Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia Risks · Policies · Capacities

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This report has been written and produced by Alexander Carius, Moira Feil and Dennis Tänzler (Adelphi Research)

ISBN 92-990011-8-9

Published by: UNDP/Regional Bureau for Europe and the CIS Cover and layout design: EYES-OPEN, Berlin – www.eyes-open.de Cover photo: Jack D. Ives Printing and binding: Oktoberdruck AG, Berlin Printed in Berlin, Germany Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia Risks · Policies · Capacities

Preface page 1

While the linkages between environment and Also, by ensuring that full information is security are broadly acknowledged and re- available on the various national frameworks, cognized, much work remains to be done on the study allows for a sub-regional compari- understanding the nature of the causes and son to be made. Such a comparison may help direction of the effects. Without such an policy makers and international organizations understanding, policy responses will not have alike to identify the lacunae and misalign- a lasting impact on the trends and dynamics ments in policy, as well as identifying areas – of a given sub-region. What is notable in cases both geographic and thematic – where sub- of environmental insecurity is that the con- regional cooperation is working or possible. flicts or conflict potential is generally not the It is intended that this information will result of an innate scarcity of resources, but a provide the basis for sustained and dynamic failure in the ability or willingness of states to policy dialogue at the sub-regional level on find workable solutions to the problems. ways to improve sub-regional cooperation in While numerous inter-state agreements exist the areas of environment and security. This on resource management and governance, study is a part of the joint initiative by the there is a lack of implementation often due to Organization for Security and Cooperation in inadequate resource management, exacer- Europe (OSCE), the United Nations Environ- bated by a lack of necessary wherewithal to ment Programme (UNEP) and the United implement the necessary reforms. Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to Within the Central Asian context, this promote the use of environmental manage- study aims to address this problem both at ment as a strategy for reducing insecurity in the national and sub-regional levels. the sub-regions of South Eastern Europe and At the national level, it will provide in- Central Asia. formation on the legal, institutional and political frameworks in each of the Central Asian Republics in order to facilitate and improve government functioning on a national basis. By determining which difficulties are Andrej Steiner the result of institutional failure,solutions may be found to amend or adapt existing frame- Chief Technical Advisor works,or,where necessary,identify where new UNDP/Regional Bureau for Europe and mechanisms should be created. the CIS, Bratislava Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

page 2 Table of Contents

Preface 1

Table of Contents 2

Executive Summary 3

1Introduction 4

2Kazakhstan 7

3Kyrgyzstan 11

4Tajikistan 16

5Turkmenistan 21

6Uzbekistan 25

7Conclusions 29

8Recommendations 32

9Bibliography 36 Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

Executive Summary page 3

This scoping report explores the potential arise at the sub-state level and in already threats to human development and security marginalized and remote areas. emanating from environmental risks in five • Institutional structures are limited, especi- Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, ally at sub-state level, and suffer from Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). weak implementation, limited technical Adelphi Research prepared the report on capabilities and a lack of finance and behalf of the UNDP Regional Office for Europe human resources. and the CIS in Bratislava, for presentation at • The existing legislative and institutional the Kiev Ministerial Conference in May 2003. basis is characterized by sectoral ap- It is a component of the Environment and proaches. There is a need to improve Security Initiative, a joint UNDP, UNEP and coordinating institutional structures and OSCE project. It is based on publicly available participatory mechanisms. data and consultation with UNDP and OSCE representatives in the countries. The analysis presented in this scoping report This report assesses major environmental yields the following recommendations: risks relating to security, and describes the socio-economic context and institutional and • Strengthen institutional capacities in policy framework available to address such three key areas: (a) institutional and risks in the five Central Asian countries. administrative development, (b) sustain- Building upon this analysis, the following able resource management, conflict pre- conclusions are drawn: vention and mediation, and (c) regional framework programmes. • Environmental degradation and resource • Improve environmental policies and foster scarcity have not been a direct cause of transboundary cooperation in vulnerable violent conflict in any of the Central Asian regions. republics, but have contributed to accele- • Conduct integrated assessments. rating existing political and social crises • Enhance the knowledge base relating to and heightening ethnic tensions. local contexts. • Key environmental issues threatening • Develop early warning indicators and human development and security in the monitoring systems. region include growing demand for water, high levels of water pollution, soil erosion In-depth assessments and consultations with and degradation and air pollution. Diffe- national and local stakeholder groups are rences among countries are considerable essential to gain a common understanding of but smaller than the differentials between these risks and create ownership of respon- central and peripheral areas within sive policies. countries. • Traditional resource conflicts over shared water resources seem less likely than often assumed. However, the impacts of water pollution upon human development and transboundary security have been underestimated. • The socio-economic burdens of environmental degradation disproportionately affect weaker social groups. Environ- mentally triggered or heightened tensions Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

page 4 1 Introduction

Central Asia, encompassing the southern risks in Central Asia and their potential provinces of the former Soviet Union, security implications. This report was pre- Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkme- pared between 15 March and 15 April 2003.As nistan and Uzbekistan, is rich in natural most of the existing reports on environmental resources, most still untapped. In Kyrgyzstan stress focus either on ecological disasters and Tajikistan, large quantities of water are around the Aral Sea and Caspian Sea or the stored in the mountain glaciers. Kazakhstan, regional dimension of environmental decline Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have huge and and political and social instability in Central mostly unexplored oil and gas deposits. Asia, the present report examines the national At the same time, almost half of the level in order to gain insights into the very populations of these countries live in poverty specific differences among the environmental and lack sufficient natural resources to sustain risks prevailing in these countries. The report their livelihoods, while the countries' wealth is analyses the main environmental risks, the The region suffers from unevenly distributed. The region suffers from socio-economic conditions and policies, and significant ecological significant ecological disasters and the legacy the institutions to address these challenges. disasters and of the past. Central Asia was the nuclear the legacy of the past testing ground for the Soviet Union since the Environment and security linkages late 1940s. This has impacted upon human health and fragile ecosystems. To supply Environmental degradation and scarcity or cotton crops to the Soviet Union, large-scale the uneven distribution of natural resources irrigation systems were built, contributing to have emerged as an important trigger or ac- the degradation of the Aral Sea and Caspian celerating factor of tensions within and among Sea. The consequences of colonial authorita- nations, although they occur mainly at the rianism, forced secularization, central econo- sub-state level. Environmental decline and mic planning and the establishment of resource scarcity lead by no means directly to artificial borders in the region include severe violent conflict. They are rather one strand ecological degradation, forced migration of within a complex web of causality in which a ethnic groups,and interethnic competition for series of socio-economic problems – such as Environmental land, water and other increasingly scarce population pressure, poverty, forced migra- degradation and natural resources. Environmental risks and social and tion, refugee movements, political instability resource scarcity are both economic development are intertwined, and ethno-political tensions – are intertwined. causes and outcomes of leading to the emergence of environmentally Environmental degradation and natural re- socio-economic problems triggered or accelerated crises and tensions at source scarcity are both causes and outcomes the sub-state level. of these socio-economic problems or are While there are common characteristics intensified by them. The increasing scarcity of among these countries, their political and fresh-water resources,the loss of ground cover social geography is highly diverse. In this vegetation, desertification, global climate report we take a closer look at the differences change and rising sea levels are primarily the between these countries and explore the outcome of human-induced transformation potential threats to human development and processes. These negative environmental security emanating from environmental risks. changes are the result of resource-intensive, partially resource-wasting patterns of produc- Rationale of the study tion and consumption, and of inadequate agricultural practices which, in combination Adelphi Research has been asked by the with the above-mentioned socio-economic UNDP Regional Office for Europe and the CIS problems, can expose national and inter- to prepare a scoping report on environmental national security to substantial risks. Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

page 5

“Environmental stress is seldom the only Aim and scope of the report cause of major conflicts within or among nations. [...] Environmental stress can thus be This report will provide a better picture of the Environmental stress can an important part of the web of causality strengths and weaknesses of national policies be an important part of the associated with any conflict and can in some and institutions to address environmental web of causality associated cases be catalytic.” (WCED 1987: 291) risks by comparing the Central Asian with any conflict Since environmental degradation often countries. It will also help to identify where triggers or accelerates already existing devel- national and multilateral donors can assist. opment dilemmas, it also affects basic human Our analysis focuses on environmental risks needs and sustainable livelihoods, and can and their potential threats to human develop- become a substantial threat to human secu- ment and security. Elements of the concept of rity. In this report we look at environmental human security comprise food and water, risks that threaten human security and the individual, community, environmental, health linkages among environmental degradation, and economic security. But we also consider unfavourable socio-economic conditions and the occurrence of political tensions between tensions. states and social tensions at the domestic level. The study provides a brief outline of the The Environment and most relevant environmental risks that affect The concept of human Security Initiative security concerns for each of the countries security comprises food and an overview of key institutions dealing and water, individual, This scoping report is integrated within the with the socio-economic impacts of environ- community, environmental, Environment and Security Initiative, a long- mental risks. We examine the level of inte- health and economic term process to assess environmental risks, gration of environmental concerns into other security develop an assessment methodology and sectoral policies and evaluate to what extent conduct regular consultations with local each country has already developed and stakeholder groups. The initiative is a joint implemented policies and measures to effort of the United Nations Development adequately address these challenges. Programme (UNDP), the United Nations The study provides a brief overview of the Environment Programme (UNEP) and the basic structures of national environmental Organization for Security and Cooperation in policies and identifies deficits in the legal Europe (OSCE) with pilot projects in Central system and with regard to implementation. It Asia and South Eastern Europe. It seeks to reviews the extent to which policies address facilitate a collaborative process with key environmental, social and economic issues in public officials, NGOs and development an integrated fashion. agencies on security-related environmental This report will be presented to the public risks, sustainable resource use and environ- on the occasion of the fifth Ministerial mental cooperation in order to foster peace Conference “Environment for Europe” in Kiev and stability. It envisages developing a series in May 2003, along side a further report of the of programmes and projects under the three Environment and Security Initiative and an key areas of the initiative: Vulnerability outline of the further development of the Assessment & Mapping, Policy Development Initiative. Policy makers in national govern- & Implementation, and Capacity Building & ments and regional and international institu- Institutional Development. Further infor- tions as well as representatives of civil society mation on the Environment and Security may benefit from this scoping report. It is Initiative is available from the website at intended to help them and UNDP to identify www.envsec.org. areas of concern which need to be addressed through the means of the respective institu- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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tions. Special emphasis will need to be given Structure of the report to addressing the environmental factors that accelerate or trigger conflicts, and to im- Chapters two to six comprise country case proving the socio-economic conditions for studies, which follow the same structure. In the promotion of sustainable human develop- each, section one provides an overview of ment and peace. Although this report has an major environmental risks posing direct or extensive scope, it can only be a preliminary indirect threats to national or human security. step towards more comprehensive integrated Section two elaborates on socio-economic assessments, conducted jointly with local conditions and capacities as key parameters partners in the region and agreed upon in a for an assessment of the vulnerability of sequence of consultation meetings. communities to environmental risks. Section three presents a brief overview of policies and Methodology institutions to address the risks identified. Participatory elements in decision-making as This report builds on publicly available data well as transparency and accountability of and draws mainly on sources from UNDP, government policies and measures are UNICEF, the World Bank and the Asian considered a crucial element in effectively UNDP country offices Development Bank, as well as domestic docu- addressing these links. We focus especially on and OSCE field ments and reports such as National Environ- policies and programmes which address presences cooperated in mental Action Plans, National Environmental environmental risks and security threats in an this joint effort Policy Plans and other official documents on integrated fashion. public health, education and social policy. Against the background of this cross- Since official data – both on environ- country analysis, chapter seven draws mental quality as well as key economic and conclusions on key constraints for environ- social indicators – vary considerably or are mental governance in Central Asia. Chapter scarcely available for all countries under eight makes preliminary recommendations consideration, UNDP country offices in Taji- on ways to address these shortcomings. kistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan and Several boxes throughout the report illustrate OSCE field presences in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan environment and security linkages, high- Boxes throughout the and Turkmenistan cooperated in this joint lighting regional specifics, hot spots or report illustrate environ- effort. They contributed to the preparation of success stories. ment and security linkages this scoping report by providing data,relevant documents and comments on an earlier version of the report. A questionnaire was prepared and sent to the respective country offices and missions asking for key environmental risks and their security relevance, existing institutional structures as well as policies and measures in place to address these challenges. This survey provided an important basis, allowing us to assess the complex links between environmental degradation and their implications in security terms. Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

2 Kazakhstan page 7

Kazakhstan is located in the north of Central Action Plan for Sustainable Development (UN Asia and is its largest country, reaching from ECE 2000a: 12). Radiation derives from large the Caspian Sea to China. It also shares geological uranium deposits and waste from common borders with Kyrgyzstan, the Russian uranium mining as well as the use of Federation, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Kazakhstan for military nuclear testing by the With a total population of 14.8 million spread Soviet Union. Industry also contributes over more than 2.7 million square kilometres substantially to pollution caused by improper of territory, Kazakhstan is one of the most waste treatment and management. sparsely populated regions in the world. The As an Aral Sea state, Kazakhstan is one of ethnic origin of about half of this population is the immediate victims of the environmental Kazakh. A strong Russian minority is located devastation and collapse of the Sea’s eco- mainly in the north of the country and other system, which derived from the shrinking of ethnic minorities include Germans, Ukrainians the Sea to almost half its original size due to a and Uzbeks. Fortunately, tensions among reduction in average annual discharge from these groups have been less frequent than in 50 –60 km 2 before1960 to only 5 km 2, if at all, neighbouring countries. Kazakhstan is richly in the 1990s (UN ECE 2000a: 115). The endowed with oil, gas and mineral resources. reduction of water volume in the lake is the Roughly the size of western Europe, basis of a chain reaction leading to desertifi- Kazakhstan’s vast area encompasses a broad cation, land salinization and contamination, variety of landscapes and ecosystems. Its air pollution and a dramatic loss of bio- environmental problems are equally diverse diversity. The immediate socio-economic and often specific to certain locations. The effects of this disaster,such as unemployment, challenge for Kazakhstan’s government rests health problems and migration are already in adopting a differentiated response to these having profound impacts on local and problems while systematically addressing regional patterns of life. The impacts of salt other difficult issues, such as rising mortality and dust storms carrying particles from the rates, slow political transformation and previous seabed are felt hundreds of kilo- problems of law enforcement. Due to its metres around. The Aral Sea’s Vozrozhdeniye economic strength, Kazakhstan plays a crucial Island history as biological and chemical test role for stability in Central Asia. There is a site adds a further risk to human health. strong link between such stability and the Apart from environmental decline in the issues surrounding water quality monitoring Aral Sea basin, water supply for agriculture and water sharing, both with neighbouring and industry and drinking water quality Uzbekistan and with upstream states. standards constitute a challenge throughout the country. With the environmental deteri- Environmental concerns Security-relevant oration of the Caspian and the Aral Sea, are centred on water, environmental risks Kazakhstan remains heavily reliant on river radiation and waste systems for its water supply. The Syr Darya The most urgent environmental concerns constitutes a vital source of water for both involving threats to human security in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan and has led to Kazakhstan are centred on water, radiation disputes between these states. Ethnic ten- and waste. The Aral Sea represents a unique sions have also been fuelled by the question disaster with a sequence of devastating envi- of water allocations around the Arnasay ronmental and socio-economic effects, but reservoir, though the last remaining border water supply and quality are of concern issues in this area between Uzbekistan and throughout Kazakhstan and are identified as Kazakhstan were settled in September 2002 priority areas by its National Environmental (see Box 1). Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Another major environmental concern in wastes pose a substantial risk of conta- Kazakhstan derives from its high levels of minating surface and groundwater by heavy High levels of radioactivity radioactivity. Natural radioactivity is two to metals (ibid: 72). three times higher than the global average These environmental problems pose risks (UN ECE 2000a: 77) and the radioactive and to human health and personal security but do toxic pollution associated with former defence not necessarily trigger violent conflict. industries and test ranges based throughout However, tension may increase drastically the country still poses long-term health risks. when the environmental pressures accu- The seriousness of this issue in the Semi- mulate and coincide with declining life palatinsk region was recognized by the UN expectancy, migration in response to a (Resolution 52/169 M) in 1997, stating that degrading natural environment, and an “radiological, health, socio-economic, psycho- increasing discrepancy between economic logical and environmental problems” in this liberties and a reactionary political culture. area would need the attention of the international community. Socio-economic conditions The third major environmental concern for human security derives from large Kazakhstan has a comparatively strong amounts of industrial wastes and inapprop- economy in Central Asia. It is largely depen- riate waste management. “By 1998, accu- dent on a narrow range of exports: mainly oil, mulated hazardous industrial wastes amoun- gas and some industrial output (ADB 2002a: ted to almost 3 billion tonnes” (UN ECE 2000a: 111). Growth of GDP reached 13.2 percent in 69). Industry is located mainly in the east of 2001 compared to 9.8 percent in 2000, and Kazakhstan, where many of its rich natural inflation dropped to 8.5 percent (ibid.). Real resources can be found. Improper waste GDP per capita (in PPP) increased by almost disposal and the large quantity of hazardous $900 to $5871 in 2000 compared to the

Box 1: The village of Bagys, located ethnic composition of the areas dramatically heighten the risk Bagys and the Arnasay about seven kilometres north and water allocation disputes. of open conflict. Following more Reservoir – Territorial of Tashkent, was at the heart of Frustrated by the failure of the negotiations, an agreement disputes resolved border disputes between Ka- Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan joint was finally signed by the zakhstan and Uzbekistan until commission to settle its status, Kazakh President Nursultan 2002. These two countries had the 2000 inhabitant village of Nazarbayev and Uzbek Presi- already signed an agreement Bagys declared independence dent Islam Karimov on 10 on 96 percent of their 2,440 km on 30 December 2001. This September 2002,whereby Bagys common border in November move led to the immediate and Arnasay are Kazakh terri- 2001, but a stretch including arrest of 30 villagers but also tory, and Nsan is Uzbek, reflect- the settlements of Bagys, Arna- prompted the governments to ing the ethnic majority of these say and Nsan, remained un- resolve the issue. The area was communities.The concession of resolved. These areas were left already under considerable Arnasay was crucial to Ka- in a legal limbo after leasing strain due to its high popu- zakhstan,since it enables access agreements made during the lation density, economic reces- to water. Soviet era were contested after sion, declining living standards the collapse of the Union. The and high unemployment. Sources: ICG 2002a; controversy over ownership Further disputes over land and Eurasianet 2002a, Eurasianet 2002b was fuelled by the mosaic water held the potential to Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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previous year (UNICEF 2002). According to in Almaty and in 2000, 300 active NGOs were Swisspeace’s risk assessments “Kazakhstan is registered (UN ECE 2000a: 17). The structural the only country in Central Asia whose prerequisites for political pluralism are growing economy is accompanied by a developing in Kazakhstan, with ten political redistribution of wealth in the population” parties registered at the parliamentary (Swisspeace 2003a: 3). Per capita income in election on 10 October 1999. However, the 2001 rose by over 10 percent relative to 2000, improved legislative and regulatory frame- which in real terms signified an average work was severely undermined by illegal monthly wage increase of 9.5 percent (ADB interference by executive authorities, unfair 2002a:111).The unemployment rate fell by 2.4 campaign practices, threats to media opera- percent to 10.4 percent compared to 2000, tions, intimidation of opposition parties and with women and young adults remaining candidates, as well as widespread violations more affected than other groups. These during vote count and tabulation of results developments fostered a drop by 3.8 percent (OSCE/ODIHR 1999: 3). The deficiencies in in the proportion of people living below the efforts by the election commissions and minimum subsistence level of 4637 tenge or courts to adequately address these issues $31 a month in 2001 compared to the further reveal a lack of democratic culture. previous year (World Bank 2001a). Never- Kazakhstan’s Freedom House ranking for theless,this group still constitutes more than a 1999 –2000 concluded ‘not free’,with a degree The positive economic quarter of the population. Compared to other of political rights ranking of 6 and degree of trend has yet to have an Central Asian states, Kazakhstan has some of civil liberties ranking of 5 (on a scale of 1 to 7, impact on public health the lowest levels of poverty (UNICEF 2002). with 7 representing the lowest degree of However, the positive economic trend has freedom). yet to have an impact on public health. The Economic growth and increasing econo- general health of the population is deterio- mic well-being cannot compensate for wider rating and HIV and AIDS are spreading rapidly social problems, such as declining health (ibid.). Life expectancy in Kazakhstan has standards and life expectancy, weak social decreased from 67.6 in 1997 to 64.6 in 2000 security, corruption and the obstruction of and is the lowest in Central Asia (ibid.).Despite opposition and free media. Social problems this development, public expenditure on are intensified by the overall environmental health amounted to only 1.9 percent of GDP in degradation. The combination of unfavour- 2000, which even represents a decline by 0.2 able socio-economic conditions,high environ- percent from the previous year, despite mental stress and weak environmental poli- economic growth (ibid.). Some of the social cies and laws, together with social impacts of difficulties, such as the prevalence of HIV and market liberalization and the continuing AIDS, are more evident in Kazakhstan since it oppression of political freedom, can lead to is the only Central Asian country acknow- distress and tensions. ledging that AIDS is a crisis threatening the entire country (Eurasianet 2003). The educa- Policies, institutions and capacities tional record of Kazakhstan is more promising, with an adult literacy rate of 98.5 percent in Kazakhstan has taken a long-term approach The educational 1998 and a high primary school enrolment for to environmental policy development in its record of Kazakhstan both male and female students (UNICEF 2002). Strategic Plan Up To 2030 ‘The Environment is promising The government tolerates civil society and and Natural Resources’. More immediate non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and environmental issues are addressed in various their participation is regulated by the Law on sectoral programmes (e.g. the Strategic Water NGOs (1996). In 1997, an NGO forum was held Resource Plan, National Action Plan for Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Combating Desertification or Forest Pro- Convention on Climate Change, Convention gramme, all by the Ministry of Agriculture) as on Biological Diversity, Convention on Com- well as the National Environmental Action bating Desertification) and has signed the Plan for Sustainable Development (NEAP/SD), Kyoto Protocol. It has accession status to the which is the definitive policy programme for Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting the environment. NEAP/SD presents an Substances, the UN ECE Convention on Long- integrated approach towards environmental Range Transboundary Air Pollution, is Party to policy. In addition, a Programme of Ecological the UN ECE Convention on the Transboundary Education was jointly approved by the Effects of Industrial Accidents and has ratified Minister of Science and Education and the the UN ECE Convention on the Protection and Minister for Natural Resources and Environ- Use of Transboundary Watercourses and mental Protection in 1999. The relevance of International Lakes as well as the Aarhus the environment to public health is recog- Convention on Access to Information, Public nized by the National Programme for Health Participation in Decision-Making and Access and Environment, which was also jointly to Justice in Environmental Matters. approved by the ministers of health and The wide range of legislative efforts and environment in 1999. policy programmes does not correspond to The main institutional responsibility for the weak institutional structure at the sub- Policy integration and environmental issues lies with the Ministry of state level. Policy integration and institutional institutional cooperation Natural Resources and Environmental Protec- cooperation are still underdeveloped and are are still underdeveloped tion, which is staffed with 1,149 inspectors far from taking into account the important (UN ECE 2000a: 15). The National Environ- link between environment and both human mental Centre for Sustainable Development is and national security. Furthermore, as with mainly responsible for the preparation of the most other states in Central Asia, there is a NEAP and its monitoring and has started work severe lack of financial resources for the on the national Agenda 21 (ibid.). The implementation of policy programmes and institutional set-up devolves some environ- monitoring activities, which are crucial for the mental policy responsibilities to oblast and development and adjustment of appropriate local authorities, mainly for implementation measures and policies. and monitoring activities that concern their territories. The government has established “rules and procedures for coordinating the activities of line ministries and regional authorities and integrating sectoral knowledge” (ibid.). For the implementation of the common National Programme for Health and Environment, the cooperation of environmental inspectors with the Agency for Emergencies and Health and the Agency for Land Resources is based on respective proto- cols. According to the UN ECE Environmental Performance Review of 2000, “they set up ad hoc commissions, if inspection of a particular site requires it,” rather than cooperating in a systematic way (ibid.). Kazakhstan has ratified the three Rio conventions (United Nations Framework Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

3 Kyrgyzstan page 11

Kyrgyzstan is a land-locked and predominantly region, comes hand in hand with a mountainous country with an area of 198,500 considerable responsibility for this resource. km2, sharing common boarders with China, This responsibility has not yet been fully Kazakhstan,Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Natural appreciated, as “for the time being there is no resources are limited; however, the mountains national strategy for the use of water store water in their glaciers, an important eco- resources or their protection” (UN ECE 2000b: nomic resource.The majority of the 4.8 million 78). The question of efficient water manage- population lives away from the mountainous ment is of concern for the whole region, since areas in peripheral and often remote areas of most agricultural activity depends on irri- the country. The ethnic composition of the gation. Not only Kyrgyzstan depends on water region is complex, with over 50 ethnic mino- resources for agriculture, industry and hydro- rities, mainly Kyrgyz, Uzbek,Tajik and Russian. power generation. The downstream countries High environmental stress, fragile local Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and important parts ecosystems in remote areas, weak governance of Tajikistan are reliant on the same sources. structures, population pressure, continuing With the end of the Soviet Union, the previous poverty and ethnic tensions are potential system of allocation ceased to function, which Significant environmental sources of – mainly sub-state – tensions and led to the emergence of newly defined problems are irrigation conflict and threats to regional stability. The national interests and, ultimately, tensions and large-scale gold and southern part of the country has suffered over the allocation of water. As one conse- uranium mining most from the economic transformation in quence of such water conflicts,Uzbekistan has the past decade. Kyrgyzstan has experienced withheld energy supplies for Kyrgyzstan. occasional tensions prior to and after inde- The mining of uranium, heavy metals and pendence, including the Osh-Uzgen riots. mercury and the storage of past mining Earlier armed incursions from the Islamic wastes have also become key environmental Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) (today’s Isla- problems. The National Environmental Action mic Party of Turkestan) in the south of Plan (NEAP) for Kyrgyzstan (1995 –1997) Kyrgyzstan and increased recruitment by the specifically highlights Mailii-Suu, where 13 Hizb-u-Tahrir (both fundamentalist Islamic dumps and 23 uranium mining tailings sites organizations) have led the government to are located.The NEAP presents this area “as an intensify efforts towards social and political example of some of the major problems stability and economic development. common at most mining and refining locations in the country” (UN ECE 2000b: 53). Security-relevant At the same time the area presents parti- environmental risks cularly high risks due to its proximity to human settlements, underground reserves of The most significant environmental problems natural gas and oil, and the “very high pro- threatening human development and security babilities of various kind of natural disasters”, Environmental stress in Kyrgyzstan are centred on irrigation for such as earthquakes and landslides (ibid: 51). in remote areas often agriculture, and large-scale gold and uranium Environmental pollution by these dumps entails migration and mining.This has led to the disruption of fragile presents potential human health risks, for extreme poverty ecosystems mainly in mountainous regions example by contaminating drinking water and cattle grazing areas, diminishing the and arable soil.These risks are emphasized by livelihoods of the rural population in remote Kyrgyzstan’s location as an upstream country areas. Environmental stress in remote areas that feeds a large number of streams in often entails migration and extreme poverty. Central Asia.More than 3500 rivers that rise on Kyrgyzstan’s possession of sufficient water Kyrgyz territory run further through neigh- supply, an otherwise rare resource in the bouring countries (ibid: 69). Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Additional environmental pressure results to piped drinking water and there is little from soil contamination from agricultural space for dwellings (ADB 2002b). practices. Mainly in the remote mountainous A high level of environmental pressure areas, poverty and lack of income alternatives does not necessarily lead to violent conflicts. force local communities to engage in inten- However, scarce natural resources (mainly sive cattle grazing, which contributes to water and fertile land) pose significant threats deforestation and degradation of fragile to human security and regional stability if natural habitats. Highland communities are environmental stress is combined with un- confronted with shortages in energy supply, favourable social, economic and political such as gas and electricity. As a consequence, conditions such as an overall lack of demo- they turn to locally available resources, mainly cratic political culture, a weak governance illegal logging for wood fuel. Deforestation structure, poverty, mass migration, high increased annually between 1990 and 2000 unemployment, demographic pressure, incur- by 2.6 percent (FAO 2000: 164). Uzbeks and sions of Islamic extremists and ongoing Tajiks are using border territory for grazing border disputes (Box 2 presents the example and arable farming. Some have meanwhile of Ferghana Valley). built permanent settlements. This is causing elevated environmental pressure and poten- Socio-economic conditions Forest decline is leading tial for conflict. Forest decline is leading to to constraints of water constraints of water supply and food avail- Kyrgyzstan undertook economic and social supply and food availability ability, which is posing significant threats to reforms early after independence in 1991. human security on the southern and northern Positive signs of macro-economic stabilization slopes of the Ferghana Valley. Mailii-Suu on seem to continue. GDP rose by 5.3 percent in the northern side of the Ferghana Valley and 2001, and the monthly rate of consumer price the upland communities around the Valley are inflation dropped from 18.7 percent in 2000 to hot spots of environmental decline with 6.9 percent in 2001 (ADB 2002a: 116). Annual associated socio-economic impacts. Here only GDP growth until 2004 is expected to remain 19 percent of the rural population has access at 4.5 percent, slightly lower than the 5 per-

Box 2: The Ferghana Valley stretches kistan has mined its borders Central Asia. Overpopulation Ferghana Valley – over three Central Asian coun- with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan due to high growth rates and Ethnic tensions and tries – Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan in the Ferghana Valley and one of the highest fertility rates artificial borders and Uzbekistan – and is divided along the margins of the Uzbek in Kyrgyzstan has often resulted by seven enclaves. The Kyrgyz enclave of Sokh. People in the in conflicts over limited land part makes up 40 percent of the Valley are faced with unfavour- and water resources, combined area and 51 percent of the able environmental and socio- with inter-ethnic tensions. Since population of Kyrgyzstan. With economic conditions.It is one of the late 1980s, several com- the collapse of the Soviet the most densely populated munities have experienced Union, the Ferghana Valley be- areas where communities are ethnic clashes triggering wide- came divided among the Cen- exposed to a high level of spread violence. tral Asian states, in a situation environmental pressure: 20 characterized by linguistically percent of Central Asia's popu- Sources: UN FVDP 2000; distinct populations, artificial lation lives in the Ferghana Tabyshalieva 1999 borders, and disruption of social Valley, which makes up only 5 and economic structures. Uzbe- percent of the territory of Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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cent target of the National Poverty Reduction considerably higher due to hidden unem- Strategy (ibid: 117). The value of the national ployment, especially among younger people currency has remained almost unchanged (ADB 2002a: 115). Growing unemployment, since 2000. GDP per capita (in PPP) grew from rising costs and stagnant wages led to modest $2250 in 1997 to $2711 in 2000 (UNICEF 2002). protests in 2000 and 2001 in Bishkek, Naryn, However, growth prospects are constrained and Jalal-Abad (ICG 2001: iii). by the low level of diversification and the Mass migration poses additional threats Growth prospects are economy’s reliance on volatile gold markets. to security, with thousands leaving the constrained by the low Between January and September 2002, impoverished southern regions because of level of diversification and industrial output declined by 17.3 percent, the lack of fertile land, unemployment and the economy’s reliance on basically induced by a decline of the mining poverty. Serious consequences are expected volatile gold markets sector. The country’s largest gold mine in with regard to unresolved border disputes if Kumtor alone accounts for roughly 9 percent settlements in border regions are abandoned of GDP (Community Business Forum and economically marginalized, while Kyrgyzstan 2003). Uzbekistan is focusing investment in these Due to high income inequalities the border regions (Jumagulov 2003). generally positive macro-economic develop- Civil society in Kyrgyzstan is developing, ment has not yet led to an increase in the although the country’s Freedom House rating quality of life for most of the population. on civil liberties and political rights declined According to the World Bank, 48 percent of from “partly free” to “not free” in 2001 the total population lives below the national (Freedom House 2002). Nevertheless, civil poverty line (World Bank 2001b). The rural society groups and media increasingly population is most affected with 56.4 percent influence government policy and legislation. living in poverty in 2001,this ratio reaching up Parliament is a progressively active and to 81.4 percent in the districts of Batken, Jalal- responsive balance to government. Local Abad, Talas and Naryn (ADB 2002b). The elections in over 460 villages and cities minimum wage is $2 a day, and staggering represented the first direct local elections in hyperinflation in the early post-independence Central Asia. However, the presidential and period wiped out the lifetime savings of most parliamentary elections held in 2000 did not families. The cost of living increased by 17 meet international standards, since the percent in 2000 alone, and the social security opportunity for particular political parties and system has largely collapsed. Even basic candidates to be represented in the new necessities such as gas and electricity have parliament was systematically undermined become increasingly out of reach for many (OSCE/ODIHR 2000a: 1). Concerns among families (ICG 2001: 14). A heavy burden of international experts were also raised about external debt (reaching 130 percent of GDP in the first referendum which took place in 2001) and a weak banking sector threaten February 2003. Constitutional changes will economic and political reform. increase the president’s power in relation to The Human Development Index remained the parliament and constitutional provisions stable over the past four years with a slight may limit human rights (OSCE/ODIHR 2003: 1) increase in 2000. But poverty and margi- Government-supplied social services, nalized development opportunities parti- critical to maintaining public support for re- cularly jeopardize stability in the south where form, are still inadequate. Public expenditure isolation, border disputes, lack of investment, on health declined from 1992 to 1999 from 3.4 and ethnic differences remain critical. Esti- to 2.1 percent of GDP (UNICEF 2002). Wide- mates for the unemployment rate in 2000 spread poverty and very limited prospects for are at 7.5 percent, while the actual rate is economic growth will continue to influence Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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both the general health status and the civil society groups or the scientific com- operations of the new health care systems as munity. However, stakeholders at the sub- well as people’s attitudes towards transition. national level seem to be aware of these risks. Kyrgyzstan’s While it has embarked on educational reform, The management of natural resources and educational system is Kyrgyzstan’s educational system is yet in a environmental policy is spread widely across yet in a poor state poor state characterized by mis-investment several ministries and agencies. With the and misgovernment (USAID 2003). Ministries for Ecology and Emergencies being With the environmental context already merged, environmental considerations have constituting considerable pressure, conflicts declined. Major tasks of environmental state can be triggered by corruption in combina- agencies such as the state forestry service tion with comparatively low economic growth, responsible for natural resources and nature income inequalities, population pressure, conservation are treated separately from poverty and unemployment, migration, important issue areas such as air pollution, suppression of opposition forces and media, industrial pollution, and land and water income inequalities, the decline of social resources, which belong to the Ministry for infrastructure (social security, pension, educa- Emergencies. Even though economic tion and health systems), ethnic tension and incentives for environmental protection exist, drug trafficking. In the Ferghana Valley, over- they mainly serve fiscal purposes and do not population is leading to conflicts over limited encourage sustainable resource use. land and water resources, combined with Responsibilities to address socio-econo- inter-ethnic tensions. Since the late 1980s, mic impacts of environmental stress are several communities have experienced ethnic spread widely across several institutions, such clashes triggering widespread violence. as the Ministry for Emergencies (humanitarian aid and relief during natural disasters), the Policies, institutions and capacities state sanitary inspection and supervision service (sanitation), oblast water basin depart- Officially, no connection between environ- ments (water), state registrar (arable land), mental stress and conflict is made by various state programmes such as “Araket” governmental institutions, parliamentarians, (poverty) and the state migration service.

Box 3: The governments of Kyrgyzstan to assist in the facilitation of well as an analysis of the water Water cooperation on and Kazakhstan requested this project, which started in resources and policy recom- the Chu and Talas rivers assistance to the UN Economic early 2003. The project intends mendations for developing eco- Commission for Europe (UN to establish good governance nomic instruments for sustain- ECE) and the UN Economic and in managing shared water ablewater management. This Social Commission for Asia and resources between Kyrgyzstan pilot project may serve as an Pacific (UNESCAP) to establish and Kazakhstan through devel- example for improved coopera- an intergovernmental trans- oping institutional arrange- tion on transboundary waters in boundary water commission ments, policies and procedures the region, thus contributing to aimed at effectively implement- as well as capacity building enhanced regional cooperation. ing the intergovernmental water activities. The project includes agreement on the Chu and negotiating and establishing Talas rivers. The Organization rules and procedures of opera- Source: OSCE 2002 for Security and Cooperation in tion of the joint commission to Europe (OSCE) has been invited be adopted by the parties as Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Environmental impacts on public health are effectively implement these conventions Environmental impacts on rarely assessed and monitored by the Ministry through domestic programmes and projects public health are rarely for Emergencies and Ministry for Public are absent. Here, the government basically assessed and monitored Health. Both lack technical capacity and relies on external funding from various donor sufficient institutional mechanisms for agencies. coordination. Even though provisions for the Officially, no transboundary efforts on integration of environmental considerations environmental cooperation have been initi- into other policy areas (health, agriculture, ated to specifically promote stability and etc.) exist, policies and measures are poorly peace, but there are some projects which developed and lack implementation. Policy address transboundary cooperation, such as coordination is predominantly restricted to the recent initiative on water cooperation on formal consultation with the parliament on the Chu and Talas rivers (see Box 3). The presidential decrees. Institutional arrange- government of the Kyrgyz Republic is also ments and mechanisms for integrated addressing a transboundary environmental environmental assessments and policy moni- project in Gorno-Badakhshan. The Swiss toring for cross-sectoral issues exist, but government is currently supporting a water implementation has yet to be improved. The management project in the Ferghana Valley, comprehensive development framework on water allocation and utilization among the 2001 aims to improve the legal basis for neighbouring countries. Biodiversity conser- environmental policy and suggests decen- vation across borders is promoted through Policy coordination is tralizing strategies for environmental protec- the West Tien Shan Interstate Biodiversity predominantly restricted tion in mountainous areas (ADB 2002a). Project (funded through TACIS) and operates to formal consultation There are initial attempts to include in Sary-Chelek and Besh Aral (Kyrgyz environmental considerations into security Republic), Aksu Djabagaly (Kazakhstan), and concepts and agencies. In August 1997 the Chatkal (Uzbekistan). Even though trans- National Security Service adopted Decree No. boundary environmental cooperation is offi- 3 on “Projecting of concepts and measures on cially promoted, practical implementation of providing ecological security.” The Presi- projects still requires assistance. dential Decree No. 221 on “Concepts of National Security”, adopted on 13 July 2001, also includes environmental issues, among economic, political, social, and military threats. The strategy is to be implemented by local police forces,the Ministry for Ecology and Emer- gencies and the National Security Services. Kyrgyzstan has ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and has accession status to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on Combating Desertification as well as the Mon- treal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Sub- stances, the UN ECE Convention on Long- Range Transboundary Air Pollution and the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters. However, financial and technical capacities to Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Tajikistan lies in the south-east of the Central Indicator Cluster Survey 2000 found that just Asian region, sharing borders with Afgha- 57 percent of the population has access to nistan, China, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.With safe drinking water (UNICEF 2000).In addition, 93 percent of Tajikistan’s 143,100 km 2 total the negative developments with regard to area considered mountainous, more than half deforestation, desertification and the of its territory lies at a height of at least 3000m deterioration of wildlife and protected areas, The country fell into above sea level and includes some of Central especially during the civil war, need mention. a civil war lasting Asia's highest peaks. Frequent earthquakes of Among the natural disasters are on the one from 1992 to 1997 varying degrees and natural disasters are hand earthquakes, landslides, mudslides and reported. The 6.7 million population consists flash floods, which were responsible for 200 of a 67 percent Tajik majority with a strong people killed and damage estimated at Uzbek minority of 23 percent; 70 percent of several million US dollars in the second half of the population lives in rural areas. After the 1990s and which affect Tajikistan each independence in 1991, the country fell into a year (ADB 2000: x). On the other hand the civil war lasting from 1992 to 1997 between country faces frequent droughts, which have old-guard regionally based ruling elites, negative impacts for hydropower and agricul- disenfranchised regions, democratic liberal tural production. Since the population is con- reformists, and Islamists who were loosely centrated in particularly vulnerable areas the organized in a United Tajik Opposition. As a negative impacts on people and their liveli- result, not only the economic, social and hoods are further increased. The government political transformation was slowed down but is largely unprepared for these events due to a the country also suffered significant damage reactive approach towards dealing with crises, to the energy and agricultural infrastructure as well as a lack of financial resources and and the social security system. Frequent investment in preventive activities that might outbreaks of violence make Tajikistan a rather reduce risks and social vulnerability. unstable country. The agricultural and industrial use of the Tajikistan is characterized by ongoing mountainous land and lowland plains in the Tajikistan is characterized degradation of land resources and limited west of the country has led to land erosion by ongoing degradation of availability of clean water, a slowly stabilizing and salinization problems. The problem of land resources and limited economy, enormous social problems and land erosion is leading to a process of deser- availability of clean water insufficient state capacity relying on external tification, especially in mountain regions. This assistance. In contrast to some other Central affected about 60 percent of the irrigated Asian countries,scarce water resources are not lands at the turn of the century (ADB 2000: xi). a general concern due the mountainous Salinization of land has become a widespread profile of Tajikistan. However, there is a high problem, caused partially by the high degree susceptibility to natural disasters due to a very of mineralization of water used for irrigation high dependency on hydropower and and partially by poor irrigation practices. agricultural production. While only 7 percent of Tajikistan's territory is arable, agriculture nevertheless plays a key Security-relevant role for the economy. Additional contami- environmental risks nation of land derives from uranium mining waste with negative health impacts. In some The major environmental problems of areas radiation levels exceeded safety stan- Tajikistan are the impacts of natural disasters, dards up to tenfold. increasing land degradation, and limited The mountainous profile of Tajikistan availability of clean drinking water,all of which ensures that water quantity is not a major are mutually reinforcing. The UNICEF Multiple concern in this country. But as an upstream Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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country,Tajikistan has responsibilities towards of people. Despite international agencies lower level countries. Despite a generally high providing chlorine in order to control typhoid, quality of water, drinking water standards are negative impacts could not be prevented.The not always met, with poor sewage treatment government was not able to respond and informal garbage dumps contaminating appropriately due to a lack of resources. the water. Only 21 percent of treatment The issue of water pollution has gained a facilities operated satisfactorily in 1998 (ibid.). transboundary dimension by becoming a In addition, salinization of land, use of pesti- point of contention between Tajikistan and cides and mining discharges have negative Uzbekistan. Water quality is also an issue in impacts on fresh water. other transboundary contexts (at the Syr The effects of the adverse environmental Darya and Zeravshan rivers). Monitoring conditions are widely felt by the population: stations are essential to assess the extent of “Each of the major impact groups – human the problems. A regional Global Environment health, human welfare and environmental Facility-funded project is establishing 26 resources – are adversely affected by environ- monitoring stations in the region – five of Waterborne diseases mental degradation and depletion of natural them in Tajikistan – at critical points to increased tremendously resources,” the Asian Development Bank measure transboundary water pollution. The in the 1990s states (ibid: 60). Waterborne diseases, such as Governments are also making an effort to typhoid, cholera and leptospirosis, increased engage in constructive policy dialogue and tremendously in the 1990s. Outbreaks of exchanges among policy makers and scien- typhoid intensified in 1995 and 1996 when tists occur frequently (ibid: 15 –16). Another 6000 people died, which is more than 10 example of Tajik-Uzbek cooperation on percent of the number of civil war victims transboundary environmental issues is the (ibid.). Another consequence of the water Tajik Aluminium Plant in Tursunzade, des- contamination is an increase of the morbidity cribed in Box 4.

The Tajik Aluminium Plant, incidences of disorders of blood sures to improve environmen- Box 4: Tadaz, in Tursunzade is one of and hematopoietic organs, the tal conditions at the plant Transboundary environ- the largest smelters in the musculoskeletal system, birth between 1996 and 2000. In mental cooperation – former Soviet Union and is defects and tumours. In order 1998 the factory installed air Tursunzade Aluminium Plant located only 10km from Uzbe- to address the situation appro- pollution control devices in an kistan’s south-eastern border. priately, the governments of effort to reduce harmful emis- Its annual discharge is around the Republic of Uzbekistan and sions. Implementation of other 40,000 t of harmful substances, the Republic of Tajikistan signed substantial measures is still of which 300–400 t are extre- an Agreement on Cooperation lacking. Nevertheless, Tajikistan mely dangerous hydrogen fluo- in Improving the Environ- and Uzbekistan have recognized ride. The emissions are heavily mental Situation in the Zone the security relevance of this polluting the area around Affected by the Tajik Alumi- issue and are cooperating to Tursunzande as well as the nium Plant in November 1994. address the problem jointly. Uzbek oblasts of Kashkadarya The agreement was the basis and Surkhandarya, contami- for cooperation between the Sources: ADB 2000; nating soils and crops as well as Uzbek and Tajik national envi- Fluoride Action Network 2003 livestock. The human health ronmental protection agencies impacts are alarming, with the and a joint draft programme of affected regions recording high scientific and technical mea- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Socio-economic conditions deposits of both resources. There has been a long period of decline in oil production since Tajikistan is still recovering from the legacy of 1992, due to the civil war impacting the civil war, which significantly impeded negatively on the economy and a resulting economic development. The 1997 peace lack of investment in infrastructure. agreement brought a turnaround in GDP and Despite resistance from vested interests, this trend accelerated in 2001, when GDP the government continued to pursue macro- growth rose to 10 percent from 8.3 percent economic stabilization and structural reform (ADB 2002a: 119). The inflation rate dropped at the beginning of the new century.The Asian below 10 percent in 2002, after being Development Bank sees the external debt constantly between 30 and 40 percent from repayments as the greatest danger to the 1997 to 2001 (UNICEF 2002). These improve- economy. In 2001, 1.7 percent of GDP was ments of the overall macroeconomic condi- scheduled for servicing external debt com- tions are attributed to a substantial increase in pared to 0.3 percent in 2000 (ADB 2002a: 119). aluminium production and an expansion of In addition, annual GDP growth is expected to agricultural production, despite continued be less dynamic in 2002 and 2003. The drought conditions. At present, the agricul- economy remains highly dependent on Tajikistan is the world's tural sector contributes around 20 percent to foreign trade with cotton and aluminium third largest producer of GDP and accounts for more than half of responsible for more than 80 percent of hydropower employment (ADB 2002a: 118). Hence the export earnings (Ibid.). As in 2001, fluctuations sector is a crucial factor for the overall develop- in international prices could cause shifts in the ment of the Tajik economy, not only in terms terms of trade, impacting seriously on the of privatization processes but also with overall economic performance of the country. respect to the provision of rural finance for In addition, the global oversupply of alumi- non-cotton activities with the aim of nium is likely to lead to a reduction of its price diversifying agricultural production. in the future. Additional risks arise from the Tajikistan is rich in natural resources, further occurrence of droughts, causing a rise namely minerals (gold, silver, and uranium), in wheat and power imports. water and hydropower. It is the world's third These risks need to be seen in the light of largest producer of hydropower and 90 the country's overall social conditions. Taji- percent of the energy generating capacity of kistan is the poorest among the countries of the country is hydroelectric, with the most the former Soviet Union and one of the Tajikistan is the poorest important hydroelectric stations located on poorest countries in the world. According to among the countries of the the Vakhsh (US DoE 2002). A major portion of World Bank statistics 80 percent of the former Soviet Union this hydroelectric capacity is used in population lived under the poverty line in aluminium production, which consumes 40 2001 (World Bank 2002). There has been no percent of all the country's electricity and is noteworthy increase in GDP per capita (PPP) the main export good. According to the US since 1997, which figured $1152 in 2000 Department of Energy there is a greater (UNDP 2002). The overall economic growth of hydroelectric power capacity in Tajikistan the past years has not led to an improvement than in any other country in Central Asia. At of the employment rate or the level of present only 5 percent of this capacity is used poverty. United Nations statistics indicate that (ibid.). New hydropower plants and the the employment rate dropped continuously respective transmission and distribution lines from 72 percent in 1990 to 54 percent in 2000 are currently supported by the Asian (UNICEF 2002). As a result, an estimated Development Bank.Tajikistan is a net importer 200,000 people left the country in search of of oil and gas although the country has own work in 2001, most to the Russian Federation, Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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while local estimates even consider 1 million have been adopted that specifically deal with Tajik people to be seasonal labour migrants growing environmental concerns such as (ADB 2002a: 118). Social grievances are also desertification, biodiversity or public health reflected by the highest under-five mortality protection. Most recently, a law on Ecological and infant mortality rates among the Central Expertise has been passed. Asian countries (UNICEF 2002). The Ministry of Nature Protection is in Many of the current problems of Tajikistan charge of environmental management and is were caused by the long-lasting civil war of assisted by 11 offices providing administrative the nineties, which inhibited major reform and technical support. In addition, other steps to foster economic restructuring, social ministries such as the Ministry of Emergency well-being and increasing state capacity. Situations and Civil Defence, the Ministry of These challenges need to be addressed Agriculture and the Ministry of Water against the background of poor political Resources play an important role in environ- conditions. Both Tajikistan's presidential and mental policy-making. However, due to a lack parliamentary elections, in 1999 and 2000, of coordination for environmental protection respectively, were widely considered to be among these ministries, the implementation flawed and unfair but peaceful (OSCE/ODIHR of policies is not yet effective. Moreover, the 2000b: 2 –3). Moreover, government still size of the Ministry of Nature Protection restricts press freedom as well as the freedom decreased from about 900 in 1991 to less than of assembly and association, although both 250 at the end of the century. The insufficient are provided by the Constitution (ibid.). This number of staff is also due to a significant overall political situation is also reflected in reduction of funding in the course of the civil the Freedom House's rating of the country's war and resulted in serious institutional performance on political rights and civil weaknesses (ADB 2000: xii). This situation is liberties which is considered as 'not free' reinforced by weaknesses in terms of policies (Freedom House 2002).However,the inclusion and legislation. Fees, taxes and fines to of a declared Islamic Party and several other prevent environmental damage are not parties in the parliamentary elections effective since they are too low to encourage represented an improvement in citizens’ right compliance. In addition, the instrument of to choose their government. Other challenges environmental impact assessment authorized for the government comprise the demobi- under the basic Law on Nature Protection has lization and reintegration of former oppo- not yet been passed into law despite intensive sition troops and the building of public trust lobbying efforts. in the banking sector. Several bilateral agreements indicate that Several bilateral agree- the connection between environmental stress ments indicate that the Policies, institutions and capacities and conflict is taken seriously by Tajikistan. connection between The agreements between Uzbekistan and environmental stress According to Article 36 of the Constitution of Tajikistan on issues of pollution from the Tajik and conflict is taken the Republic of Tajikistan “the state guaran- Aluminium Plant in Tursunzade and Uzbek seriously by Tajikistan tees the right of citizens to a favourable Bekabad’s metallurgic and cement plants as environment.”As a basic environmental policy well as the joint statement made by the measure, the Law on Nature Protection was governments of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan on adopted in 1994 accompanied by the State the water conflict in Isfara district show that Ecological Programme (1996) and the State the foreign policy dimension of environ- Programme on Environmental Education mental pollution is tackled more effectively (1997). Since the beginning of the new than the root causes themselves. century a number of environmental plans Tajikistan has ratified the United Nations Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Framework Convention on Climate Change volvement of experts and scientists, and and has accession status to the Convention on activities of NGOs are growing. In 2000, 42 Biological Diversity, the Convention on environmental organizations were registered, Combating Desertification as well as the ten of which are considered active (ADB 2000: Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting 82). Half of the active organizations are Substances and the Aarhus Convention on involved in country-wide activities. The main Access to Information, Public Participation in focus of the NGOs lies in the field of Decision-Making and Access to Justice in environmental education and training but Environmental Matters. However, implemen- also information sharing and networking. tation of the respective environmental goals depends mainly on assistance by external donors. Although the country is signatory to the Mechanisms to involve Aarhus Convention and the Law on Nature the public in respective Protection allows public participation, mecha- policy processes nisms to involve the public in respective need to be elaborated policy processes need to be elaborated. The Law on Public Organizations makes no reference to participation in policy development. However, there is already a fair in- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

5 Turkmenistan page 21

Turkmenistan lies in the south-east of Central connection with dropping groundwater levels Asia, to the west of the Caspian Sea. It reaches and water losses from the Kara-Kum canal due furthest south of all countries in Central Asia, to increased irrigation for urban and industrial bordering with Afghanistan, Iran, Kazakhstan use (Ladonina 2001:19). Overuse of fertilizers and Uzbekistan. It has a total area of 488,100 and pesticides for agricultural crops has led km2.Turkmenistan possesses large reserves of indirectly to health impacts upon the natural gas and substantial deposits of oil.The population. country is characterized by aridity, incor- Domestic and industrial wastewater is porating the Kara-Kum desert, one of the discharged to the deserts, affecting ground- largest sand deserts in the world. With 4.7 water locally. Agricultural drainage water, million inhabitants, Turkmenistan has the which is discharged to rivers without control, smallest and ethnically most homogeneous has increased the levels of minerals, phenols, Rivers have reached population of the Central Asian republics,with pesticides and other chemicals in water dangerously high Turkmens representing the vast majority. It bodies. As a result, the rivers have reached concentrations of salts has been largely free of inter-ethnic hostilities, dangerously high concentrations of salts and and chemicals even though tribal allegiances are potential chemicals, especially in lower reaches. Drink- sources of tension.Turkmenistan is headed by ing water quality is therefore a major problem the autocratic president Saparmurat Niyazov. in many regions of Turkmenistan (Ministry for The country is rather impoverished and has Natural Resource Use and the Environment remained largely closed to the outside world 1998).The local population in the Dashkhovuz since independence in 1991. province south of the Aral Sea has suffered Turkmenistan is characterized by limited from hepatitis and intestinal diseases due to water availability and water bodies polluted polluted drinking water and the region has by agricultural and industrial effluent, a been declared by a presidential decree as an relatively closed and centralized economy, ecological disaster zone (ibid.). limited political rights and civil liberties and a The water scarcity has an immediate lack of transparency and participatory ele- influence on the natural environment and ments in policy-making.The resource conflicts human living conditions and a secondary and ethnic tensions occurring in many other impact on agricultural productivity. Turk- Central Asian states are not in evidence. High menistan has experienced tensions with economic growth and subsidies for basic Uzbekistan over water allocations from one of commodities compensate demands of the the most important water sources in the poorer part of the population. region, the Amu Darya, flowing through the eastern part of the country. At the same time, Security-relevant this crucial water source has been regularly Cotton is at the heart environmental risks listed among the most polluted water bodies of a system of political in Central Asia. The pollution penetrates and social control Natural habitat transformation, biodiversity adjacent land, where the river’s water is used loss, soil erosion and salinization, use of rivers for agricultural irrigation, reducing the for irrigation and human activities, water and quantity and quality of food production. The soil pollution by pesticides and the building of combination of these issues poses consi- dams have all contributed to environmental derable risks to the health and well-being of degradation in recent years. The depletion of the population, which is necessarily con- Turkmenistan's biodiversity is occurring in centrated around the available water sources. connection with human-induced desertifica- Cotton is at the heart of a system of tion of oases and mountain landscapes. political and social control that has remained Environmental degradation is boosted in unchanged since independence. Turkme- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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nistan is the tenth largest cotton producer in the late 1990s when GDP grew by 7 percent and 50 percent of its irrigated land serves due to increased agricultural production and cotton production. The agricultural sector is renewed gas sales. Production of natural gas almost completely dependent on water from only represents half of its total production the Amu Darya and its tributary rivers Murgab capacity and is planned to increase by 40 and Tedgen. As cotton is vital for foreign percent in 2002 (ADB 2002a: 123). Economic exchange and political patronage, the kind of data varies considerably among sources. The reforms needed to reduce water use – par- inflation rate is below 20 percent. Monetary ticularly privatization of farming and realistic policy measures brought down inflation from Turkmenistan pricing of water to encourage conservation – 23.5 percent in 1999 to 7.4 percent in 2000 (6 considers irrigation a have never been initiated. Due to its reliance percent in the first half of 2001) (ibid: 122). key security issue on agriculture Turkmenistan considers Domestic statistics show annual GDP growth irrigation a key security issue (ICG 2002b: 2). between 17 and 18 percent in recent years, Water consumption is expected to in- based on increased gas sales and large public crease significantly, since cotton production is investment. Annual GDP growth is expected planned to triple by 2010 and harvesting also to reach 11 percent in 2002 and 2003,with the to grow.To match the ever increasing demand official target being 18 percent (ibid.) for water for irrigation, Turkmenistan is However, economic growth masks the planning the Golden Century Lake, a vast country’s very limited reform progress since artificial lake fed by agricultural run-off in the independence. The banking sector – mainly middle of the Kara-Kum desert (see Box 5). public sector banks and government – remains underdeveloped. The economy is Socio-economic conditions characterized by a dominant role of the state in the economy and its maintenance of an Turkmenistan is a potentially wealthy country extensive system of regulations and controls with large reserves in natural gas and an over trade and industrial activity. Poor extensively irrigated agricultural system. After economic management is evident, with several years of economic decline after practically all sales of cotton and wheat independence,the economy began to recover regulated by the state.

Box 5: Turkmenistan recently announ- fragile ecosystem and that water project, since there are fears, Dropped in the desert – ced a plan to build over the next will simply evaporate in the especially among the Uzbek the Golden Century Lake 10 years a 3460 square kilometre middle of the desert are denied minority, that there will be Golden Century Lake, a vast by the government. These plans resettlement of people to the artificial reservoir fed by agricul- have provoked concerns in vicinity of the lake once the tural run-off in the middle of the neighbouring Karakalpakstan. project is completed. Unilateral Kara-Kum desert. It is expected Turkmenistan is already taking a decisions on water manage- to guarantee water security and third of Amu Darya’s water, ment leading to overuse of create some 4000 square kilo- which is mostly lost in the desert already limited resources, such metres of farmland capable of due to the unpaved nature of as the Golden Century Lake,may growing 450,000 tonnes of cot- the Kara-Kum canal, running pose risks to regional stability. ton and 300,000 tonnes of grain 1100 km through the desert, annually. Scientists’ fears that thus being the largest irrigation Source: ICG 2002b this large-scale infrastructure canal in the world. There is also project will wreck the already an ethnic dimension to the Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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The export dependent economy is largely and political rights are violated significantly. based on natural gas and cotton. The Russian Media and communication is monopolized Federation, Ukraine and the CIS are the and controlled by the state (Freedom House recipient of 88 percent of Turkmenistan’s 2002). The political system is characterized by natural gas exports. Exports grew in 2001 by 9 patronage and corruption, a highly restrictive Civil liberties and percent, due to increased demand, a new gas visa regime, control and suspicion of civic political rights are pipeline to Iran and re-sales through the action and the media, and state control over, violated significantly Russian Federation to the CIS (ibid: 121). and distortion of, the economy. Turkmenistan Industrial production (mainly gas and oil) is headed by the autocratic President Sapar- increased by 27 percent. Cotton exports grew murat Niyazov,who has been appointed presi- by 7 percent in 2001 (ibid.). The government dent “without term of expiration of his embarked on structural agricultural reforms to mandate” in 1999, by an unanimous decision increase grain production to self-sufficiency of the People's Council, a body including level, but success in this is not yet evident. central and local government authorities, the Rural development is critical as rural regions parliament and state-controlled civic account for 26 percent of GDP and are a source organizations. of livelihood to 54 percent of the population. Widespread poverty will continue to GDP per capita (in PPP) grew from $2109 influence both health status and the ope- in 1997 to $3956 in 2000 (UNICEF 2002). Even rations of the health care system. The infant with high levels of income inequality, poverty mortality rate is high, with 74 deaths per 1000 incidence is rather low according to domestic live births (UNICEF 2002). According to the statistics.These indicate that only 1 percent of results of the 2000 Turkmenistan Demo- the total population lives below the relative graphic and Health Survey, 47 percent of poverty line (defined as the proportion of the women and 36 percent of children are population living on less than 50 percent of anaemic. The educational system has under- the country’s average per capita income). gone major reforms and succeeded in raising However, the World Bank also states that half the literacy rate to 99.6 percent. However, it the population lives on less than the has been seriously affected by the reduction minimum wage and poverty is increasing of the number of compulsory school years Turkmenistan is a among the most vulnerable segments of the from 10 to 9, which prevents students from potentially wealthy population (World Bank 2002a). On the other being eligible for institutions of higher country with large hand, poverty and marginal development education in the rest of the former Soviet reserves in natural gas opportunities, particularly in arid areas, have Union,as well as by cuts in the budget and the been offset by heavy subsidies for basic subsequent dismissal of some 10,000 school- commodities (water, energy, bread). Nearly 80 teachers in 2000. Moreover, curricula are percent of total annual public expenditure has undergoing an increasing ideologization, with been allocated to social and public services. the Ruhnama, a moral and spiritual code No data is available on unemployment and officially written by the President himself, the functioning of the social insurance system playing a central role at all levels of the established by law in 1991. educational system. Population has grown by Widespread poverty, heavy foreign debt, 2.5 percent annually with a comparatively and the unwillingness of the government to high fertility rate of 33 births per 1000. The adopt market-oriented reforms are major Human Development Index for Turkmenistan constraints to economic development in the increased between 1996 and 2000 (UNDP near future. 2000). However, this increase mainly resulted The country’s Freedom House rating has from GDP growth, without significant im- consistently been “not free” as civil liberties provement of the economic or general living Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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conditions. UNDP no longer publishes a vention on Combating Desertification. It has national human development report since accession status to the Convention on Biolo- 2000 because the Programme is not satisfied gical Diversity, the Montreal Protocol on with the data provided by the government. Ozone Depleting Substances and the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Policies, institutions and capacities Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters. However, Basic environmental policy measures are the financial and technical capacities to effec- National Environmental Programme and the tively implement these conventions through National Environmental Action Plan, both of domestic programmes and projects are 1998. Basic environmental laws have been absent. Here, the government basically relies created in the aftermath of independence on external funding from various donor including the codes on land, responsibility for agencies. On the other hand, some projects ecological violations, sanitation, forests, air have indeed been conducted to implement pollution and fauna. obligations under global environmental con- The management of natural resources and ventions, such as the GTZ (German Technical Policy integration seems environmental policy is mainly concentrated Cooperation) funded pilot project on par- to remain at a in the Ministry for Natural Resource Use and ticipatory resource management, introducing very provisional level Environment Protection. Even though econo- sustainable land use practices and fostering mic incentives for environmental protection inter-communal learning in agricultural prac- exist, they mainly serve fiscal purposes and do tices (Bensmann 2002: 19). not encourage sustainable resource use. Public participation is guaranteed by the Policy integration seems to remain at a very Environmental Protection Act which contains provisional level and substantial information several legal provisions for public associa- is not available. tions, access to the legislative process, filing Officially, government institutions, parlia- environmental complaints, access to informa- mentarians, civil society groups and the tion and public participation in decision- scientific community make no connection making. Turkmenistan is a signatory to the between environmental stress and conflict. Aarhus Convention and the OSCE has facili- Even though the Presidential Programme tated a workshop with several local environ- “Strategy for Social and Economic Develop- mental NGOs on its implementation.However, ment for the Period 2000 –2010” mentions the 1998 State of the Environment report lists “ecological security”as one key target,it mainly only three basic public environmental organi- considers securing environmental assets. zations: the Society of Natural Protection of The lack of government Substantial transboundary efforts in environ- Turkmenistan, the “Katena” Ecological Club in tolerance has led mental cooperation have not been initiated, Ashgabat and the Ecological Club in Dashk- NGOs to focus on non- even though the international donor hovuz. The lack of government tolerance has contentious issues community is pushing for cooperative efforts led NGOs to focus on non-contentious issues. to promote stability and peace in the region. However, NGOs such as water user associa- For instance, the Turkmen government did not tions have taken up issues at the local level to publicly acknowledge or discuss the issue of some effect. In 1993 –1994 a cooperation of water shortage in 2002,when its neighbouring local greens and international NGOs succee- states sought relief for a drought that had ded in stopping organized poaching of large been affecting the region for several years. game and endangered species in nature Turkmenistan has ratified the United reserves (Watters 1999: 91). Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol and the Con- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

6 Uzbekistan page 25

Uzbekistan is located at the heart of Central tapped from rivers that feed the Aral Sea. This Asia, surrounded by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Soviet water management had a series of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan and sharing a catastrophic environmental effects, which common border with Afghanistan in the bear heavily on the region and most im- south. Its total area of more than 477,400 km 2 mediately affect the autonomous Republic of embraces landscapes ranging from steppe Karakalpakstan. They include environmental and desert in the west, to richer farmland consequences, such as the reduction of the along the country's three major rivers towards Aral Sea volume to less than half its size, the the mountainous region in the east. complete devastation of its ecology and the Uzbekistan holds a variety of resources, virtual extinction of fish.Desertification of vast including natural gas and oil, gold and silver areas, including the Amu Darya and Syr Darya and has by far the largest population in deltas,“is changing the climate in the region” Central Asia, counting roughly 25 million (UN ECE 2001: 64) and has reduced the Sea’s people. The majority of the population is vicinity to a lifeless desert. The environmental ethnic Uzbek, though several substantial changes impact directly on the population. Water quantity and minorities, including Kazakhs, Karakalpakians, The loss of fish has virtually destroyed the pre- quality are key concerns Tajiks und Turkmens, are part of this multi- viously important fishing sector in the region, throughout Uzbekistan ethnic state. leaving 60,000 people unemployed (ibid.). With the Aral Sea and Ferghana Valley, Desertification and soil erosion cause Uzbekistan is directly confronted with two winds to carry salt and dusts for hundreds of major hot spots in Central Asia, posing miles to be deposited over cultivated land and significant threats to human development in human lungs. An additional threat to health and regional stability. Environmental stress is posed by Vozrozhdeniye Island’s history as a triggers social and economic decline and vice test site of the Soviet Defence Ministry (see versa, resulting in political and social tensions Box 6). The lack of employment and fear of or even open violent conflict, as in the health risks has led to migration from the Aral Ferghana Valley. The supply and quality of Sea region, uprooting people and increasing water, ethnic tensions, weak capacities and population density in other areas of the slow economic and structural reforms accu- country. mulate to heighten security concerns. Water quantity and quality are a key concern throughout Uzbekistan. In fact, “the Security-relevant majority of the country’s waterways are either environmental risks moderately or heavily polluted” posing a considerable threat to human health and Uzbekistan’s main environmental problems are degrading irrigated land (ibid: 5). Pollution is centred on water and agriculture. Besides the mainly caused by agriculture, industry and Aral Sea, Uzbekistan struggles with water human settlements. The allocation of crucial supply and contamination problems through- water supplies has led repeatedly to tensions Allocation of crucial out the country and the whole region. The between Uzbekistan and its downstream water supplies has led agricultural heritage makes land deterioration neighbours as well as upstream states,leading repeatedly to tensions and contamination Uzbekistan’s second Uzbekistan to severely reduce its trade and largest problem for human security. from time to time close its borders. The Aral Sea catastrophe dates back to The legacy of mono-cultivation of cotton decisions taken by the Soviet Union in the along Uzbekistan’s river beds, accompanied 1960s, when every effort was made to by heavy irrigation and extensive use of increase cotton production, mainly by pesticides, has led to widespread salinity and increasing irrigation. The necessary water was contamination throughout the country and Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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has severely reduced biodiversity. Since often puts them beyond reach for the independence, Uzbekistan has made substan- population (ibid.), due to low incomes and a Uzbekistan has tial efforts to increase agricultural diversity consumer price inflation rate of 26.6 percent made substantial efforts and modify irrigation practices. However, the in 2001 (ADB 2002a: 124). to increase economic significance of agriculture paired According to official statistics, unemploy- agricultural diversity with an increased area of arable land indicates ment is 0.4 percent, “actual unemployment, continuing environmental pressure for the however, is estimated to be much higher; and ecosystem and humans living within it. hidden unemployment in the rural sector has been rising” (ibid: 125). Lack of transparency, Socio-economic conditions central steering mechanisms and slow economic reform efforts are making their Agriculture remains a strong economic sector mark on Uzbekistan’s economic competitive- in Uzbekistan, accounting for 30 percent of ness. According to the World Bank, 29 percent GDP and 40 percent of employment (World of the population was below the national Bank 2001e). Despite continuing drought poverty line in 1999 (World Bank 2001e). At conditions, cotton yields increased by nearly the same time, Uzbekistan invests more 10 percent in 2001 and growth in industrial heavily in its social systems than most output accelerated to 8.1 in 2001 from 5.8 countries in Central Asia, with public health percent in 2000 (ADB 2002a: 124). Real GDP expenditure reaching 6.6 percent of GDP in per capita (PPP) stood at $2.441 in 2000 and 1999 (UNICEF 2002). The life expectancy of 69 had increased by almost $200 in each of the years (2000 figures) is the highest in Central previous two years. While small-scale private Asia (UNDP 2001). According to UNICEF data activity led to a strengthening of the services of 2000, Uzbekistan’s health situation is sectors by 14.2 percent in 2001 (ibid.), remarkably good, though environmental Uzbekistan’s economy remains highly state causes and especially the 45 million metric controlled, as the repressive import measures tons of salty and contaminated dust spread- in response to a fall in commodity prices in ing from the dried up Aral Sea seabed each neighbouring states have shown (Swisspeace year are considered to have a negative health 2003b: 3). The cost of local consumer goods impact (Medecins Sans Frontiers 2000).

Box 6: Vozrozhdeniye Island, the Re- closed in 1992, military experts in the ground being spread by Vozrozhdeniye Island naissance or Rebirth Island, is from both Russia and the rodents has increased substan- located in the Aral Sea between United States have been in- tially since the shrinking of the Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. As volved in efforts to deconta- Aral Sea,revealing a connection early as 1936, Vozrozhdeniye minate the area. In October between Uzbek mainland and Island was transferred to the 2001, the U.S. Department of the Island, which is gradually authority of the Soviet Ministry Defense and the Uzbek Ministry increasing. of Defence for use by the Red of Defence signed an agree- Army's Scientific Medical Insti- ment allowing the Cooperative Sources: Global Security Org tute. Due to its isolated loca- Threat Reduction programme 2003; UN ECE 2000a tion,it was used as a test site for to spend up to $6 million to biological agents and aerosols, destroy residual spores and such as anthrax, plague and therefore reduce risks to the smallpox between 1952 and environment and human health. 1992.After the site was officially The threat of substances buried Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Uzbekistan’s paternalistic economic approach autocratic system. Basic democratic structures turns repressive and authoritarian where civil need to be improved and principles im- society, civil liberties and political rights are plemented. The observation of the 1999 concerned. The Freedom House ranking of parliamentary and 2000 presidential elections Uzbekistan remains ‘not free’, with the civil in Uzbekistan concluded that “the principle of liberties improving marginally to 6 and separation of powers between the executive political rights remaining at 7, on a scale of 1 and legislative branches enshrined in the to 7. The non-existence of political rights is Constitution is not respected” (OSCE/ODIHR confirmed by the Limited Election Assessment 2000c: 4). In general, the state is marked by a Mission, which observed the 1999 parlia- centralized authority and hierarchical institu- mentary elections instead of a standard tional structure. Election Observation Mission, due to “serious Environmental concerns are addressed by concerns that the electoral framework in the State Committee for Nature Protection, Fundamental freedoms Uzbekistan could not permit a pluralist and with a total staff of 1864 (UN ECE 2001: 44). It in Uzbekistan are competitive election” (OSCE/ODIHR 2000c: 2). reports directly to parliament, which ensures severely restricted They concluded that the electorate had no its genuine independence and signifies the genuine choice between political alternatives high priority accorded to environmental pro- and that “fundamental freedoms in Uzbe- tection in Uzbekistan. Some environmental kistan are severely restricted” (ibid.). functions are fulfilled by the Ministry of Health, Civil society organizations and NGOs exist, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Ministry of though they are viewed with suspicion by the Agriculture and Water Management and the government and their activity is mainly State Committee for Safety in the Manufac- restricted to uncontroversial topics which are turing and Mining Industries. The socio-eco- complementary to government concerns. For nomic impacts of environmental stress are example, a project by a local NGO in Karakal- dealt with by the Ministry of Economics and pakstan aimed at educating women and their Department of Statistics, under the Cabinet of families about the important link between Ministers. Environmental issues are mainly environmental issues and human health.With addressed in the National Environmental an estimated 7000 people imprisoned for Action Plan and the National Action Plan for religious or political beliefs (Human Rights Environmental Protection. Unfortunately, Public participation Watch, 2002), it is questionable whether alter- these programmes lack implementation, is mainly restricted native views are openly and freely articulated “including legislative and institutional to scientific expertise by the wider public. measures and defined financing” (UNECE consultation A lack of public awareness makes it 2001: 18). Public participation is regulated by difficult for a large part of the population to legislation, for example in the environmental adequately and proactively respond to envi- sphere by the Environmental Protection Law ronmental and economic pressures. The po- and Law on Ecological Expertise, but is mainly tential for the combination of these pressures restricted to scientific expertise consultation. to result in disorder and conflict is seriously in- A more general cross-sectoral cooperation of creased by the restrictive measures of the institutions or integration of related policies government. does not occur in a systematic way. Uzbekistan’s relationships to its neigh- Policies, institutions and capacities bouring states have exhibited strong self- isolation tendencies (Swisspeace 2003b: 3). At After more than ten years of political, the same time, Uzbekistan recognizes the economic and social transition following need for regional environmental cooperation independence, Uzbekistan still has a rather to reduce security risks deriving from de- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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grading environmental conditions. In autumn tation schemes and finance. At an internatio- 2002, the last remaining border disputes with nal level, Uzbekistan has ratified the United Kazakhstan were settled. The area of concern Nations Framework Convention on Climate had been highly contentious due to its ethnic Change, the Kyoto Protocol and the Conven- composition and access to water. Never- tion on Combating Desertification. It has theless, the issue of water allocations remains accession status to the Convention on Biolo- a source of tension between Uzbekistan and gical Diversity and the Montreal Protocol on its neighbouring states. Ozone Depleting Substances. At the same time,Uzbekistan is involved in many regional organizations and projects, such as the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea, the Interstate Coordination Water Commission, the Regional Environmental Centre, the Aral Sea Basin Capacity Develop- mentProject (1998 –2001),the Regional Project on the West Tain-Shan Biodiversity Saving (2001 –2003) and the Regional Environment Action Plan Development, though the effecti- veness of some of these programmes and organizations is severely jeopardized by a lack of clearly defined responsibilities, implemen- Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

7 Conclusions page 29

Against the background of the country case though only indirectly. High environmental studies, we conclude that environmental pressure on vulnerable local ecosystems in degradation and resource scarcity have not remote and often mountainous areas is Environmental been sole causes of violent conflict in any of combined with an overall weak governance degradation and resource the Central Asian republics, but have exacer- structure, high population pressure, con- scarcity have not been sole bated existing political and social crises and tinuing poverty,and ethnic tensions.However, causes of violent conflict ethnic tensions. Only in the cases of the outbreaks of violence only occur at the sub- Ferghana Valley and the civil war in Tajikistan state level where the majority of the po- did we find an explicit link between environ- pulation lives in poverty. Nevertheless, the mental stress and violence. Kyrgyz government is the only one in the The Central Asian states face tremendous region that explicitly refers in policies and challenges to manage the process of political, laws to the linkage between environmental economic and social transformation towards stress, poverty and security risks. competitive and open market economies. Tajikistan is characterized by ongoing They still suffer in ecological, economic, degradation of land resources and limited political and social terms from the Soviet availability of clean water. A high incidence of legacy – notably large-scale irrigation systems poverty and a slowly stabilizing economy, for agricultural production (mainly cotton enormous social problems and still insuf- monocultures), artificial borders, disruption of ficient state capacity make the country most historic social and economic structures and vulnerable to environmental decline.Tajikistan mass migration and displacement. is the only country which experienced large- Central Asian states face scale violence during the civil war between tremendous challenges to National patterns of 1992 and 1997. In contrast to other Central manage the process of environmental risks Asian republics,scarce water resources are not political, economic and a general concern. This is due to the moun- social transformation In Kazakhstan we found severe impacts on tainous profile of the country. But water human health through industrial production infrastructure,such as the dam in Lake Sarez,is at a low level of technology. Water pollution, in a poor condition and vulnerable to seismic radioactive waste, and industrial pollution in activity.High susceptibility to natural disasters industrial-urban areas are key environmental is caused mainly by high dependency on pressures. Water quality and supply are the hydropower and agricultural production. major environmental concerns and have been Turkmenistan is characterized by limited identified as priority areas by the National water availability and severe pollution of Environmental Action Plan. The Aral Sea water bodies due to agricultural and industrial represents a unique disaster with a sequence effluent, with large-scale impacts on human of devastating environmental and socio- health assumed. Although the economy is economic effects. Radiation deriving from relatively closed and centralized, Turkme- large geological uranium deposits and ura- nistan has experienced steady economic nium mining wastes, in conjunction with the growth in recent years. This is attributable to impacts of Kazakhstan having been the nuc- rising agricultural output and the country’s lear test ground for the former Soviet Union, huge oil and gas reserves. Nonetheless, the significantly affects human health. Industry comparatively prospering economy contrasts also contributes substantially to pollution with extremely limited political rights and civil caused by improper waste treatment and liberties, a lack of transparency and practically management. no participatory elements in policy-making. In Kyrgyzstan, environmental degradation The resource conflicts and ethnic tensions is more closely related to poverty and security, experienced in many other Central Asian Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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states are not in evidence, according to official scarcity of water resources in terms of total information. High economic growth and water availability at the regional level, water is subsidies for basic commodities partially unevenly distributed. Huge amounts of water accommodate the demands of the poorer are stored in the mountains in Tajikistan and part of the population. Kyrgyzstan. But even in these countries, high Uzbekistan is experiencing the human demand for water resources, mainly for irri- development impacts of large-scale human gation, and water losses due to inappropriate interference in fragile ecosystems. The legacy water infrastructure impose significant con- of irrigation for monoculture cotton cultiva- straints upon water supply. Allocation of tion and extensive use of pesticides has led to crucial water supplies has repeatedly led to widespread salinity, soil erosion and conta- tensions. mination. The Soviet irrigation system for Transboundary cooperation on the cotton monoculture generated a series of allocation of water has been the subject of Differences among catastrophic environmental and social effects. various regional and bilateral negotiation countries are considerable Allocation of crucial water supplies has processes and projects in recent years, often but smaller than repeatedly led to tensions between Uzbe- resulting in formal agreements, joint commis- the differentials between kistan and its downstream neighbouring sions and the development of policies and central and peripheral states. Moreover, the decline of the Aral Sea measures. Traditional resource conflicts over areas within countries has caused migration from that region, raising shared water resources seem less likely than pressures on natural resources in already often assumed. populated areas. In contrast to the well known problem of uneven distribution and allocation of water Security-relevant resources, engendered mainly by rising environmental risks demand for water, the impacts of water pollution have been underestimated. Water Key environmental issues threatening human pollution affects human health in both urban development and security in the region are areas and local communities and water the growing water demand mainly for pollution can even provoke transboundary irrigation (Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan tensions. Freshwater is highly exposed to The impacts of water and Turkmenistan), high levels of water industrial and agricultural pollution, with pollution have pollution (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and concomitant human health effects. Through- been underestimated Uzbekistan), soil erosion and degradation out the region, drinking water is frequently, (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) sometimes heavily polluted. Since river basins and air pollution by industrial activities are shared between numerous states, water (Kazakhstan and Tajikistan).Differences among pollution is necessarily a regional concern. countries are considerable but smaller than Other forms of pollution can also affect trans- the differentials between central and boundary relations negatively. For example, peripheral areas within countries. air pollution became a point of controversy Water pollution caused by industrial between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan because activities, uneven distribution and availability the Tajik aluminium factory in Tursunzade is of water resources, land degradation through close to Uzbekistan’s border and birth defects salinization, and radioactive toxic waste have are unusually high in the region. An agree- been identified as major environmental ment has been reached between both concerns in the region. Water-related pro- governments to resolve the environmental blems have been found to have the most problems associated with emissions from the obvious but often only indirect impacts on factory. security. Even though there is no general Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Marginalization and building on earlier processes of institutiona- economic pressure lization in environmental policy in the post- independence era. Basic competencies have Marginalization or uneven distribution of been allocated to several line ministries and natural resources and large-scale environ- basic environmental legislation has been mental pollution is often combined with developed. Nevertheless, institutionalization heavy economic burdens affecting the poorest is lacking at provincial and municipal level. communities in the countries. These com- Efforts to further develop appropriate legal Environmentally munities have limited income alternatives, structures largely depend on funding for pilot triggered tensions ensue and limited access to public health services projects and general assistance by external in already marginalized and social safety nets. Environmentally donors. Implementation deficits are reported and remote areas triggered or heightened tensions ensue at the from all countries, being more dramatic at the sub-state level and in already marginalized local level, where government policies rarely and remote areas. Here, scarce natural have any impact.Even though legal provisions resources and their intensive use as a source for formal policy coordination and prere- of basic human survival and livelihoods, high quisites for integration exist, practical coor- levels of pollution (mainly water pollution), dination and integration among government soil degradation and overpopulation are en- agencies needs improving. gendering major threats to human develop- Access to information and public partici- ment and security. pation in environmental decision-making is a The existing institutional structure is key component of good environmental limited and suffers from weak implemen- governance and a substantial element of tation, limited technical capabilities and democratic patterns in open societies. Legal Implementation lacking finance and human resources. provisions for public participation exist, either deficits are more dramatic Similarly, the legislative and institutional base in the constitution or the various basic at the local level is largely characterized by sectoral approaches environmental laws. However, access to with little or ineffective coordinating struc- information and public participation varies tures. There is awareness of the links between significantly. Comparatively autocratic govern- environmental stress and human development structures leave little room for active ment and security in Turkmenistan and participation. Kyrgyzstan, with ‘environmental security’ With regard to civil liberties and political being a key component of national environ- rights, the five countries are similar, all mental policy strategies. Beyond these remaining at the bottom end of the Freedom normative programmes, however, there is a House Index. OSCE/ODIHR assessments of lack of substantive moves towards con- parliamentary and presidential elections sidering these links in an integrated fashion. confirm that elections do not yet meet international standards. Weak governance structures

In practically all branches of government, policy reforms depend largely on external assistance. External debt has created heavy burdens; as a result, the pace of reform has slowed. Across all five Central Asian countries, the institutional framework to address environmental risks exhibits similar patterns of weak institutional structure, essentially Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

page 32 8 Recommendations

Building upon the conclusions set out above, achieving regional stability at the political this scoping report proposes enhancing and level. Nonetheless, environmental quality, strengthening capacities and institutions – natural resources and social conditions con- both of government agencies and civil society tinue their decline in many instances. There – in order to reduce environmental risks and therefore remains a need to increase the under- their impacts on human development and standing of institutions and policies which help security. to effectively address both spheres – the improvement of environmental quality and Strengthen institutional capacities sustainable resource use and the fostering of regional stability and peace. Following independence, Central Asian states Third, it would be expedient to conduct a have made considerable efforts to establish survey on how to better integrate the socio- environmental institutions. Apart from the economic and security dimension into the lack of financial means to implement policies, Regional Environmental Action Plan (REAP) integrative approaches to tackle the impacts for Central Asia. REAP is the major regional of environmental stress on human develop- effort and framework for improving sustain- ment and security still need to be improved. able development and environmental protec- Experiences with suitable institutional ar- tion in the region. We recommend initiating a rangements for policy integration need to be dialogue with key proponents of the facili- communicated and,where necessary,adapted tating and participating stakeholders within to Central Asia at both the national and local the REAP process. This dialogue would tackle level.We suggest concentrating on three main issues of policy integration to address envi- issues of integration: (a) institutional and ad- ronmental risks and their impacts on human ministrative development, (b) sustainable development and security. resource management, conflict prevention and mediation, and (c) regional framework Improve environmental policies in programmes. vulnerable regions First, a survey of institutional options for policy integration should be conducted, as- The transboundary effects of resource scarcity sessing existing legal provisions and insti- – mainly water scarcity – have become the tutional arrangements for cross-sectoral inte- focus of concern for national governments gration outside Central Asia and identifying and the international community alike. One the preconditions for adapting them to effect of this has been that environmental Central Asia. This relates to the integration of pollution at the national level and its security policies on the environment, natural resour- implications have been largely underestima- ces, health and social security as well as ted. Policies for pollution prevention and foreign and security policy. control need to be developed and imple- Second,a survey needs to be conducted in mented especially in areas with weak gover- order to systematically analyse the level of nance structures and high levels of social and integration of environmental concerns in economic vulnerability. programmes and projects addressing conflict prevention and peace promotion in the Conduct integrated assessments region as well as dispute resolution mechanisms and mediation techniques – and, vice Security-relevant environmental risks arise versa, the integration of such issues into mainly at the sub-state level where environ- environmental affairs.Transboundary environmental stress and unfavourable socio-econo- mental cooperation has been effective in mic conditions are exacerbated. Operational Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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conflict impact assessment tools need to be Develop early warning indicators developed which allow stakeholders especi- and monitoring systems ally at the sub-state level to analyse the root causes and triggering and accelerating factors Indicators of environmental stress and socio- of environmental conflicts. Future assess- economic conditions are only available at the ments should extend beyond single issues national level and are insufficient to serve the such as water stress, ethnic tension or migra- purpose of establishing an early warning tion and consider these aspects in an system. Based on existing early warning integrated manner. systems for environmental stress, health, Fact-finding and appraisal missions to economic performanceand socialdevelopment regions which have been identified as most and integrated early warning mechanisms, prone to affect human development and relevant data need to be collected systemati- security may assist in identifying pilot projects cally at the local level. These data can provide which help to address these challenges. They the basis for regular assessment reports on should be carried out in close cooperation local hot spots to be conducted by local stake- with UNDP country offices and OSCE field holders. Existing Peace and Conflict Impact presences, based on their experience and Assessments may serve as examples. As a first presence in Central Asia. Fact-finding reports step, pilot regions need to be identified in should also identify to what extent these cooperation with national and local stake- challenges have been or need to be consi- holder groups, and external donor agencies dered by external donor programmes and need to be integrated into a comprehensive projects in the region. and continuous monitoring system for environment and security in Central Asia. Enhance knowledge about local contexts Communicate success stories

This scoping report has identified aspects of Peace and conflict impact assessments and environmental stress and its impact on environmental performance reports focus human development and security. However, it predominantly on analysing tensions, con- has also found that important information to flicts and environmental decline. However, assess developments at the sub-state level is there are several examples of successfully unavailable or limited. To increase our know- mitigated or solved conflicts and tensions ledge and understanding of the complex which had emanated from environmental interplay between environmental stress and decline. Information on success stories, espe- human development and security, in-depth cially at the local level, are rarely available to analysis at the national and local level is the public and donor agencies. Lessons from essential.Case study reports should be carried successful local projects and transboundary out by twinning teams of external and in- environmental cooperation creating mutual country experts and stakeholders. To ensure benefits in environmental, social and comparability, they should use a common economic terms should be systematically ana- methodology and follow a similar structure lysed and communicated. A compilation of and approach. These reports should be successful approaches in best practice embedded in a consultative process at the manuals can provide guidelines for decision national level, including workshops with makers at the national and local levels. These representatives of government, civil society should contain recommendations on institu- and UNDP country offices and OSCE field tional settings and procedures which proved presences. successful, enabling decision makers to Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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transfer these approaches to other regions can foster transboundary learning processes and problem areas. within the region. A web-based information system in English and Russian will enable stake- Facilitate consultation and holders to share experience on successful ownership approaches and will facilitate contacts among local stakeholders and external expert bodies, Lack of civil society participation in decision- NGOs and government agencies. making and access to information has been Since most of the vulnerable regions are in identified as a major constraint to effectively remote areas with no access to modern addressing environmental risks and their communication technologies, where policy impact on human development and security. briefings and manuals may be inappropriate This scoping report should be distributed means for reaching local communities, other widely and discussed with national and local methods and means of communication need stakeholder groups in the respective coun- to be applied. tries. It would be useful to facilitate national The allocation of environmental assets as stakeholder dialogues, which can then be basic resources for human development and developed further into regular regional round security carries an important transboundary tables. Awareness needs to be raised of the dimension,as does environmental pollution.It potential of the link between environmental would be valuable to create transboundary risks and unfavourable socio-economic con- networks bringing together representatives ditions to threaten human development and of national government agencies and civil security. Consultative workshops with repre- society groups. Here they could exchange sentatives of donor agencies, including UNDP information and experience on addressing country offices and OSCE field presences, will and mitigating environmental problems and provide information on how best to tackle their socio-economic impacts. This can en- these challenges and help governments and hance cross-border learning processes on civil society groups identify and focus on areas sustainable resource management in addition of concern. to improving socio-economic conditions.

Raise awareness and foster Improve donor coordination transboundary networks National and regional donor round tables Raising awareness of environment and secu- should be organized to share information and rity linkages and agreeing on areas for further coordinate assistance. An initial donor round environmental cooperation will largely de- table should address the challenges identified pend on the availability and transparency of in this scoping report and facilitate a dialogue information. A comprehensive information among donor agencies on sustainable re- system and network should be established source management and human develop- which contains integrative regional, national ment and security.One topic of discussion will and local assessment reports and analyses. It need to be how best to integrate these issues may also serve the purpose of policy co- in donor assistance programmes for the ordination, especially among donor agencies, region. Past approaches by national donor by facilitating information on donor pro- agencies may be taken as examples to analyse grammes and projects which jointly address conditions for success as well as barriers and the environment and security linkages in constraints to integrative approaches, extend- Central Asia. Regular policy briefs and manuals ing beyond sector-specific projects. on policy development and implementation Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

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Develop training programmes Training programmes on sustainable resource management and dispute resolution and prevention techniques should be developed and carried out in the areas most prone to conflicts and tensions. Training programmes need to be tailored specifically to the re- quirements of local communities, recognizing that technical capacities in often remote areas are limited. To sustain such training programmes, the development of appropriate manuals and the training of trainers are essential elements. Addressing Environmental Risks in Central Asia

page 36 9 Bibliography

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UNDP’s Regional Bureau for Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (RBEC) administers programmes in Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, playing an important role in the transition process through empowering people, organizations and governments to promote sustainable human development. RBEC links and coordinates regional and national efforts to reach the Millennium Development Goals. There are UNDP local offices in 23 countries of the region (Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,Yugoslavia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithua- nia,The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Tajikistan,Turkey,Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.) Each pursues its own priorities dictated by the local situation but they all have in common the pursuit of excellence in the six practice areas: democratic governance, poverty reduction, crisis prevention and recovery, energy and environment, information and communications technology, and HIV/AIDS. The RBEC Regional Support Centre (RSC) was established in 1997 in Bratislava, Slovakia, as a knowledge and management hub. It provides management support services for all programme countries in the region and administers programmes also for countries where UNDP has no local presence (Czech Republic, Hungary, Malta, Slovak Republic, Slovenia and St. Helena). In addition, RSC is also home to a Sub-Regional Resource Facility that provides policy advice, knowledge and expertise to the governments of the region as well as to civil society. RSC regional activities focus on the three inter-linked governance themes and priorities: democratic governance, economic governance, and environmental governance.Within this framework, the regional programme addresses the following issues: protecting and promoting human rights; ensuring transparency, accountability and anti-corruption policies; decentralising and deconcen- trating power; addressing the complex intersections between conflict prevention and early warning as well as conflict mitigation and post-conflict recovery; promoting equity in development; combating HIV/AIDS; and integrating Information and Communication Technologies as an instrument for development. The environmental governance programme of the Bratislava Regional Support Centre promotes sustainable environmental policies and practices in the RBEC region. It focuses on the following thematic areas: • Development and implementation of environmental policies and strategies, and strengthening of the legal and institutional frameworks • Integration of environmental concerns into regional and sectoral development plans • Ecosystem resource management and • Environmental security. The environmental governance programme is key to RBEC’s pursuit of Millennium Development Goal Number 7 (“Ensure environmental sustainability”), and particularly of targets related to governance of water resources.

United Nations Development Programme Grosslingova 35 811 09 Bratislava Slovak Republic Phone: +421-2 -59 337-111 Fax: +421-2 -59 337- 450 http://www.undp.sk United Nations Development Programme Grosslingova 35 811 09 Bratislava Slovak Republic

http://www.undp.sk 2003 Bratislava