A closer look at Biodiversity — At the Heart of the Coral Triangle

Text and photos by Dr Richard Smith www.OceanRealmImages.com

Coral reefs are places of immense natural diversity. They accommodate some of the highest densities of on earth and have more species than any other marine habitat. However, the species inhabit- ing coral reefs are not distributed evenly through the oceans. Richness differs dramatically between regions due to the many different pressures that have molded each community over mil- lions of years. The world’s highest marine biodiversity is found in an area that has become known by conservationists as the ‘Coral Triangle’.

This region of mega-diversity is a roughly triangular area extending from central Indonesia to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, and northwards to the Philippines. This rela- tively small area, on a global scale, boasts the world’s richest marine biodiver- sity. As you travel in any direction from there the number of species decreases. Pyjama cardinalfish The richest reefs are quite specific in I was lucky enough to conduct much of my PhD their habitat choice, research, on the biology and conservation of pygmy sea- preferring branching horses, at Wakatobi Dive Resort located at the heart of hard corals in calm shallow water A diver explores a rich coral reef

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Coral reefs are the world’s most biodiverse marine ecosystem

Seagrass meadows harbor a unique assemblage of marine life. A shot showing a diverse reef of sponges, halimeda Robust ghost are common in this habitat but hard to algae, hard and soft corals in the Tukangbesi archi- find due to their uncanny mimicry of dead seagrass fronds pelago

the Coral Triangle. For more than overhang on the Wakatobi House and Indo-West Pacific. The bio- six months, over a three-year peri- Reef. I was constantly amazed diversity in these two areas, od, I dived the reefs and really got that, even after six months, I would however, is quite different: the chance to appreciate the amaz- still encounter something new species richness in the Indo-West ingly high biodiversity of this region. almost daily. One day I found a Pacific vastly surpasses that of the Due to the nature of my work, I tiny beige frogfish half the size of Caribbean. The Indo-West Pacific spent hundreds of hours in one my little finger nail, the next a nudi- supports at least 600 species of specific location on the reef and branch I had never seen before coral and 4,000 fish, compared to as a result got to know the area crawling across my path and the 62 and 1,400 species respectively like the back of my hand, and the following evening a bright orange in the Caribbean. The species local residents like family. shrimp crept from beneath a count for either fish or corals in one Over the years I had the oppor- sponge. Such is the Coral Triangle, Indonesian bay can exceed the tunity to appreciate the change, the world’s most biodiverse marine number of species found in the or lack thereof, on the reef. habitat. entire West Atlantic. In fact, for the Astoundingly over the three years, majority of reef organisms there there was almost no perceptible Today’s diversity are 10-30% as many species in the change in the size of sponges, Today, the two main areas of reef West Atlantic as Asia, and no reef- Rough-snout ghost pipefish are rare inhabitants of muck dive sites, whips and soft corals in my small diversity centre on the Caribbean associated fish species are shared preferring the protected sand or rubble slopes to coral reefs

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A small soft coral cowrie feeding on a Dendronephthya coral

Pontoh’s pygmy attain a maximum length of less than 2cm

between the two bodies of water. each contribute their own unique Fish doctors without borders Whilst the number of species in assemblage of organisms. Last year I had the opportunity the Caribbean appears low, they Whilst the true explanation is to join Wakatobi’s liveaboard, are in fact entirely different to probably a combination of these Pelagian on an itinerary that ven- those of the Pacific due to millions factors, the most simple and pal- tured beyond the resort’s reach of years of separation. atable reason for high diversity is and explored other islands in the There is some debate over the the huge diversity of habitat types chain. Whilst the resort has a pro- explanation for such high Asiatic in the Coral Triangle. The profu- fusion of different habitats includ- diversity. One theory is that the sion of different habitats equals a ing steep walls, pinnacles, ridges area is a hotbed for evolution- correspondingly high diversity of and bays, I had often heard ary change and species are cre- organisms to inhabit them: shel- about the muck dives found on ated here, with some eventually tered inner shore habitats have Buton island, close to the Sulawesi spreading to other regions of the their own set of species, whilst mainland. Muck dives are interest- Pacific. Another possibility is that exposed atolls have another. ing as they host a diverse set of the ranges of many species from Beneficially, the Coral Triangle has species you are unlikely to see in the Indian and Pacific Oceans also avoided the mass extinctions other habitats, due to their distinct overlap in the Asian archipelago, that have blighted other areas set of environmental conditions. causing higher diversity where over the millennia. Instead, the Ghost pipefish, seahorses, frogfish they coexist. In addition, the geol- Coral Triangle has been blessed and countless other oddities make ogy of the region has origins in with long periods of warm, stable this their home. It is a perfect many areas, each with their own conditions fostering the persis- example of the influence habi- fauna. The Australian and con- tence of species. tat diversity can have on overall tinental Asian land fragments species richness. The mangrove

Nudibranchs reach their highest diversity in the Coral Triangle, Nembrotha lineolata

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Even the infamous Crown of Thorns seastar serves a A huge cuttlefish rests next to a huge gorgonian coral A rare crab found only on nocturnal feather stars role on a healthy coral reef. Only when humans dis- rupt the ecosystem do they reach plague proportions

forests, shallow seagrass beds and even that these pygmies split off to become In 2007, when I was first at Wakatobi ocean, and reef communities can the open ocean are just a few of the a new, distinct species. conducting my pygmy obser- become isolated from others depend- other habitats that contribute their own vations, one of the guides found a tiny ing on local current systems. The East collection of unique species to the Endemism: riding the wave pipefish-like fish. It was distinct in several Australian Current, for example, flows Coral Triangle. As well as accommodating the highest ways: it’s miniature stature of less than from tropical equatorial waters towards During our tour of the Tukangbesi number of species in the Indo-Pacific, 3cm in length, strange swimming meth- the much cooler waters of southern archipelago, in which Wakatobi Resort South East Asia also has the greatest od resembling a sea dragon and red Australia and Tasmania. This effectively lies, I also came across, for only the number of endemic or indigenous spe- wisp-like filament on the head all indi- backs the reef organisms up against second time, a pair of Denise’s pygmy cies (species that occur nowhere else). cated to me this was something new. uninhabitable cold waters, isolating the seahorses living on a whip coral colony. Certain areas of the ocean are more Later that year the pygmy pipehorse, organisms from other populations and Unusual associations and biological prone to high levels of these restricted Kyonemichyths rumengani, was scien- fuelling their evolution into distinct spe- quirks such as this seem quite com- range species: Hawaii has 86 species of tifically described. Known initially only cies. monplace in the Coral Triangle. With endemic reef fish, the Red Sea 41, New from Sulawesi in Indonesia, this tiny fish Certain species are especially sus- the Coral Triangle as a production line Caledonia 43 and the Great Barrier is now also recorded from Halmahera ceptible to such conditions and form a for new species, it might be that these Reef 33. The Coral Triangle vastly out- and Raja Ampat and seemingly making higher than average proportion of the pygmy seahorses, or their offspring, are shines all these areas, with over ten per- it another Coral Triangle endemic. endemics. Those species whose juve- better adapted to life on a whip coral. cent of its almost two and a half thou- Currents play a major role in the nile forms spend long periods drifting in In many generations time it might be sand species found only there. movement of organisms around the the ocean as miniscule larvae tend not

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Crinoid clingfish (lefft) are a small species found in small groups at the centre of feather stars. Small, cryptic spe- cies play a large role in the accu- mulation of the Coral Triangle’s biodiversity; Scientifically described in 2007, Kyonemichthys rumengani (left center), is found only in the Coral Triangle

canals link bodies of water, and practices such as dynamic or cya- teen miles of reef surrounding the throughout the Coral Triangle. their inhabitants, in ways that nide fishing on local reefs. In fact, resort. The extremely remote loca- With very limited resources avail- would never meet naturally. For much of the revenue from guests tion, extraordinarily high biodiver- able to conservation efforts, the example, blacktip reef sharks visiting the resort goes directly sity and conservation efforts in the identification of regions that con- have been found for the first time into local villages in payment for area make this a safe haven for tain high species diversity or many in the Mediterranean having origi- a strict no-fishing policy on fif- many species that are suffering endemic organisms may help nated in the Red Sea. pinpoint areas of conser- Pacific nudibranchs vation priority. Scientific are also arriving in the data indicates that the ballast water of ships protection of South East in the Caribbean and Asian reefs will preserve Indo-Pacific Lionfish the most species; how- have invaded the ever, there are also many Caribbean thanks to other areas deserving of released aquarium a conservation focus. A small dottyback emerges from inside a protective tunicate subjects. These illegal aliens have the poten- Richard Smith is a British to become isolated as they are Human impact tial to severely disrupt marine biologist and able to reach distant reefs during Patterns of marine biodiversity their new home and photojournalist. As well as this period, increasing their range. around the globe are historically the diversity that has writing for many publica- Other species, such as anem- quite stable and species evolve evolved without them. tions internationally, he onefish and dottybacks, have to fill a specific role within their I was very pleased leads marine life expedi- well-developed young that settle own community. Man’s tech- to see the energy that tions where the aim is for very quickly on the local reef. nological advances have had Wakatobi put into participants to get more The young, therefore, do not get unexpected affects on marine protecting their reefs. 30% 50% 65% 75% 80% 85% 90% 100% from their diving and chance to move far from their organisms, as they can now Great effort is made Fish Diversity photography by learn- NUMBER OF SPECIES place of birth before settling, and reach areas that were once to educate and work ing about the marine 160-478 479-797 798-1035 thus have a propensity towards physically well beyond their with local communities 1036-12001201-12741275-13691370-14331434-1593 environment: www. endemism. reach. The Suez and Panama to prevent destructive Reproduced after Gerard Allen (2008) OceanRealmImages.com

51 X-RAY MAG : 62 : 2014 EDITORIAL FEATURES TRAVEL NEWS WRECKS EQUIPMENT BOOKS SCIENCE & ECOLOGY TECH EDUCATION PROFILES PHOTO & VIDEO PORTFOLIO Divers investigate a rich coral reef in the ecology Wakatobi region Biodiversity pristine reefs and coastal shallows. 1996, Wakatobi Dive Resort was reefs that drop Much of the island group lies the first operator to offer services to depths of 40 within the Wakatobi National for diving and snorkeling in this meters or more at Park, which is the second largest region. A portion of revenue gen- distances of less in Indonesia. In 2012 this area was erated from resort activity funds than 100 meters designated a UNESCO Marine a lease system that pays area from shore. There Biosphere Reserve. In addition, villagers and fishermen to honor are also a number a 20- kilometer section of reef a no-take policy on specific reef of offshore reef is under the protection of the tracts. Since the program’s imple- plateaus and sea Wakatobi Marine Reserve, which mentation in 1998, environmen- mounds in the is a private program adminis- tally damaging fishing practices region that rise tered through the Wakatobi have ceased, and the reefs have from the depths Collaborative Reef Conservation remained in near-pristine condi- to create isolated Program. tion, with some showing marked areas of shallow This initiative was developed by improvement. habitat. the founders of Wakatobi Dive What sets Resort to provide a proactive Underwater environment Wakatobi apart means of protecting the reefs and The islands of Wakatobi are typi- from other ven- marine resources. Established in cally flanked by fringing barrier ues in the region is the unmatched access divers, snor- kelers and photog- raphers have to the most promis- ing sites, most of which begin in very shallow water. Additionally, find- ing many elusive, well-hidden that never fail to entertain or pro- creatures such as the pygmy vide unique opportunities for fish seahorse, is made easier by watchers and photographers. A Wakatobi’s dive guides, aka dive few of the interesting denizens of experience managers, who are the reefs at Wakatobi include: experts at locating most species Sea turtles. Thanks in part to in their natural environment. Wakatobi’s turtle nursery program The islands of Eastern Indonesia and other conservation efforts, are surrounded by some of the area reefs and shallows hold most bio-diverse coral reefs on the extremely healthy populations of planet. This region, known as the sea turtles such as the green turtle “coral triangle,” is home to more and hawksbill turtle. Detail of a magnificent anemone mantle than 450 varieties of hard and soft Pygmy seahorses. Wakatobi corals, 3,000-plus species of fish provides an ideal environment for ABOUT WAKATOBI bination of small aircraft, overland and several thousand more types pygmy seahorses to thrive, and it The area commonly known as and boat travel. of invertebrate animals. With liter- was only recently that this group Wakatobi lies within the Tukang The title Wakatobi is an acro- ally thousands of species living of tiny creatures became known Besi island group, in Indonesia’s nym derived from the first two let- in close quarters on Wakatobi’s to science; most significantly, Southeastern Sulawesi region. It is ters in the names of the group’s reefs and shallows, there is no one four of the seven known species one of the most remote regions four major islands: Wangi Wangi, single that could be said are regularly seen in Wakatobi, of Indonesia, and until recently, Kaledupa, Tomia and Binongko. to be the signature attraction for and were discovered nearby in travel to this area required more These islands encompass some of underwater identification and the past decade. According to than 24 hours from Bali by a com- the planet’s most productive and viewing. That said there are some marine biologist Dr Richard Smith, Rare Denise’s pygmy seahorse living in association with a whip coral colony

52 X-RAY MAG : 62 : 2014 EDITORIAL FEATURES TRAVEL NEWS WRECKS EQUIPMENT BOOKS SCIENCE & ECOLOGY TECH EDUCATION PROFILES PHOTO & VIDEO PORTFOLIO ecology What is biodiversity ... really? Text and photos by Peter Symes Diversity is about numbers, so quantitative and qualitative The same notions apply to ematical indices have been the more species present in a measure consisting of two the marine environment and formulated, which in various habitat, the greater the bio- components: species rich- what we as divers would like ways gives weight to the diversity, right? Not quite. ness and species evenness. to encounter. Say, if we want proportional abundance of to go look for mandarin fish, observed species. In its sim- Diversity in a biological con- To use a more familiar exam- pygmy seahorses, rhinopias plest form, species diversity text is often confused with ple, consider the barley field and other photogenic or can be calculated by taking richness, which is a simple shown below. It is essen- exciting species, they not the inverse of the weighted measure that quantifies how tially a mono-culture and the only need to be present at average of species propor- many species are present patchy presence of a few the location to which we are tional abundance. without taking their abun- wild flowers does not make headed, but they also need A number of indices that dance into account. it a rich and varied habitat. to be not so exceedingly few put emphasis on different Including the boundary with and far apart that we have aspects of the diversity have, Biodiversity is a more com- all the many different flowers little chance to find them. over time, been proposed prehensive measure that does not quite make it either and put to use. The Shannon takes into account both the because the distribution Measures and maths index, which is derived from number of species and their remains very uneven (there So how does one go about information theory formulat- relative abundance and dis- is still so much more barley an objective measure to bio- ed in the late 1940s, is prob- tribution. As such it is both a than flowers). diversity? A number of math- ably the most popular. ■

An uncommon nudibranch, Noumea crocea, on the reefs of Wakatobi

“Anyone who has the pleasure of watch- ling in large groups. Like other parrotfish, ing one of these animals should consider the humphead uses powerful incisors and themselves privileged, because they are pharyngea teeth to grind up coral and seeing something that few humans will algae-covered rocks; the organic mat- ever see. And when it comes to finding ter is digested while the remaining inor- pygmies, there is no better place than ganic material is excreted. While this may Wakatobi to begin the hunt.” Unlike their sound destructive, it is this processed larger cousins, the pygmy seahorses live “coral poop” that washes ashore to form only on coral reefs, and in many cases beaches. A school of parrotfish can add on a single species of gorgonian sea tons of soft sand to a beach each year. fans, which are found in abundance on These fish often travel in shoals of 50 or the reefs at Wakatobi. more, and can live to be 40 years old. Cuttlefish. With eight arms growing out Mandarinfish. Normally shy, these PETER SYMES of their heads, and three hearts pump- brightly colored members of the dragon- A barley field (left) has low biodiversity as the presences of ing blue blood through their gelatinous et family loose their inhibitions as the sun a few other species of flower does not significantly alter the bodies, cuttlefish may seem like creatures goes down. At dusk, the males leave the PETER SYMES fact that the field is a mono-culture. from another planet, but they actually cover of the rocky shallows they typically thrive in abundant numbers on the reefs inhabit to perform intricate courtship dis- is one shrimp that deserves respect. The cies of frogfish native to Wakatobi, and black pupils of their eyes to break up the of Wakatobi. In particular, the broadclub plays that highlight their brilliant colora- mantis are solitary borrowers, construct- though they don’t reveal themselves to one remaining pattern that might alert cuttlefish is a very common sighting, and tion. When a male attracts the attention ing elaborate tunnels into the rubble or the causal observer, divers and snorkelers unwary prey. Like the namesake reptile, groups of sometimes a half dozen can of a female, they pair up belly-to-belly sand strata of the sea floor. One of this who look closely may realize that what this fish will lay motionless for long periods be seen hunting in pack formation, with and begin a spiraling dance upward in animals most distinctive features are the they first thought was a lump of rubble or of time, waiting patiently for the right their mantles pulsing and flashing as they the water column, releasing egg and iridescent eyes, which not only move a clump of sponge is actually a stealthy moment to strike out. send visual messages back and forth. sperm simultaneously at the apex of their independently to provide 360-degree predator, lying in wait. There are many, many other marine Humphead parrotfish. One of the larger ascent. binocular vision, but also see in a wider Crocodilefish. It is the distinctive snout creatures readily found on Wakatobi’s members of the parrotfish family, the Mantis shrimp. Growing up to 30cm in spectrum of light than any other creature and head that give the crocodile flatfish reefs. Learn more by visiting Wakatobi’s humphead can be readily identified by length and able to deliver a smashing in nature, including UV and polarized its moniker, but perhaps the most unusual blog, Wakatobi Flow, at blog.waka- the crest-shaped growth on its forehead. blow with their raptorial claws that can light. feature of this ambush predator are the tobi.com. ■ SOURCE: WAKATOBI MEDIA They are seen often at Wakatobi trave- shatter a ’s shell, the mantis Frogfish. There are more than 15 spe- frilly iris lappets, which protrude over the INFORMATION

53 X-RAY MAG : 62 : 2014 EDITORIAL FEATURES TRAVEL NEWS WRECKS EQUIPMENT BOOKS SCIENCE & ECOLOGY TECH EDUCATION PROFILES PHOTO & VIDEO PORTFOLIO Hysteresis and Healthy coral Stability and resilience in ecosystems catastrophic change dominated system Text by Peter Symes (A) (B) The transfer of food energy from the source Stability does not (E) in plants through herbivores to carnivores Energy sets limits trophic level to the next is called follow complexity is commonly referred to as the food chain. In food chains the energy moves the ecological efficiency and is Stability is a dynamic con- The trophic level of an organism is the from one trophic level to the no better than about ten percent cept that refers to the ability position it occupies in a food chain. Food next in what is called an energy on average. In other words, con- of a system to bounce back Degraded chains start at trophic level 1 with primary pyramid. At the bottom of this sumers on each level only convert from disturbances (a sub- algae-domi- producers such as plants such as phy- pyramid, we have the ‘primary about one tenth of the chemi- ject we previously treated Complexity nated system (D) toplankton, kelp or seagrasses, move to producers’, which largely are cal energy in their food to their in more detail in X-RAY MAG (C) herbivores at level 2, predators at level 3 the photosynthetisers, plants and own organic tissue. This is also #17, p. 71, “Why and how and typically finish with carnivores or apex other organisms that convert the known as the ‘ten percent law’. ecosystems change”). predators at level 4 or 5. The path along energy in sunlight to chemical Since energy drops off so quickly High disturbance Low disturbance the chain can form either a one-way flow energy that can later be released by passing through the levels, it For starters, the intuitive or a food web. to fuel the organisms’ activities. follows that food chains rarely argument that increased When a healthy complex system such as a varied coral reef is On the next levels, we typically extend for more than five or six stability follows increased subject to a disturbance, it will move along the gradient from The classification of organisms by trophic subsequently have herbivores, levels before energy is depleted. community complexity in (A) to a point (B) where a dramatic or catastrophic change levels is one of function and not of species carnivores and top predators. the food web was already occurs and the system collapses into one of lower complexity as such, and a given species may occupy Since plants only convert about countered in the 1970s dropping down to point (C). Reversing the collapse, or restoring the reef, however, takes more than one trophic level i.e. when they The 10% limit one percent of the sunlight they when it was demonstrated a different path and often ‘uphill’ against some gradient or go through stages of development. Size has The efficiency with which energy receive into chemical energy that complexity actually energy requirement. One has to, along with other restorative a big effect on the organization of food or biomass is transferred from one in the first place, of the total reduced stability in math- measures, also lower the disturbances, or cause, to at least chains; Animals on successive tropic levels energy origi- ematical models. level (D) after which it will eventually evolve back up to point tend to get larger i.e. the shark, which is the Energy pyramid nally present (E). This curve also shows how different states can exist under top predator, is larger than the seal which in the inci- Where diversity does cre- the same conditions—when disturbance levels lie in the range is a carnivore that largely feeds on fish and Top Predators 0.1% dent sunlight ates stability or steady state between (B) and (D). marine invertebrates. that is finally scenarios in ecosystems, it embodied follows from the establish- physical or chemical fac- states under the same vari- So, in a way, it seems like foodwebs tend Carnivores 1% in a tertiary ment of enough equilibrium tors, climate or human ables or parameters. to organize themselves into a pyramid-like consumer, and buffer mechanisms in activities such as fishing

structure with few and big individuals at the attenuation say a shark in the assemblage of interact- or pollution. Regulations A real-world example is top, while there are myriads of both species Herbivores 10% and Energyflow the ocean, is ing species, which may or on fisheries, for example, helpful to illustrate the and individuals on the lower trophic levels about 0.001%. may not happen through where outtake or harvest concept. Coral reef systems forming the base. ■ non-random mechanisms. is limited is all about keep- can dramatically shift from Energy captured by primary producers i.e. plants ing the perturbations within pristine coral-dominated And the question is... Stability in complex systems ‘sustainable limits’. Take only systems to degraded algae- Ecological communities with higher biodi- Simplified energy pyramid with four trophic levels showing is not a given. In fact, some so much, and the resource dominated systems when versity form more complex trophic paths, the conversion and throughput of energy between levels. systems are inherently insta- will grow back. Take out too populations grazing on al- but does complex mean more stable socie- The energy can somewhat be correlated to biomass. ble or chaotic and prone to much, and the ecosystem gae decline. While the shift ties? And what limits the size and complex- crash, after which they will may suffer a major collapse in one direction takes one ity? cease to exist and only the during which its overall path, reversing the process stable systems will prevail. structure and composition will follow a different path Whether such systems are gets dramatically altered often requiring a significant resilient to perturbations or in a manner that is often input of the driving force to fragile is another question. impossible or very difficult to facilitate the change. reverse. Resilience In this case the disturbance Resilience is a measure of Hysteresis or causing agent has to be How much plankton the ability of the system to In an ecological context, reduced to a level much is needed to make a persist in the presence of hysteresis refers to the ex- lower than it was when the shark... or two? perturbations arising from istence of different stable dramatic shift occurred. ■

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