pickers across three borderland regions have given emergence of frontier boom towns, which us a clear message: have created both economic opportunities and insecurity and growing inequality in borderland 1. Coca growers are peasant farmers, not wealthy communities.